RESEARCH METHODOLOGY LECTURE

UNIT 1: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH

Research has been recognized as an indispensable tool in the professional development of any
discipline. However, many students tend to give up at the beginning of conducting research but
in reality, each of us conducts research projects in our everyday lives. For instance, preparing to
gain admission into the university involves the research process. The process involves collecting
data to decide between your most preferred University, ownership of the university and level of
infrastructure within the university, the popularity of the school; the school fees, limitations to
gaining admission, location of the school, and your parent’s decision and so on. In the process
data is collected and analysed to answer to the question “Which of the Universities in Nigeria
best meets my needs and budget and what is the best way to gain the admission?” This is the
research process; meaning research process is about what we do every day unknowingly.

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

A purposeful attempt to learn and find a solution to an identified problem

A quest for new knowledge pertinent to an identified area of interest through application of the
scientific process.

A collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or

explanation.

The ultimate goal of research is to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge.

NURSING RESEARCH

A systematic inquiry that provides evidence used to support nursing practices

A careful, deliberate attempt to learn and find trustworthy evidence about issues of importance to
the nursing profession, including nursing practice, education administration and informatics

1
 IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN RESEARCH

1. Plagiarism: This is copying another person’s work without acknowledging him in the write-up

2. Paradigm: This refers to a picture of the past that is related to each other and is similar to a
model

3. Theory: This is a general explanation of some phenomena

4. Concept: This is a generalized idea of an object or a mental picture of a phenomenon or

problem

5. Facts: A fact is something that exists supported by evidence

6. Conceptualization: An action, is when the concept is changed to an action

7. Proposition: This is used in logic to indicate a statement that characterizes something as true
or false

8. Law: This is when a theory has been thoroughly tested and has become certain

9. Principle: This is a basic truth, law, or assumption

10. Hypothesis: This is a statement of the predicted relationship between the variables being
studied, also called ‘Researchers calculated guess’. The hypothesis can be cited in a positive or
negative form or null or alternative form

12. Construct: Refers to an abstract or mental representation inferred from situations or

behaviours. For example, self-care in Orem’s model of health maintenance is a construct

2
13. Variables: A variable is a measurable or potentially measurable component of an object or
event that may fluctuate in quantity or quality from one individual, object, events or time to
another of the same class. The independent and dependent variables are the two variables about
which a relationship is delineated in a hypothesis or objective. Examples of variables include;
weight, anxiety, age blood and body temperature. It is often an inherent characteristic of people
There three types of variables:

i. independent variable

Refers to that phenomenon in the hypothesis that is manipulated by the researcher or

experimenter e,g “the effect of nursing process in promoting good interpersonal relationship
between nurses and patients. Here, nursing process is independent; you either apply it or not.

ii. Dependent variable

This refers to the phenomenon in the hypothesis that is not manipulated but accepted as it occurs
usually as a result of treatment of the independent variables. In the above “it is good
interpersonal relationship- which is either there (good) or not there (bad).

iii. Extraneous Variable (uncontrolled variables)

All the variables in a hypothesis that are neither dependent nor independent are called extraneous
variable. They are the variables the researchers cannot control. They are the factors that exist
about which the researcher collects no data but they have a great influence on the findings of the
result.

SOURCES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE

1. Authority: This source of knowledge is based on what expertise in the various fields has
written since no person can be a master in every field. Hence this information is usually through
resourceful persons and figures. Nevertheless, this source of knowledge have some weakness
such as; the authorities are opinionated, their knowledge or authority can be absolute and always
the information either second-hand knowledge - or third-, fourth-, or nth-hand knowledge.

3
2. Logical Reasoning: (i) inductive and (ii) deductive reasoning.

(i) Inductive reasoning: implies a process of developing specific predictions for general
principles. For example, a nurse on duty may observe the anxious facial expression (specific) of
the child admitted to her ward and conclude that (in general) children’s separation from home is
always anxious-ridden. Also is the statement: Dog is an animal, Dog has four legs, Animals have
four legs

(ii) Deductive reasoning: the process of developing generalizations from specific observations.
For example, if we assumed that separation anxiety occurs in hospitalized children (in general),
then we might predict that (specific) children hospitalized in a local health center whose parents
do not stay in will manifest symptoms of anxiety. Again; Animal have four legs, Dog has four
legs, Dog is an animal.

3. Traditions: certain beliefs are accepted as truths and certain practices are accepted as
effective simply based on culture which could the culture of the profession or group of people.
Despite some basic framework on which to make a decision is already formed, however, it also
has some weaknesses; traditions do not change even if a situation or civilization brings change.
Also, traditions are built on culture in which the validity or reliability has never been evaluated.

4. Experience: This is based on previous observations and past experiences. It involves the
ability to generalize, recognize regularities and make decisions based on observations. However
personal experiences are usually subjective and sometimes prejudices may influence it. For
example, two people will interpret the same experience in different ways, of which is often
coloured by biases.

5. Trial and Error: In this approach, alternatives are tried successively until a solution to a
problem is found. This method has its weakness as; it is time consuming. It is haphazard,
unsystematic and solutions are idiosyncratic to a particular situation. It is also energy consuming
and there are no limit to what one can do.

6. Intuition (Hunch): This is knowledge that is gained through a feeling or thought that might
turn out to be true. It relies on emotions or instincts rather than examining facts or using rational

4
thought. One’s intuition can be wrong because they are most times biased driven rather than
logical reasoning or scientific evidence.

7. Tenacity: This is knowledge gained through hearing a piece of information so often that one
begins to believe it is true, and then, despite evidence to the contrary, the individual clings
stubbornly to the belief

8. Empirical evidence: This refers to the process whereby evidence deeply rooted in objective
reality is gathered directly or indirectly through the human senses is used as the bases for
generating knowledge. It means gaining knowledge through objective observation and the
experiences of your senses by seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching.

9. Scientific method: Scientific method constitutes the most adequate approach to the discovery
of truths and it has demonstrated this fact or the importance particularly in physical sciences.
The method is defined as a controlled systematic investigation that is rooted in objective reality
and develops generalizable knowledge about natural phenomena. Its characteristics include;
order and systematization, control, empiricism, and generalization.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Basically, there are three types of research

1. Quantitative research

2. Qualitative research

3. Mixed research

Quantitative research (characteristics)

1. A systematic collection of numerical data to describe characteristics, find correlations, or test

hypotheses

2. Involves the application of statistical procedures

3. Uses deductive reasoning, logic, and measurable aspects of experience to produce.

5
4. Results are often presented in tables and graphs.

5. It is conclusive

6. It investigates the what, where, and when of decision-making

Qualitative research (Characteristics)

1. A systematic collection and analysis of more subjective narrative materials, using procedures
in which there tends to be a minimum of researcher control

2. It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies to reason, and uses words.

3. The aim is to get the meaning, and feeling and describe the situation.

4. Qualitative data cannot be graphed.

5. It is exploratory.

6. It investigates the why and how of decision-making

Some examples of qualitative research include the phenomenological Method, Ethnographic

Model, Grounded Theory Method, Case Study Model, Historical Model, and Narrative Model

Mixed research
Mixed research- research involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or
paradigm characteristics. The nature of data is a mixture of variables, words, and images.

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

There are two major ways of classifying research;

a. Classification according to purpose

b. Classification according to method

6
a. Classification according to purpose

By purpose, two types of research exist

(i) Basic or Pure research

(ii) Applied

(i) Basic or Pure research

This is concerned with establishing new knowledge and the development of refinement of
theories. Findings from pure research may not be immediately applicable to practical situations
but it provides basic knowledge that guides future researchers to solve problem.

(ii) Applied

This is concerned with establishment of new knowledge but on the other hand requires that the
knowledge be applicable to practical situation without delay (immediate utility). It focuses on
finding solution to existing problems example are studies done in nursing services.

Basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both (mixed research)
and can be experimental or can be experimental or non-experimental.

COMPARISON BETWEEN BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH

Bases for comparison Basic or Pure Applied

1. Meaning Refers to the study that is Designed to solve specific

aimed at expanding the practical problems or answer
existing base of scientific
knowledge

2. Nature Theoretical Practical

3. Utility Universal Limited

4. Concerned with Developing scientific Development of technology and

knowledge and predictions technique

7
 5. Goal To add to some knowledge, to To find out solution for the
the existin`````g one problem at hand

b. Classification according to research method (Research Design)

These involve two designs or methods;

1. Experimental research design

This method involves the identification of the presence of cause-effect relationships between the
independent and dependent variables. It is based on manipulation (injecting a change) of a
specific condition in a control or laboratory-like setting and then observing the effect of the
manipulation on the factor. It can be true or quasi-experimental research.

a. True Experimental research:

This is a statistical approach to establishing a cause-and-effect relationship between different

variables. It is one of the most accurate forms of research design. There are three criteria that
need to be met in order to carry out this type of research:

 existence of a control group

 presence of an independent variable
 random assignment

b. Quasi-experimental Research

Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-and-effect

relationships between an independent and dependent variable. Unlike a true experiment, a quasi-
experiment does not;

 No random assignment, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria

 There is the manipulation of an independent variable
 There may or may not be the control group

8
2. Non-experimental research designs

Examples of non-experimental designs are;

(i) Descriptive research

This design describes events as they exist without any manipulation of what is being observed.
Its major concern is to observe and describe phenomena as they naturally occur as well as
accurately document the observed phenomena, not to explain them or to establish relationships
among variables

(ii) Causal-Comparative

This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison.

(iii) Survey research

This is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome research methodologies and
studies. It involves the collection of data from a sample of respondents, using various types such
as paper questionnaires, online polls, online surveys, web-intercept surveys, etc No manipulation
is needed.

(iv) Historical research

This method examines events in the past and tries to relate it to the present. The aim is to
examine the past in other to explain the present for instance studies done on trends in nursing
bring to mind the past history of nursing.

(v) Correlational research

This is conducted to establish a relationship between two closely-knit entities and how one
impacts the other and the changes that are eventually observed. An example of a Correlational
study can be; to study the relationship between the socioeconomic status of parents and the
academic performance of student nurses.

(vi) Case study

9
This is an in-depth investigation of a single entity or a small number of entities. The entity may
be an individual, family, institution, community, or another social unit. It deals with the
dynamics of ‘why’ instead of ‘what’.

(vii) Developmental research

This method involves the studying of gradual changes of a phenomenon from one stage to
another over a period of time e.g., studies on child developmental stages.

Differences between experimental and non-experimental research

Experimental research involves changing variables and randomly assigning conditions to

participants. As it can determine the cause, experimental research designs are used for research
in medicine, biology, and social science.

Experimental research designs have strict standards for control and establishing validity.
Although they may need many resources, they can lead to very interesting results.

Non-experimental research, on the other hand, is usually descriptive or correlational without any
explicit changes done by the researcher. You simply describe the situation as it is, or describe a
relationship between variables. Without any control, it is difficult to determine causal effects.
The validity remains a concern in this type of research. However, it’s more regarding the
measurements instead of the effects.

PURPOSE/USES OF RESEARCH

The uses or purpose of research include to:

 Discover new facts about the known phenomenon

 Find answers to problems that are only partially solved by existing methods and
information
 Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products
 Discover previously unrecognized substance (element)
10
  Discover pathways of action for known substances and elements
 Develop and test new theories


UNIT 2: NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

CHARACTERISTICS/ FEATURES OF RESEARCH

1. It involves gathering of new data or using existing data

2. It is directed towards a solution of a problem
3. It is characterized by careful design procedures, always implying rigorous logical
analysis
4. It is systematic in approach and ensures accurate data.
5. It places emphasis on the development of new theories
6. Requires expertise
7. Involves accurate observation and description
8. It is logical and objective applying every possible test to validate the procedure
employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.
9. It is characterized by patience and unhurried activity
10. It sometimes requires courage
11. It is carefully recorded and reported

LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH

These are those factors that impact or influence the interpretation of the findings from the
research and act as constraints on the generalizability and applicability of outcome of study to
practice. Limitations of research can be classified into two namely;

a. Possible Limitations of the research work proper

b. Possible Limitations of the Researcher

a. Possible Limitations of the research work proper

11
1. Sample size

Sample size depends on the nature of the research problem. If the sample size is too small,
statistical tests would not be able to identify significant relationships with in data set

2. Lack of available and/or reliable data

A lack of data or reliable data will likely limit the scope of analysis, and the size of the sample,
or it can be a significant obstacle in finding a trend and a meaningful relationship.

3. Lack of previous studies in the research area

The literature review is an important part of any research because it helps to identify the scope
of work that has been done so far in research area. Literature review findings are used as the
foundation for the researcher to be built upon to achieve her research objectives.

4. Formulated research aims and objectives

One might have formulated research aims and objectives too broadly which acts as a limitation.
The researcher can specify in which ways the formulation of research aims and objectives could
be narrowed so that the level of focus of the study could be increased.

5. Measure used to collect the data

Sometimes it is the case that after completing an interpretation of the findings, one may discover
that the way in which data were collected inhibited the ability to conduct a thorough analysis of
the results.

b. Possible limitations of the Researcher

1. Access

In most cases studies depend on having access to people, organizations, data, or documents, and,
for whatever reason, one may be denied access to or limited in some way. The researchers in
writing the work must describe and, include an explanation that denied or limited access did not
prevent the continuity of the study.

12
2. Longitudinal effects (time factor)

The time available to investigate a research problem and to measure change or stability over
time is pretty much constrained by the due date of completion of the assignment.

3. Fluency in a language

If a researcher lacks fluency in the use of a study language or participant, there will be a
communication gap leading to a collection of false information.

4. Cultural/other types of bias

Every researcher has biases, whether conscious of them or not. Bias is when a person, place,
event, or thing is viewed or shown in a consistently inaccurate way. Bias is usually negative
when allowed to cloud the real research findings.

5. Finance

Lack of finance and time-lapse are other challenges to the effective research outcome

6. Questions

If appropriate questions are missed in the questionnaire research outcome becomes poor but if
questions were properly framed the feedback or information flow is

7. Experience

Because (most likely) researchers do not have many years of experience in conducting research
and producing academic papers of such a large size individually, the scope and depth of
discussions in a paper are compromised in many levels compared to the works of experienced
scholars.

IMPORTANCE/ CONTRIBUTIONS OF RESEARCH TO NURSING

The importance of research to nursing can thus be summarized as:

1. To build a body of nursing knowledge

13
2. To validate improvements in practice

3. To increase the administrative power of the profession. In other words, help the nurse
administrator to be more effective in his administrative job

4. To acquire professionalism

5. To define and document the social relevance of nursing to society

6. To improve the quality of care given to the patient and so increases public confidence in health
care services

7. It is used in the development of theories that are unique to nursing and also used to develop a
scientifically based theoretical framework that guides clinical practice

8. It helps tutors to apply the proper teaching methods for the different courses e.g., seminars,
group studies, individualized projects.

9. Also educationally, findings from research help school institutions to structure the circular and
organize the contents of nursing courses, nursing practices, and those not necessary are
eliminated.

