Control and Coordination:

The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are called stimuli.

The response of organisms to a stimulus is usually in the form of some movement of their body
part.

Reflex Action: It is the immediate response of the spinal cord to a sudden impulse. It is conducted
by the spinal cord.

Reflex arc: The pathway (or route) taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called the reflex
arc.

The pathway of a reflex action is called reflex arc. In a reflex arc the stimulus is received by the
receptors (sense organs) and it passes through the sensory nerves to the spinal cord. From the
spinal cord the information passes through the motor nerves to the effectors (muscles/glands)
for the response.

A receptor is a cell (or a group of cells) in a sense organ which is sensitive to a particular type of
stimulus (or a particular type of change in the environment) such as light, sound, smell, taste,
heat, pressure, etc.

All the receptors in the sense organs receive stimuli from the surrounding environment and send
the message conveyed by them to the spinal cord and brain in the form of electrical impulses
through the sensory nerves.

An effector is a part of the body which can respond to a stimulus according to the instructions
sent from the nervous system (spinal cord and brain). The effectors are mainly the muscles and
glands of our body.

(i) Sensory neurons transmit impulses from the sensory cells (or receptors) towards the central
nervous system (spinal cord and brain).

(ii) Motor neurons transmit impulses from the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain)
towards the muscle cells and glands (or effectors).

(iii) Relay neurons occur in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) where they serve as
links between other.

Voluntary action: An action that is under the control of one’s will is known as voluntary action.

Involuntary action: An action that is not under the control of one’s will is called involuntary action.

Examples of reflex action:

(i) Blinking of eyes in response to a foreign particle that has entered into the eyes.

(ii) Sneezing or coughing, if any unwanted particle enters into the nose or throat.

(iii) Watering of mouth at the sight of tasty food.

(iv) Immediate withdrawal of hand if a person touches a hot object unknowingly.

(v) Withdrawal of the leg by a person walking bare feet if happens to step on a nail.

Advantages of reflex action

It enables the body to give quick responses to harmful stimuli and thus protects our body. It
minimises the overloading of brain. It is an important activity for the survival of the animal.

TROPISMS OR TROPIC MOVEMENTS or Dependent on growth or directional movement

A growth movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the direction of
stimulus determines the direction of response is called tropism.

1. If the growth (or movement) of a plant part is towards the stimulus, it is called positive tropism,
and

2. If the growth (or movement) of a plant part is away from the stimulus, then it is called negative
tropism.

Stimulus Type of tropism

Light Phototropism

Gravity Geotropism

Chemical Chemotropism

Water Hydrotropism

Touch Thigmotropism

(i) The movement of a plant part in response to light is called phototropism.

(ii) The movement of a plant part in response to gravity is called geotropism.

(iii) The movement of a plant part in response to a chemical stimulus is called chemotropism.
(iv) The movement of a plant part in response to water is called hydrotropism.

(v) The directional growth movement of a plant part in response to the touch of an object is called
thigmotropism.

Phytohormones or Plant Hormones

Phytohormone is a chemical substance which is produced naturally in plants and is capable of

translocation and regulating one or more physiological processes when present in low
concentration. Plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the
environment. Plant hormones are also known as plant growth substances or plant growth
regulators. Five types of phytohormones are known, that are auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins (GA),
abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene. Phytohormones can be broadly divided into two groups based
on their functions in a living body-plant growth promoter, i.e., auxins gibberellins and cytokinins
and plant growth inhibitors, i.e., abscisic acid and ethylene.)

1. What is the difference between a reflex action and walking ?

Ans. Reflex action is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus which is not under the voluntary
control of the brain. It is a kind of involuntary action which involves only the spinal cord. A reflex
action is not based on our thinking. On the other hand, walking is a voluntary action which we
undertake knowingly. The action of walking involves thinking by the brain. The central nervous
system (brain and spinal cord) takes part in the action of walking.

2. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

Ans. At the synapse between two neurons, electric signals are converted into chemicals that can
easily cross over the gap and pass on the chemical messenger to the next neuron where it is
converted back to electrical signal.

3. Which part of the brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body?

Ans. Cerebellum in the hind-brain maintains posture and equilibrium of the body.

4. How do we detect the smell of an agarbatti (incense stick) ?

Ans. When the agarbatti burns, it produces vapours having a characteristic pleasant smell. This
smell is detected by the olfactory receptors present inside our nose. The action of smell of
agarbatti on receptors sets off chemical reactions which generate electrical impulses. The
sensory neurons carry these electrical impulses to the sensory area of forebrain (called cerebrum).
This makes us detect the smell of burning agarbatti.