NURSES’ ROLE IN RESEARCH

1. Participate in a journal club in a practice setting, which involves meetings to discuss and
critique research articles

2. Are expected to attend research presentations at professional conferences

3. Solve clinical problems and make clinical decisions based on rigorous research

4. Help to develop an idea for a clinical study

5. Review a proposed research plan and offer clinical expertise to improve the plan

6. Assist researchers by recruiting potential study participants or collecting research information

(e.g., distributing questionnaires to clients)

14
7. Provide information and advice to clients about participation in studies

8. Discuss the implication and relevance of research findings with clients

UNIT 3: PRELIMINARY STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Introduction

Often, we see ourselves as students asking questions about certain situations without getting
proven answers. Some of these questions are not such that we can readily provide answers to,
except by collecting some information (data) by some means. Obtaining the true fact entails the
establishment of a research topic. One common problem encountered by students, particularly
fresheners, is the ability to understand the research topic that is, the topic may be chosen because
it sounds “good, or ‘interesting’ not because the candidate understands the major concept (s) and
what they entail. This usually results in confusion in the expression of facts. It is of paramount
importance therefore for students to understand what research problems are and the conceptual
demands, of the topic before and while writing. Therefore;

WHAT IS THE RESEARCH PROBLEM?

This is a brief and concise statement of issues or challenges the researcher wants to tackle or find
solutions to. It represents an area of interest in which the researcher wants to carry out a study–
collects data and analyzes them so as to draw conclusions or inferences relating to them

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Identification of the research problem is the first and most important step in research process.
Thus, sources of research problem consist of:

1. Person experiences: The daily experiences of a researcher serve as a good source of ideas to
the formulation of the research problem

2. Practical experience: Nurse in their place of work gets plenty of ideas to formulate research
problems. A curious nurse has several questions that need clarification which if properly framed
turns out to be a research problem.

15
3. Previous research: Based on observed shortcomings of previous research a further research
problem are suggested

4. Existing theories; Research is used for theory development and theory testing. Nurses use
many theories from other disciplines in their practice; a part of these theories may be subjected to
testing in the clinical situation

5. Critical appraisal of literatures: When a nurse critically study books and articles relating to
the subject of interest, including research reports, opinion articles and summaries of clinical
issues pertinent questions may arise leading to research problem

6. Consumer feedback: Research problems may be generated from results or responses

obtained from a client after receiving care.

7. Social issues: Sometimes topics are suggested by more global contemporary social or political
issues of relevance to the health care community e.g. female mutilation, sexual harassment etc.

8. Brainstorming: Brainstorming is good techniques to find new questions, where an intensified

discussion among interested people of the profession is conducted to find more ideas to
formulate a good research problem

9. Intuition: Traditionally, intuitions are considered good sources of knowledge as well as

sources to find new research problems, of which the reflective mind is good source of ideas

Folklores: Common beliefs could be right or wrong which may need scientific proof.

Consultation with experts: The belief that experts have sound experience of their respective
fields may suggest a significant research problem.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

The good research problem is expected to possess the following qualities.

1. Must be grounded in a theoretical framework.

2. Builds on, but also offers something new to, previous research.

16
3. Has the potential to suggest directions for future research.

4. Must be based on the purpose or question that the researcher is sincerely interested and/or
invested in.

5. Must address directly or indirectly some real problems in the world.

6. Take ethical issues into consideration.

7. Clearly states the variables or constructs to be examined.

8. Not biased in terminology or position.

9. Have multiple possible answers.

10. Is simple, or at least manageable.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

The criteria for selection of research problem depend on the following characteristics.

1. Significance to the discipline: The problems should have significance to the profession or
discipline

2. Originality: It should be new and unique in itself

3. Feasibility: It should be feasible in terms of time, availability of subjects, facilities,

equipment, money, and ethical consideration

4. Administrative support: These include financial and psychological support which is essential
to conduct research

5. Peer support: Many research ideas failed because the researcher did not receive any peer
support. A climate of shared interest among members promote research activities

6. Availability of subjects: Subjects being willing to participate in the study is of importance. It

should be ensured in advance

17
7. Researcher’s competency: A research problem can only be feasible if it is in accordance with
the researcher’s competence

8. Ethical considerations: The research problem selected should be cleared by the ethical
committee without much stress. The topic is not feasible unless ethically cleared

9. Solvable/Researchable: Only a research problem that is solvable that is considered to be

good. Of which the researcher must minimize the chances of insolvability as much as possible.

10. Current: A good research problem must be based on the current problems and needs of the
profession that will promote the use of the result generated.

11. Interesting: A research problem must be motivational and fascinating to the researcher and
thus will be conduct ed with full enthusiasm and not merely for research accomplishment

12. Clear and Unambiguous: The research problem should be clear in the ability to reflect or
give clues regarding the various aspect of the methodology

13. Empirical and Verifiable: The research problem selected to be researched should be
amenable to scientific inquiry. It should be verifiable by scientific calculations

14. Relevant: The research problem chosen to be researched should be relevant to the
profession, time, need, and competency of the researcher

15. Systematic: It should be systematic in the sense the researcher should have arrived at the
problem statement following relevant step-by-step criteria

THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY/LITERATURE REVIEW

HOW TO WRITE THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

18
The background of a study is the first section of the paper and establishes the context underlying
the research It includes the justification, the main issue, and an overview of the research
questions that will be covered in the remaining sections of the paper.

A well-written background will provide the study with a context and prompt the readers to read
the rest of your paper. However, most authors struggle with writing the background of the study.
Another common problem authors encounter is distinguishing between the background and the
literature review, which are critical aspects of any research paper.

The two terms are often used interchangeably; however, they have clearly defined roles. The
background is quite different from the literature review.

The background of the study does the following;

- establishes the context of the research

- explains why this particular research topic is important and essential to understanding
the main aspects of the study
- forms the first section of a research article/thesis and justifies the need for conducting the
study
- and summarizes what the study aims to achieve.

How to structure the background

The author usually outlines the historical developments in the literature that led to the current
topic of research concisely. Identify the main gaps that need to be addressed

In other words, this section should give an overview of the study and should be organized as:

 What is known about the broad topic?

 What are the gaps or missing links that need to be addressed?

 What is the significance of addressing those gaps?

 What are the rationale and hypothesis of your study?

Important considerations while writing the background of studies include:

19
 1. The background section, should provide general information about the topic of the
research and emphasize the main aims of the study
2. The researcher should ensure that she/he only discusses the main and relevant aspects of
the studies that have led to the aims. Do not elaborate on them as this should be done in
the literature review section
3. The background section should discuss the findings in a chronological manner to
accentuate the progress in the field and the missing points that need to be addressed
4. The background should be written as a summary of the interpretation of previous
research and what your present study proposes to accomplish.

How to make the background engaging

1. As the background includes a lot of information, it can become a long drag, causing the
readers to lose interest.
2. To ensure that your background is engaging, you should try to build a story around the
central theme of your research.
3. Ensure that the story adheres to the core idea and does not digress into a broad literature
review.
4. Each idea should lead to the next so that readers are able to grasp the story and
themselves identify the gaps that your study is going to address.

How to avoid common mistakes in writing the background

While writing an effective background, you ought to steer clear of some mistakes. The most
common mistakes in writing the background include the following:

 Don’t write a background that is too long or too short. Focus on including all the
important details but write concisely.

 Don’t be ambiguous. Writing in a way that does not convey the message to the readers
defeats the purpose of the background, so express yourself keeping in mind that the
reader does not know your research intimately.

20
  Don’t discuss unrelated themes. Try and center your discussion around the pivotal
aspects of your research topic i.e., highlight the gaps in the literature, state the novelty of
the study, and the need to conduct the study.

 Don’t be disorganized. Not discussing the themes in a chronological manner can confuse
the reader about the progress in the field, so try and organize your writing carefully.

How is the background different from the literature review?

1. The literature review section should follow the background section, as the second section
of your manuscript/thesis.
2. This section basically supports the background section by providing evidence for the
proposed hypothesis.
3. This section should be more comprehensive and thoroughly describe all the studies that
you have mentioned in the background section.
4. It should also elaborate on all studies that form evidence for the present study and discuss
the current trends.
5. To write this section, you will need to do a thorough literature search on different studies
that relate to the broad topic of your research. This will introduce the readers to the area
of your research. Following this, you should present a more focused survey of the
specific studies that are associated with the precise objective of your study.
6. It would be ideal to organize them thematically and discuss them chronologically so that
readers are aware of the evolution and progress in the field.
7. In other words, separate themes should be discussed chronologically to highlight how
research in those fields has progressed over time.
8. This will highlight what has been done and what future directions that need to be worked
upon.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Literature is anything that is written and related to your selected research problem. It is an
essential aspect of the research project, usually, chapter two (2), is which the review of the
relevant literature. It is essential that before writing the introductory part of the study literature
21
should be reviewed because the review provides quite vital information with which to build and
sharpen the introduction. It serves as a base on which the research objectives, questions, or
hypotheses are anchored. The review of literature related to the problem to be inv estigated
serves a number of very important functions.

Importance of Review of Literature

1. It ensures the avoidance of (intentional) unnecessary duplication of other works that have been
published

2. It provides the researcher with useful theoretical information and empirical knowledge
expressed by other researchers on the same topic and problems he intends to investigate

3. It also helps the researcher to find out those instruments that will be useful in his research
work

4. It tells the researcher what has been done and points out to him areas that need to be explored

5. It provides information that helps the researcher to sharpen his research objectives/ hypothesis

6. It provides comparative data on the bases of which to evaluate and interpret one’s finding

7. It promotes a greater understanding of the problem under investigation and its crucial aspects

8. It helps point out research design and statistical procedures that could be used in conducting
the study.

9. It helps the researcher to detect/know the standard instrument that could be used for the study

10. It enables the researcher to avoid the mistakes of other investigators and to profit from their
experiences

11. The information from the literature review can be of immense help to the researcher in the
construction of a measuring instrument for his study

12 it will help the researcher reduce the scope of the problem and find out solutions for these
problems.

22
 GOALS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

The four goals of literature are to;

1. Determine what exists in the scholarly literature

2. Identify possible gap(s) in the scholarly literature for further research

3. To form the research topic, theory (if applicable), and associated methodology

4. Compare and contrast findings resulting from the current study.

STEPS TO LITERATURE REVIEW

There are five key steps:

1. The researcher first searches for relevant literature

2. In the process evaluate the sources

3. Identify themes, debates, and gaps

4. Outline the structure and

5. Finally write the literature review

SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

There are three main sources to review of literature:

a. Primary Sources

b. Secondary Sources

c. Tertiary sources

a. Primary sources
23
This source provides original or first–hand information or data. They are based on direct
observation, and the use of statistical records, interviews, or experimental methods, of actual
practices or the actual impact of practices or policies. Original research results in journals,
dissertations, conferences proceedings, correspondence etc.

b. Secondary Sources

This source provides non-original or secondhand data or information. It includes; Research

summaries reported in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers. Other examples of secondary
sources include biographies and critical studies of an author's work.

c. Tertiary source
Tertiary literature consists of a collection of primary and secondary sources such as textbooks,
encyclopedia articles, and guidebooks or handbooks. The purpose of tertiary literature is to
provide an overview of key research findings and an introduction to principles and practices
within the discipline.

TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

There are two main types of literature reviews:

1. General review: This involves the extensive reading of informative materials including
journals, books, magazines, etc., relevant to the investigator’s topic of study.

2. Critical review: This involves a critical examination of all pertinent publications with the aim
of identifying their strengths and weaknesses

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH

Ethics are a code of conduct. It may be moral or amoral. morals deal with religion. Professional
ethics are ways of behaving, gathering information i.e. data collection in research about human
beings raise questions of moral and ethical issues. Of most importance includes the following:

24
1. Honesty and integrity – the report of your research results always needs to be honest. This
concerns the methods of your work, the results of the study, the data that you have used, and
whether or not this data has been previously published. None of the data should be made up in
the process of research because using the data without proof will mislead people. Misleading the
publicity and deflecting from the confirmed information is never acceptable in an analysis.
Usually, it is better to underestimate the results of your research than attempt to exaggerate the
things you have found. Honesty also applies to working together with your partners in a group –
sincerity is always appreciated.

2. Objectivity – in your research, you have to be straightforward and use true, confirmed facts.
Any kinds of bias have to be avoided in the course of the study, and this applies to data analysis,
interpretation, peer reviews, and design. To give an example, it is unacceptable to recommend
the person you know or your co-worker to be a peer reviewer. Also, it is important to remember
and control that none of the groups that are a part of your study are excluded from it. Therefore,
any financial or personal interests that might affect the quality of your study must be
immediately eliminated.

3. Carefulness – one of the most significant factors of success in every research is putting your
attention and effort into it and avoiding the mistakes that are done out of carelessness. All the
work needs to be very critically reviewed to make sure that your research meets the standards of
credibility. The records of the study have to be entirely kept and checked when necessary. If you
are performing the functions of peer reviewers, then you need to act carefully and sacrifice
enough time to ensure the quality of your job.

4. Openness – if requested, you always need to be ready to share the results and data of your
research. You also have to be prepared for sharing the tools that were developed by you in the
process, because these tools are very useful in furthering common knowledge and helping to
advance the current state of the science. Every researcher needs to be open to any kind of new
thoughts, ideas, and constructive criticism.

5. Respect for other people's intellectual property – it goes without saying that plagiarism is
never acceptable in scientific research. Therefore, you should never under any circumstances

25
copy someone else's work and attempt to pass it as something that belongs to you. Before using
the other person's works for your own purposes, you always have to ask this person first.
Plagiarism can even make you hold legal responsibility because a lot of intellectual work is
patented or copyrighted, and therefore cannot be used for other people's research. If you are in
doubt about whether to use a specific piece of information, it is always better to check first.

6. Confidentiality and privacy – all the information that has been provided to you under the
terms of confidence should be respected, and you should never give away this information to
third parties. Sensitive information, for instance, patient records, has to be protected. To learn
more about it, you need to study and thoroughly follow the guidelines on its protection.

7. Legality – the knowledge of the law is incredibly important because the wrong move in your
research could have legal consequences. This means that you have to be aware of various
regulations and laws which govern your research. Always be confident that your knowledge is
up-to-date and that you are following them.

8. Animal care – this point is for people who use animals in their studies. Animals are living
beings, and of course, they are an essential point in the rules of research ethics. Every scientist
has to be sure that the experiments on animals are, first of all, necessary, and also safe for the
subjects. You have to take proper care of the animals that you are using for your experimenting.

9. Human subject protection – in case the research that you are conducting includes
experiments on people, then you should pay meticulous attention to reducing any harm caused to
them to the absolute minimum amount. You also have to make sure they get the maximum
benefit out of it, and so do other people that your research is aimed at. Exposing people to more
testing than needed to fulfill your scientific purposes is not good. It is always important to put
human rights above everything else and respect them, and this includes autonomy and privacy
rights. Special care measures have to be taken with the groups that are considered the most
vulnerable, e.g., older adults, young children, and people who have difficulties learning Solving
ethical issues in research with human subjects can be difficult, and you have to pay special
attention to them.

10. Informed consent – before every type of study which involves humans, the person involved
needs to give their clear consent to participate in this thing. Before the person gives their

26
permission, all the specifics of the study need to be explicitly described to them, including the
procedures, any privacy invasion, and discomfort. The consent needs to be willing and not
forced. Otherwise, it goes against fundamental human rights.

11. Beneficence – this ethical principle means that during research you have to reduce causing
the person any harm, both physical and emotional, to the minimum. For this, you have to
consider all the risks that could result from this kind of study and attempt to minimize them.