5. What is the role of the brain in reflex action ?

Ans. Reflex action takes place in the spinal cord. Only the information that a reflex action has
taken place goes on to reach the brain. This helps the brain to record this event and remember it
for future use. Brain helps the person to get awareness of the stimulus and prevent the danger
posed by the situation in the future.

1. What are plant hormones?

They are the chemical compounds produced naturally in plants which control the growth and
other physiological functions at a site, far away from the place of secretion. They are required in
very small amount and help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the environment.
For example, auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid are plant hormones.

2 . How is the movement of leaves of the sensitive plant different from the

movement of a shoot towards light?

Movement of leaf in sensitive plant

(i)It is a nastic movement which does not depend on the direction of stimulus applied.

(ii) The stimulus is touch.

(iii) It is caused by the sudden loss of water from the swellings at the base of leaves.

(iv) It is not a growth movement.

Movement of shoot towards light

(i)It is a tropic movement which depends on the direction of stimulus applied.

(ii)The stimulus is light.

(iii) It is caused by the unequal growth on the two sides of the shoot.

(iv)It is a growth movement.

3. Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth.

Auxins which help in the growth of the stem.

4. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?

There are some plants called 'climbing plants' which have weak stems and hence cannot stand
upright (or erect) on their own. The climbing plants have climbing organs called tendrils. Tendrils
are the thin, thread-like growths on the stems or leaves of climbing plants. Tendrils are sensitive
to the touch (or contact) of other objects. That is, tendrils have cells which can sense their
contact with a nearby solid object like a bamboo stick, or the stem of another plant. So, when a
tendril touches an object, then the side of tendril in contact with the object grows slowly than its
other side. This causes the tendril to bend towards the object by growing towards it, wind around
the object and cling to it . The winding movement of the tendril of a climbing plant is an example
of thigmotropism. The stimulus in thigmotropism is the touch (or contact) of an object. The
winding movement of the tendril of a plant around a nearby object gives support to the plant
having a weak stem.

5. Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropism.

To demonstrate hydrotropism in plants.

Procedure :

i. Plant a seedling in a vessel containing soil.

ii. Adjacent to the seedling put a porous pot containing water.

iii. Leave the set up for few days.

Observation :

On examining the roots, it is observed that the roots bend towards the source of water and do not
grow straight.

Result :

It confirms that plants show hydrotropism as the roots bend towards the porous pot of water. As
hydrotropism is a plant-growth response in which the direction of growth is determined by a
stimulus of gradient in water concentration.

1. How does chemical coordination take place in animals?

Chemical coordination takes place in animals with the help of chemical messengers called
hormones. Hormones are the chemicals that are secreted by specific endocrine glands.
Hormones regulate the growth, development and homeostasis of the animals.
2. Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?

Iodine is necessary for the thyroid gland to make the hormone thyroxin. Thyroxin regulates
carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the body to provide balance for growth. Deficiency of
iodine can lead to goitre.

3. How does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into the blood?

Adrenaline is a hormone secreted when a person is frightened or mentally disturbed. When

Adrenaline reaches the heart, heartbeat will increase to increase blood supply to our muscles.
Adrenaline also increases the breathing rate because of contraction of diaphragm and the rib
muscles. Adrenaline rush also increases blood pressure and allows entry of more glucose into
blood. All these occur when our body responds to the secretion of adrenaline into our blood.

4. Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin?

The insulin hormone controls the metabolism of sugar. When pancreas does not produce or
secrete sufficient amount of insulin into blood, then the sugar level in the blood rises. Therefore,
the patient excretes sugar (glucose) in urine, feels excessive thirst and also urinates excessively.
The people having severe diabetes are treated by giving injections of insulin.

Page No 112

4. What is the function of receptors in our body ? Think of situations where receptors do not work
properly. What problems are likely to arise ?

Ans. Receptors are the special cells present in our sense organs. Receptors detect all the
information from our environment and feed it to the nervous system. For example, gustatory
receptors present in our tongue detect taste of our food whereas olfactory receptors present in
our nose detect smell. Now, if the gustatory receptors of our tongue do not work properly, we will
not be able to know the taste of different types of foods (whether sweet, salty, sour or bitter, etc.).
And if the olfactory receptors present in our nose do not work properly, we will not be able to
smell things (like the flavour of a food or the fragrance of a perfume).

5. Draw the structure of a neuron and explain its function.

Ans. Neuron or nerve cell is a structural and functional unit of the nervous system that is
specialised to receive, conduct and transmit nerve impulses. A neuron (nerve cell) has three
components: (i) Cell body (cyton), (ii) Dendrites, (iii) Axon
Functions: The information acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of a neuron sets off a chemical
reaction which creates an electrical impulse. This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cyton
along the axon of its end. At the end of axon, the electrical impulse sets off the release of some
chemicals, which cross the synapse and start a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite of the next
neuron. In this way, nerve impulses travel in the body, from one neuron to another till it reaches the
brain or the target organ. Thus, a nervous tissue is made up of an organised network of nerve cells
or neurons which are specialised in conducting information via electrical impulse from one part of
the body to another.

6. How does phototropism occur in plants?

Ans. The directional movement of a plant part/plant in response to light is called phototropism.
The shoot responds by bending towards light while roots respond by bending away from the light.
We know that the plant stem responds to light and bend towards it due to the action of auxin
hormone. This happens as follows:

(i) When sunlight falls on the plant, the auxin hormone present at the tip of the stem spreads
uniformly down the stem. Due to the equal presence of auxin, both the sides of the stem grow
straight and with same rapidity.

(ii) 0) When the light falls only on the right side of the stem, then the auxin hormone collects in the
left side of the stem, away from the light. This is because auxin hormone prefers to stay in shade, i.
e., moves away from the light. Thus, more auxin hormone is present in the left side of stem as
compared to the right. The left side of stem, grows faster than its right side and therefore, the
stem bends towards the right side (direction of light).

The effect of auxin on the growth of a root is exactly opposite to that on a stem. Auxin hormone
increases the rate of growth in stem but it decreases the rate of growth in a root. The side of root
away from light will have all the auxin concentrated in it. Due to this, the side of root which is away
from light will grow slower than the other side and make the root bends away from light.

7.which signals will get disrupted in case of spinal cord injury?

Ans. In case of a spinal cord injury, the signals coming from the receptors as well as the signals
sent to the effectors will be disrupted. As both of these signals meet in a bundle in the spinal cord,
so, if there is any spinal cord injury then both of these signals will be disrupted.

8. How does chemical coordination occur in plants?

Ans. In plants, chemical coordination occurs with the help of plant hormones (phytohormones).
Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the
environment. They are synthesised at places away from where they act and simply diffuse to the
area of action, for example, auxin. Another example of plant hormones are gibberellins which help
in growth of the stem. Cytokinins promote cell division. Abscisic acid is a plant hormone which
inhibits growth and its effects include wilting of leaves.

9. What is the need for a system of control and coordination in an organism ?

Ans. An organism needs a system of control and coordination for its survival in this world. The
system of control and coordination is necessary in plants as well as animals (including human
beings).

(i) The plants need carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. It is due to the presence of a hormonal
system of control and coordination in plants that the stomata in their leaves open to allow in
carbon dioxide gas, the roots bend towards water and the shoots grow towards sunlight. It is also
due to control and coordination that tendrils in plants having weak stems make them climb on to
neighbouring supports. (ii) In human beings, the system of control and coordination is needed for
all our actions, thinking andbehaviour. The human nervous system receives information from the
surroundings, processes it and then responds accordingly. Our heart beats, breathing, reading,
writing, cycling, dancing and various reflex actions are all because of the nervous system. The
hormonal system (endocrine system) helps in controlling and coordinating activities like
metabolism, development, reproduction and preparing our body to cope up with grave situations.

10. How are involuntary actions and reflex actions different from each other?

Ans. Involuntary actions are those which we cannot control even if we want to. There is no
stimulus involved in thinking about it. So, the beating of heart is a purely involuntary action.
Involuntary actions are regulated by the brain. The reflex actions are also a kind of involuntary
actions but they take place in response to a stimulus. For example, the decrease in the size of the
pupil of our eye on stepping out in bright light is a the involuntary actions. They take place on their
own. For example, our heart beats all the time without our reflex action which takes place in
response to a stimulus 'light. Reflex actions are usually regulated by the spinal cord.