Importance of Research Ethics

Relevance of research ethics includes:

1. Promotion of the research aims (e.g., expansion of common knowledge)

2. Support of the values which are needed for collaborative work (e.g., fairness and mutual
respect). This point is essential to the collaboration between people and study groups because the
research always depends on how well they will be able to co-exist and work together

3. Accountability of the researchers for their actions. There are a lot of people conducting studies
who receive public money support, so it is crucial to regulate various sorts of conflicts and
misconduct during the process of their work and make sure that they are appropriately spending
that money.

4. Insurance that the research is trustworthy and the publicity can fully rely on it. Those people
who fund and support such kinds of work have to be sure that everything is done right.

5. Common values are supported in the research. These are the most general moral and social
values – for instance, the principle of not causing any harm to other people or animals.

WHAT IS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD?

The scientific method is just a process that scientists use to verify new facts. It’s sort of like a
checklist, and by going through it one step at a time, you can be sure that you’re coming up with

27
the right facts. No one wants to discover the cure for cancer only to find that they skipped a step
and the “cure” actually doesn’t do anything.

Although the scientific method is one of the most important things that humans have ever
invented (it’s how we know anything with certainty!), it’s not entirely formalized. As a result,
the steps you see in the process might vary from place to place.

Steps in the Scientific Method

1 – Make an Observation

You can’t study what you don’t know is there. This is why scientists are so curious—they’re
always looking for patterns, trends, questions, and problems that we don’t understand. Once a
scientist finds a really interesting pattern that they want to know more about, they move onto the
next step.

For example, let’s say that you notice a lot of people are drinking alkaline water because they
think it’s healthier for them, but you’re not sure if it actually is or not.

Your turn: What’s something that you find very interesting that you wish you knew more about?

2 – Ask a Question

Once a scientist finds an interesting thing to study, they need to ask a question that hopefully,
they can answer.

A question that you could ask about alkaline water might be, “Does alkaline water actually make
people healthier?”

Your turn: What is a question you’d like the answer to regarding the interesting thing from step
one?

3 – Do Background Research

To find out the answer to your question, you need to know what potential answers are. That’s
where background research comes in, remembering that not everything you read online is true.
Use reliable sources, like Google Scholar…and untamedscience.com!

28
In our alkaline water example, you could search online for articles or published scientific papers
showing how people change when they drink alkaline water. You could look at overall health, or
specific things like lung function, blood pH, etc. Your turn: Spend a minute or two searching
online for some possible answers to your question from step two.

4 Form a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement of what you think the answer to your question is. It’s different from
the question you formed because it’s answering the question you developed with a specific
prediction that you’ll go on to test. A good hypothesis should be falsifiable, meaning that it’s
possible to prove it wrong.

Let’s say that your background research showed there wasn’t much of an effect on overall health.
A hypothesis for this might be: “Drinking alkaline water has no effect on how well people feel.
“Your turn: What is a potential hypothesis that you might have for your question?

5 Conduct an Experiment

How do you find an answer to your hypothesis? You conduct an experiment to test it! Depending
on what a scientist is studying, an experiment can be very quick or take years—some
experiments have even been going on for hundreds of years!

Designing a good experiment is a whole industry that some scientists spend their whole careers
working on. But any good science experiment must always serve its one main function: to prove
or disprove a hypothesis.

To develop an experiment for the alkaline water example, you’d need a creative way to get
people to drink normal and alkaline water and ask them to rank how well they feel after drinking
each.

Your turn: What is a good experiment that you could set up to test your hypothesis?

6 Analyze Results and Draw a Conclusion

This is what we’ve all been waiting for—what is the answer to the question? In this step,
scientists take a step back, look at the data, and decide whether to accept or reject the hypothesis.

29
Sometimes the conclusion is pretty straightforward, but scientists always do statistical tests just
to make sure they’re reading the results correctly.

Now that you’ve collected your data from the alkaline water experiment, let’s say that there is no
real difference in how well people feel based on what type of water they drink. In this case,
you’d accept (or, fail to reject) your original hypothesis. Alkaline water would just be a scam that
didn’t really affect how well people feel.

Your turn: What would make you think that your hypothesis is correct or incorrect?

7 Report Your Results

You’ve just tested an important piece of information. It’s something that nobody else in the
world knows. What good is that knowledge if you keep it to yourself? The final step of the
scientific process is to report your results. Scientists generally report their results in scientific
journals, where each report has been checked over and verified by other scientists in a process
called peer review.

If your alkaline water study were real, then you’d need to find a relevant journal and submit your
article to them for publication.

8. Dissemination of information in conferences

Difference between Research and Problem Solving

Research and problem-solving are two concepts that can often be confusing although there is a
key difference between these two processes. The confusion arises from the fact that both
research and problem-solving have a common factor. This is the problem. In research, we try to
answer the research problem by gathering data and analyzing the data. In problem-solving, we
focus on finding a solution to an already-identified problem. The key difference between
research and problem-solving is that while in problem-solving the individual already has the
necessary information to make the decision or come up with a solution, in research the researcher
needs to gather the information before he answers the research problem.

30
What is a Research?

Research refers to a process in which the researcher attempts to answer the research problem that
he initially creates by gathering and analyzing the data. Research is conducted both in the natural
as well as the social sciences. These are conducted with the intention of finding answers to the
research problem. When conducting research, the first step is to identify a proper research
problem. Based on this the researcher develops research questions and objectives. Then he would
conduct a literature review to understand more about the problem and identify how other
researchers have conducted their research. Based on this knowledge, the researcher would create
his methodology.

For the research methodology, he would identify a sample for data collection and methods and
techniques. Once the data has been gathered the researcher analyzes these data in order to write
the research report. In this report, he explains not only the data that has been gathered but also
the final analysis of the researcher.

What is Problem Solving?

Problem-solving is a process in which the individual defines a problem, identifies possible

solutions, and evaluates the solutions to find the most effective solution for the problem.
Problem-solving is not only limited to academic disciplines but is also vital in the industrial
setting. In organizations, managers often encounter tasks of problem-solving.

Here, first, the individual must define the problem and gain a broader understanding of it. Since
the information is already available, it becomes much easier to find different solutions to the
problem. Then he must evaluate each solution and decide the most effective solution for the
problem. As you can observe although both research and problem-solving center around a
problem the processes in which they are completed are different from one another.

What is the difference between Research and Problem Solving?

Definitions of Research and Problem-Solving:

31
Research: Research refers to a process in which the researcher attempts to answer the research
problem that he initially creates by gathering and analyzing the data.

Problem Solving: Problem solving is a process in which the individual defines a problem,
identify possible solutions and evaluates the solutions to find the most effective solution for the
problem.

Characteristics of Research and Problem Solving:

Bases for comparison Research Problem-Solving

1. Scientific Research is scientific. Problem-solving may not

always be scientific.

2. Process When conducting research, In problem-solving, the

there is a particular process process begins with defining
that begins with identifying the problem and
the research problem and implementing the identified
ends with analyzing the data strategy or solution.
to answer the research
problem so that a research
report can be compiled

3. Sampling In research, to gather In problem-solving, a sample

information, a sample is may not be required as the
required information is already
available.

4. Hypothesis In most research especially of In problem-solving a

the natural sciences, hypothesis may not be
a hypothesis is built. required

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DATA COLLECTION

32
Data collection is the central part of community health improvement efforts. Sometimes, the aim
is to learn more about a problem as it is experienced by a specific group of people; other times it
is to see if people are better off after participating in an intervention. Most data is collected
through surveys, interviews, or observation. It’s important to keep in mind the following when
you collect data:

1. It is good practice to let people know who you are (your name, organization and reason
for collecting data when you ask them if they would like to participate.
2. You should have permission from participants (people providing the data) and they
should be made aware that their involvement is voluntary. Participants are free to
withdraw from any active data collection or intervention program at any point without
pressure or fear of retaliation.
3. Avoid or minimize anything that will cause physical or emotional harm to participants.
Make participants aware of any potential harm prior to their participation.
4. Try to remain neutral and unbiased. Don’t let your personal preconceptions or opinions
interfere with the data collection process.
5. Collecting data (i.e. through surveys) is often done under the assumption that the
information provided is confidential and the findings will be anonymous. You should let
participants know when you will have to break confidentiality (e.g., in the case of harm to
themselves or someone else) and whether the results will be anonymous or not.
6. When collecting data, try to avoid taking advantage of easy-to-access groups simply
because they are there (this is called “convenience sampling”). Data should be collected
from those that most help us answer our questions.
7. Be respectful of people’s time and when possible, compensate them for it.
8. Be sure to protect the data you collect from people. Do not leave anything with personal
information in a place that can easily be accessed by people who do not need to see the
data (e.g. the back seat of your car). If possible, keep the information in a secure, or
locked location.
9. After data are analyzed, it is always good to share the results back to the participants.
10. If anything on these guidelines is new to you, please consult with the Data Committee.
They can help design data collection activities that comply with these guidelines and set
you up to produce meaningful information for your workgroup.

33
 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING METHODS

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample and identify the
target population of research.

1. The Population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. The population
can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, and many other characteristics.

2, The Sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from

3. Sampling is the procedure in which a sample is selected from an individual or a group of

people of certain kind for research purpose. In sampling, the population is divided into a number
of parts called sampling units.

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

Sampling ensures convenience, collection of intensive and exhaustive data, suitability in limited
resources, and better rapport. In addition to this, sampling has the following advantages also.

1. Low cost of sampling

If data were to be collected for the entire population, the cost will be quite high. A sample is a
small proportion of a population. So, the cost will be lower if data is collected for a sample of the
population which is a big advantage.

2. Less time-consuming in sampling

The use of sampling takes less time also. It consumes less time than census technique.
Tabulation, analysis etc., take much less time in the case of a sample than in the case of a
population.

3. Scope of sampling is high

The investigator is concerned with the generalization of data. To study a whole population in
order to arrive at generalizations would be impractical.

34
Some populations are so large that their characteristics could not be measured. Before the
measurement has been completed, the population would have changed. But the process of
sampling makes it possible to arrive at generalizations by studying the variables within a
relatively small proportion of the population.

4. Accuracy of data is high

Having drawn a sample and computed the desired descriptive statistics, it is possible to
determine the stability of the obtained sample value. A sample represents the population from
which it is drawn. It permits a high degree of accuracy due to a limited area of operations.
Moreover, careful execution of field work is possible. Ultimately, the results of sampling studies
turn out to be sufficiently accurate.

5. Makes for Organization of convenience

Organizational problems involved in sampling are very few. Since the sample is of small size,
vast facilities are not required. Sampling is therefore economical in respect of resources. The
study of samples involves less space and equipment.

6. Intensive and exhaustive data

In sample studies, measurements or observations are made of a limited number. So, intensive and
exhaustive data are collected.

7. Suitable in limited resources

The resources available within an organization may be limited. Studying the entire universe is
not viable. The population can be satisfactorily covered through sampling. Where limited
resources exist, use of sampling is an appropriate strategy while conducting marketing research.

8. Better rapport

An effective research study requires a good rapport between the researcher and the respondents.
When the population of the study is large, the problem of rapport arises. But manageable
samples permit the researcher to establish adequate rapport with the respondents.

35
 Disadvantages of Sampling

The reliability of the sample depends upon the appropriateness of the sampling method used. The
purpose of sampling theory is to make sampling more efficient. But the real difficulties lie in
selection, estimation and administration of samples.

Disadvantages of sampling may be discussed under the heads:

 Chances of bias
 Difficulties in selecting truly a representative sample
 Need for subject-specific knowledge
 changeability of sampling units
 Impossibility of sampling.

1. Chances of bias

The serious limitation of the sampling method is that it involves biased selection and thereby
leads us to draw erroneous conclusions. Bias arises when the method of selection of sample
employed is faulty. Relative small samples properly selected may be much more reliable than
large samples poorly selected.

2. Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample

Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample produces reliable and accurate results only
when they are representative of the whole group. Selection of a truly representative sample is
difficult when the phenomena under study are of a complex nature. Selecting good samples is
difficult.

3. In adequate knowledge of the subject

Use of sampling method requires adequate subject specific knowledge in sampling technique.
Sampling involves statistical analysis and calculation of probable error. When the researcher
lacks specialized knowledge in sampling, he may commit serious mistakes. Consequently, the
results of the study will be misleading.

4. Changeability of units

36
When the units of the population are not in homogeneous, the sampling technique will be
unscientific. In sampling, though the number of cases is small, it is not always easy to stick to
the, selected cases. The units of sample may be widely dispersed.

Some of the cases of sample may not cooperate with the researcher and some others may be
inaccessible. Because of these problems, all the cases may not be taken up. The selected cases
may have to be replaced by other cases. Changeability of units stands in the way of results of the
study.

5. Impossibility of sampling

Deriving a representative sample is difficult, when the universe is too small or too
heterogeneous. In this case, census study is the only alternative. Moreover, in studies requiring a
very high standard of accuracy, the sampling method may be unsuitable. There will be chances
of errors even if samples are drawn most carefully.

Sampling frame

The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it
should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that population).

Example

You are doing research on working conditions at Company X. Your population is all 1000
employees of the company. Your sampling frame is the company’s register or lists in which the
names and contact details of every employee

Sample size

The number of individuals the researcher should include in the sample depends on various
factors, including the

 Size of the population

 Variability of the population
 Research design.

37
There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to achieve
with statistical analysis.

SAMPLING METHODS

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect data from
every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals
who will actually participate in the research. To draw valid conclusions from your results, you
have to carefully decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a
whole. This is called sampling method or sampling technique

There are two types of sampling methods:

1. Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group.

2. Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other

criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

Probability Sampling Methods

Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected.
It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability samples

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators, basket
method, throwing a coin method or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example

38
You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of Company X. You assign a
number to every employee in t he company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number
generator to select 100 numbers.

2. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to
conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example

All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the
list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list
that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups’ employees by team, and
team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over
people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in
important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on
the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be
sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample
from each subgroup.

Example

39
The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the
sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20
men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each
subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the
clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one
of the techniques above . This is called multistage sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of
error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

Example

The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your
data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

Non-probability Sampling Methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every
individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias.
That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you
should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

40
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research. In
these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling

A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher. This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if
the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.

Example

You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after each of
your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient
way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same
level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access.
Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer
themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online survey). Voluntary response samples are
always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than
others.

Example

You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students decide to complete
it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who responded are
more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t
be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling

This type of sampling, also known as judgments sampling, involves the researcher using their
expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

41
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge
about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is
very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for
inclusion.

Example

You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in order
to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

4. Snowball sampling

If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with
more people.

Example

You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all
homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who
agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people that
she knows in the area.

HOW TO CHOOSE A SAMPLE SIZE (FOR THE STATISTICALLY CHALLENGED)

One of the most common questions I get asked by people doing surveys in international
development is “how big should my sample size be?” While there are many sample size
calculators and statistical guides available, those who never did statistics at university (or have
forgotten it all) may find them intimidating or difficult to use.

The minimum sample size is 100

Most statisticians agree that the minimum sample size to get any kind of meaningful result is
100. If your population is less than 100 then you really need to survey all of them.

A good maximum sample size is usually 10% as long as it does not exceed 1000

42
A good maximum sample size is usually around 10% of the population, as long as this does not
exceed 1000. For example, in a population of 5000, 10% would be 500. In a population of
200,000, 10% would be 20,000. This exceeds 1000, so in this case the maximum would be 1000.

Even in a population of 200,000, sampling 1000 people will normally give a fairly accurate
result. Sampling more than 1000 people won’t add much to the accuracy given the extra time and
money it would cost.