11. Compare and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanisms for control and coordination in
animals.

Nervous system Endocrine system

1.Made of neurons (nerve cells) 1. Made of secretory cells (or glands)

2. Messages transmitted in the form of 2. Messages transmitted in the form of

electrical impulses chemicals called hormones
3. Messages transmitted along nerve fibres 3. Messages transmitted through blood stream

4. Messages travel very quickly 4. Messages travel more slowly

5. Effect of message usually lasts for a very 5. Effect of message usually lasts longer
short while

12. What is the difference between the manner in which movement takes place in a sensitive
plant and the movement in our legs?

Movement in sensitive plants Movement in our legs

1. The movement in a sensitive plant is a 1. Movement in our legs is a voluntary action.

response to stimulus (touch) which is an
involuntary action. 2. A complete system CNS and PNS is there for
the information exchange.
2. No special tissue is there for the transfer of
information. 3. Animal cells have specialized protein which
help muscles to contract.
3. Plant cells do not have specialized protein
for movements.

Animal hormones notes:

Hormones are chemicals secreted by various endocrine glands directly into the blood and
transported to the respective organs, where they act by regulating various metabolic processes.
The organ affected by the hormone is called the target organ.

Endocrine glands and their Hormones secreted Main functions

locations

Hypothalamus (a) Releasing hormones (RH Stimulate pituitary gland to

secrete hormones.
(Lower side of diencephalon) (b) Inhibiting hormones (IH)

Inhibit the secretion of pituitary

gland.

Pituitary gland (Below the The pituitary gland secretes a Controls the overall
brain) number of hormones. One of development or growth of the
the hormones secreted by body, muscles, bones and
pituitary gland is growth tissues.
hormone (or human growth
hormone).

Pineal gland (It lies between Melatonin Regulates circadian rhythm

the two cerebral hemispheres
of the brain)

Thyroid gland Thyroxin The function of thyroxine

hormone is to control the rate
It is situated in the neck region of metabolism of
on ( the ventral side of the carbohydrates, fats and
body. It has two lateral lobes, proteins in the body.
one on either side of the
trachea.

Parathyroid gland parathormone Regulates calcium and

phosphate levels in the blood.
These are four small oval
bodies which lie embedded in
the lobes of the thyroid gland.

Thymus gland Thymosin Stimulates the development

and differentiation of
It is situated in the upper chest lymphocytes (white blood
near the front side of the heart. cells).
It undergoes gradual atrophy
in the adult.

Pancreas Insulin The function of insulin

hormone is to lower the blood
Just below the stomach in the sugar level (or blood glucose
body level
Adrenal glands
In human beings, a pair of
adrenal glands are present,
one on top of each kidney, so,
also called suprarenals.
Ovaries
These are a pair of organs
present in the lower abdominal
region in females.
Testes
Adrenaline Adrenaline is termed as
emergency hormone or fight or
flight hormones. In normal
situations,
these hormones are secreted
in small amounts. However,
when person faces stress or
danger these are secreted in
large amounts to prepare the
body to face emergency
situation. Both of these
hormones together control
emotions, fear, anger, blood
pressure, heartbeat, respiration
and relaxation of smooth
muscles.)
Progesterone and estrogen Plays an important role in
ovulation. These help in the
preparation of uterus for the
reception of fertilised ovum.
These hormones also help in
the maintenance of pregnancy.
Estrogens are responsible for
development of secondary
sexual characteristics in
females like mammary gland,
voice, hair pattern, etc.)
Testosterone Regulates the growth,
development and functioning
of accessory sex organs and
controls the secondary sexual
characteristics in males, such
These are extra-abdominal in as enlargement of penis and
position. The interstitial or scrotum, growth of facial and
Leydig cells present in testes pubic hair, and enlargement of
produce the male hormone. larynx that causes deepening
of voice.

Disorders of endocrine gland:

Disorders related to pituitary gland

(i) Dwarfism: It is caused due to deficiency of growth hormone from early age.

(ii) Gigantism: It is caused due to excess secretion of growth hormone from childhood.

Disorders related to thyroid gland

Simple goitre (iodine deficiency goitre or endemic goitre): It is the enlargement of thyroid gland . It
is caused due to dietary deficiency of iodine. Swollen neck is one of the symptoms of this
disorder. Addition of iodine to the table salt prevents the disorder.

Disorders related to pancreas

Diabetes mellitus (Hyperglycemia): Deficiency of insulin hormone in the body causes a disease
known as diabetes mellitus. In this disease, the patient excretes sugar (glucose) in urine, feels
excessive thirst and also does excessive urination.