Choose a number between the minimum and maximum depending on the situation

Suppose that you want to survey students at a school which has 6000 pupils enrolled. The
minimum sample would be 100. This would give you a rough, but still useful, idea about their
opinions. The maximum sample would be 600, which would give you a fairly accurate idea
about their opinions.

In practice most people normally want the results to be as accurate as possible, so the limiting
factor is usually time and money. In the example above, if you had the time and money to survey
all 600 students then that will give you a fairly accurate result. If you don’t have enough time or
money than just choose the largest number that you can manage, as long as it’s more than 100.

Consult more scientific methods of obtaining sample for more detailed and accurate
results.

DISSEMINATIONS OF RESEARCH INFORMATION

Research is of no use unless it gets to the people who need to use it. Effective dissemination is
simply about getting the findings of your research to the people who can make use of them, to
maximise the benefit of the research without delay.

Disseminations of research information refers to the process of sharing research findings with
stakeholders and wider audience or the targeted distribution of information and intervention
materials to a specific public health or clinical practice audience. The intent is to spread
knowledge and the associated evidence-based interventions

43
Dissemination Planning

To ensure that the project results will be used, research projects must develop a dissemination
plan that explains how the outcomes of the project will be shared with stakeholders, relevant
institutions, organizations, and individuals. Specifically, a dissemination plan explains:

1. Why—the purpose of dissemination

2. What—the message to be disseminated

3. To whom—the audience

4. How—the method

5. When—the timing

Ideally, the dissemination plan will link with a broader dissemination strategy for the overall
program that encompasses the research project. It should be planned in consultation with the
project partners and approved by the project management committee, Stakeholder Analysis.
Stakeholder analysis is an exercise in which stakeholders are identified, listed, and assessed in
terms of their interest in the project and importance for its success and further dissemination
examples include; primary care physicians and providers, health workers, research community,
policymakers, and patients etc.

Elements of a dissemination plan (What to consider when planning to disseminate research

information)

1. Objectives

What do you want to achieve, for example, raise awareness and understanding, or change
practice? How will you know if you are successful and made an impact? Be realistic and
pragmatic.

2. Audience

44
Identify your audience(s) so that you know who you will need to influence to maximise the
uptake of your research e.g., commissioners, patients, clinicians and charities. Think who might
benefit from using your findings. Understand how and where your audience looks for/receives
information. Gain an insight into what motivates your audience and the barriers they may face.

Remember to feedback study findings to participants, such as patients and clinicians; they may
wish to also participate in the dissemination of the research and can provide a powerful voice.

3. Timeline

When will dissemination activity occurs? Identify and plan critical time points, consider external
influences, and utilise existing opportunities, such as upcoming conferences. Build momentum
throughout the entire project life-cycle; for example, consider timings for sharing findings.

4. Resources

Think about the expertise you have in your team and whether you need additional help with
dissemination. Consider whether your dissemination plan would benefit from liaising with
others, what funds will you need to deliver your planned dissemination activity? Include this in
your application (or talk to your funding programme).

5. Strategy

(i) Partners / Influencers: think about who you will engage with to amplify your message.
Involve stakeholders in research planning from an early stage to ensure that the evidence
produced is grounded, relevant, accessible and useful.

(ii) Messaging: consider the main message of your research findings. How can you frame this so
it will resonate with your target audience? Use the right language and focus on the possible
impact of your research on their practice or daily life.

(iii) Channels: use the most effective ways to communicate your message to your target
audience(s) e.g., social media, websites, conferences, traditional media, journals. Identify and
connect with influencers in your audience who can champion your findings.

45
(iv) Coverage and frequency: how many people are you trying to reach? How often do you
want to communicate with them to achieve the required impact?

(v) Potential risks and sensitivities: be aware of the relevant current cultural and political
climate. Consider how your dissemination might be perceived by different groups.

Think about what the risks are to your dissemination plan e.g. intellectual property issues.
Contact your funding programme for advice

6. Mode of Evaluation: Consider process for evaluating the success of the dissemination effort.

Purpose of dissemination of information

All dissemination should have a purpose and should support or inform project development in
some way. The purpose of the activity may be to:

1. Raise awareness—let others know what you are doing or what you have done the result

2. Inform—educate the community

3. Engage—get input/feedback from the community

4. Promote— ‘sell’ your outputs and results

Principles of good dissemination

Stakeholder engagement: Work out who your primary audience is; engage with them early and
keep in touch throughout the project, ideally involving them from the planning of the study to the
dissemination of findings. This should create ‘pull’ for your research i.e., awaiting audience for
your outputs. You may also have secondary audiences and others who emerge during the study,
to consider and engage.

Format: Produce targeted outputs that are in an appropriate format for the user. Consider a range
of tailored outputs for decision makers, patients, researchers, clinicians, and the public at

46
national, regional, and/or local levels as appropriate. Use plain English which is accessible to all
audiences.

Utilise opportunities: Build partnerships with established networks; use existing conferences
and events to exchange knowledge and raise awareness of your work.

Context: Understand the service context of your research, and get influential opinion leaders on
board to act as champions. Timing: Dissemination should not be limited to the end of a study.
Consider whether any findings can be shared earlier

(Remember to contact your funding programme for guidance on reporting outputs).

Methods of Dissemination

Once the dissemination objective and the audience are identified, there are a variety of ways to
share the developed content.

Common methods of dissemination include:

 Publishing program or policy briefs

 Publishing project findings in national journals and statewide publications

 Presenting at national conferences and meetings of professional associations

 Presenting program results to local community groups and other local stakeholders

 Creating and distributing program materials, such as flyers, guides, pamphlets and DVDs

 Creating toolkits of training materials and curricula for other communities

 Sharing information through social media or on an organization's website

 Summarizing findings in progress reports for funders

 Disseminating information on an organization's website

 Discussing project activities on the local radio

 Publishing information in the local newspaper

47
  Issuing a press release

 Hosting health promotion events at health fairs and school functions

Key audiences may include:

 State associations of county and city health officials

 State Offices of Rural Health (SORH)

 Hospital associations

 Public health associations

 Rural health associations

 Caregiver groups

 Universities and charitable foundations

 Federal agencies

 Community groups

 Faith-based organizations

 State and county extension offices

 Schools

 Local government

 Health care providers/centers

BENEFITS OF DISSEMINATION OF RESEARCH REPORTS

Sn. Personal Organization

1. Improving patient care improving health care and
well being
2. Initiating change Planning for change and

48
 innovation
3. Finding out Informing policy and practice
4. The search for meaning Knowledge based approach
5 The need to understand Encouraging an evaluative
culture
6 Specialist area of interest Developing evidence-based
practice
7. Testing theories Reacting to public opinion

BARRIERS TO KNOWLEDGE TRANSLATION OR DISSEMINATION

1. It is challenging to introduce and sustain evidence ‐informed protocols in the context of

competing priorities in health care.

2. Lack of continuing education and an unsupportive organizational culture

3. Any attempt to improve the quality of care for patients by translating research must
incorporate a clear understanding of the associated barriers to, and facilitators of, behavior
change.

4. The low skills (especially research or evidence-appraisal skills) among practitioners

5. The perceived cost and timelines of research.

6. Information overload which impedes decision making process resulting in poor decision

STEPS TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS OR ELEMENT OF RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Select a topic
2. Formulate a thesis statement
3. Choose the types of analyses

49
 4. Research and write a literature review
5. Formulate the research questions
6. Conceptualize a topic, refine thesis
7. Choose research method and research instrument
8. Operationalize concepts construct instruments
9. Formulate the data collection strategy
10. Perform a pilot study
11. Collect data
12. Prepare the data for processing & analysis
13. Process & analyze data
14. Interpret & make inferences about data
15. Write the research paper
16. Publish data

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

What is Research Instrument?

A research instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to your
subject.

There are numerous types of research instruments available to a researcher. The choice of the
instrument(s) to use depends on a number of factors, including:

1. Research objective
2. Nature of data
3. Statistical significance
4. Sample size
5. Timing

TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Common examples of research instruments utilized in collecting data include:

1. Questionnaires

50
 2. Observations
3. Interviews
4. Focus group discussions
5. Experiment

1. Questionnaires

This is a tool featuring a series of questions used to collect useful information from respondents.
Questionnaires are considered the most common types of research instruments particularly in
normative surveys. Questions are systematically compiled and are in an organized series in order
to enhance proper understanding of the issue under study. The two types Questionnaire include:

i. Structured questionnaires: these entail questions with some control. The questions are short
and limit the respondent to specific options (closed question). They require a specific answer
from the respondent, usually “yes” or “no” or selecting and answer among provided options.

ii. Unstructured questionnaires: these questionnaires encompass open-ended questions without

any form of restrictions. The respondents have the freedom to provide answers in their words and
can even express their opinions from different options provided in the questionnaire.

When to Use Questionnaires as Research Instruments for Data Collection

i. When you need data from numerous people and resources are restrictive: dissemination of
questionnaires is convenient and cost friendly. This is considering that questionnaires can be
administered via mail, email, and over the telephone.

ii. When discretion is of paramount importance: questionnaire answers can be made

confidential or anonymous therefore concealing the identity of the respondent.

iii. When you want to collect data about beliefs, knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes: when
using questionnaires, it is possible to collect information unique to individuals.

2. Observations

51
An observation research instrument is one in which a researcher makes observations and records
of the behaviour of individuals. In using this instrument for data collection, the researcher is
required to have minimal interference to avoid incidences of modified respondent behavior and
enhance the collection of accurate information. The two main types include:

i. Participant observer: in this, the researchers conceal their identity as a researcher. They live
with the study subjects as they collect data about a particular phenomenon. The researcher enjoys
first-hand experience in data collection.

ii. non-participant observer: this involves the researcher watching the study subjects from a
distance. The researcher does not directly interact with the phenomenon under study. The
subjects are usually not aware that they are under study.

When to Use Observation as Research Instruments for Data Collection

i. When the topic under study is quite sensitive: when dealing with sensitive topics, people shy
off from answering the research questions. Observation is a suitable option in such incidences.

ii. When there is need to observe the phenomena: this applies in cases where it is important to
observe such phenomena as behavior in order to arrive at certain conclusions.

iii. When you are not sure of what you are looking for: observations can be used to provide an
idea on what to study about certain phenomenon.

By observing, you can decide on what approach or theories to adopt in a study.

3. Interviews

This is a method of research instrument where verbal questions are posed by an interviewer to
elicit verbal responses from an interviewee.

Types of Interviews include:

i. Structured interviews: these are founded on interview questionnaire where questions

presented to the respondent and answers provided are recorded in a standardized manner.

A set pattern and question sequence are adhered to

52
ii. Unstructured interviews: such interviews are quite informal and the researcher has the
freedom to modify the sequence and wording of interview questions. It is more casual and allows
for more freedom and flexibility.

iii. Focus interviews: these rely on the subjective experiences and responses of the respondents
in gathering information on the issue under study. The interviewer participates in the process by
stimulating the respondents to provide for more information.

iv. Focus group interview: is one in which a group of volunteers or interviewees are asked
questions to understand their opinion or thoughts on a specific subject

v. non-directive interviews: these accord the interviewee more freedom to express their ideas
subjectively and spontaneously based on their ability to or choice

When to Use Interviews as Research Instruments for Data Collection

i. When you need to explore the experiences, views, and beliefs of the respondents:
interviews make it possible to qualitatively examine factors that influence human behavior in a
particular way.

ii. When little is known about a phenomenon: interviews are quite effective in collecting
detailed data about an issue that has not been effectively explored and as such offer a better
platform for further study.

iii. When dealing with sensitive issues: interviews provide for confidentiality and respondents
are able to discuss sensitive issues that could not be discussed in focus groups.

iv. When you want to explain statistical data or expound on an issue: through interviews you
can collect adequate data that can be used to explain results produced in statistical analysis.

4. Focus Group Discussions

53
This is a type of focus group discussion instruments entails the process through which a
researcher acquires data from a large sample/ group of people concurrently. The recommended
number of individuals in a focus group is less than 10.

Note that it is one of the common types of research instruments in fields such as behavioral
science, archival science, and library and information science. Types include;

Types of Focus Group Discussions

i. Dual-moderator: Entails the use of two moderators, with one charged with the responsibility
of group smooth progression and the other coverage of all topics.

ii. Two-way: One group listens to another group that is answering questions put forward by the
moderator. The listening groups facilitates more discussion.

iii. Respondent moderator: Participants (one or two) in the group discussion act as moderators.
It helps change group dynamics and produce different responses.

iv. Duelling-moderator: This entails two moderators in opposition of each other. The duelling is
supposed to provoke new perspectives.

v. Online focus group: This entails a discussion where information is shared through online
platforms. It is effective when targeting a broader participants range.

vi. Mini focus groups: It is focus group with a small participants number (four or five) and is
intended to create a more cohesive group.

When to Use Focus Discussion Groups as Research Instruments for Data Collection

i. When there is need to understand an issue in in-depth: Focus discussion groups are
instrumental in gathering expansive data that cannot be accessed using a survey.

ii. When you intend to add meaningful or understand existing knowledge: They are effective
when evaluating the “how” and “why” of a topic.

54
iii. When you need a dynamic setting: Focus groups can allow changes during group
discussion to facilitate better results.

iv. When you need to gather information from non-verbal communication: Focus discussion
groups can be used to gather further insights from gestures and stimulated activities.

5. Experiment

This require conducting experiments within a laboratory setting to test potential reactions in the
object the research is being carried out on. Experiments are primarily used as research
instruments for data collection in pure and applied sciences. Types include;

i. Laboratory experiment: These may include laboratory scale model, independently developed
procedures, or standard testing methods.

ii. Field experiments: In this, control of natural conditions is more challenging due to the
changing parameters in the field.

iii. Computer numerical model: This entails the use of computer codes to create relevant
models

When to Use Experiments as Research Instruments for Data Collection

i. When you need to control a variable: It is suitable when you want remove unwanted or
extraneous variables.

ii. When you want to determine the cause-and-effect relationship: It is effective in

manipulating variables to help determine the cause-and-effect relationship.

iii. When you need error free results: The strict conditions and specific control set ups put in
place ensures accurate results.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

1. Valid and reliable

55
 2. Based on a conceptual framework, or the researcher's understanding of how the particular
variables in the study connect with each other
3. Must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic
4. Able to test hypothesis and/or answer proposed research questions under investigation
5. Free of bias and appropriate for the context, culture, and diversity of the study site
6. Contains clear and definite instructions to use the instrument

REFERENCES IN ACADEMIC WRITING

Referencing is about acknowledging the ownership of resources used in one’s academic

writing, and provides information necessary to identify and retrieve the work cited in the text.

REFERENCING STYLES

These can be referred to as the rules or guidelines which tell the researcher/writer(s) how to give
credit to the works of other people while writing an academic piece.

Referencing styles consist of two basic elements, these includes:

1. An in-text citation: This is simply a brief form of reference which can be included in
the body of an academic piece.
2. A reference list: This is the overall compilation of both the sources cited in the body of
an academic piece and the sources that were relied on for information during the course
of academic research and writing. It is often written at the end of the assignment or paper.

Both elements contain basic information about the previously published work and the author of
the work. The information needed during the course of referencing includes:

 The name of the author(s).

 The title of the work.
 The year of publication.

Depending on the type of source referred to during the course of academic research, these
elements could also contain:

 The name of the publisher(s).

56
 The volume of the work.
 The edition of the work

57