Using yeast to make bread

Bread is made from flour, which is made by grinding the grains (seeds) of cereal crops.
Flour contains a lot of starch and protein, called gluten.
The flour is mixed with water and yeast to make dough.

Amylase enzymes break down some of the starch in the dough to make maltose and glucose, which the yeast
can use in anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration also makes alcohol, but this is all broken down when the bread is baked.
The human gas exchange system

The most important are the

two lungs

Each lung is filled with

many tiny air spaces called
air sacs or alveoli

The lungs are supplied with

air through the windpipe or
trachea
 The pathway to the lungs

From the nose or mouth, the air

passes into the trachea

Larynx, contains the vocal cords, those can

make sounds when air passes over them

The two branches are called the right and left bronchi.
One bronchus goes to each lung and then branches out
into smaller tubes called bronchioles.

At the end of each bronchiole are many tiny air sacs or

alveoli. This is where gas exchange takes place.
Globelt cells
The cells that line the passages through which air moves towards the alveoli are globet cells.
These cells secrete sticky mucus
The air passes over the mucus, microorganisms and particlesof dust in the air get trapped in it.
Gas exchange in the lungs

The walls of the alveoli are the gas exchange surface.

Tiny capillaries are closely wrapped around the outside of the alveoli.
Oxygen diffuses across the walls of the alveoli into the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffuses the other way.
The walls of the alveoli have several features which make them an efficient gas exchange surface.

Blood is constantly pumped the lungs along the pulmonary

artery.
They have a large surface are.
They have a good supply of oxygen.
 Tobacco smoking Tar:
Components of tobacoo smoke Tar contains many different
chemicals, some of which are
carcinogens.
The chemicals can affect the
Nicotine:
behavior of some of the cells
Affects the brain, it makes
in the respiratory passages
a person feel more alert
and the lungs.
(stimulant).
Nicotine damages the
circulatory system, making
blood vessels get
narrower.
It develops coronary heart
diseases.
 Coordination and homeostasis
Coordination in animals
Coordination is associated with sensitivity.
Changes in an organism´s environment are called stimuli and are sensed by specialized cells
called receptors.
The organism responds using effectors.
Muscles are effectors, and they may respond to a stimulus by contracting.
The human nervous system
The human nervous system is made of special cells
called neurons

Each neurone has a nucleus, cytoplams and a cell

membrane

he structures in neurons is specially adapted to be able

to carry ginals ver quickly

They have long, thin fibres of cytoplasm stretching out

from the cell body. The longest fibre is called axon.

The shorter fibres are called dendrons or dendrites.

These electrical signals are called nerve impulses

The central nervous system
The human nervous system is made of special cells
called neurons

All mammals have a central nervous system (CNS) and

a peripheral nervous system

The CNS is made up of the brain The peripheral nervous system is

and spinal cord made up of nerves and receptors

When a receptor detects a stimulus, it sends an electrical impulse to the brain or spinal cord.
The brain or spinal cord receives the impulse and sends an impulse on, along the appropriate
nerve fibers, to the appropriate effector.
Reflex arcs
The receptor generates a nerve impulse, which travels to the spinal cord along
the axon of a sensory neurone. If your hand touches a hot plate, this
information is detected by a sensory receptor in your finger.

In the spinal cord, the neurone passes an impulse on to several other neurones.
These neurones are called relay neurones.
The impulse travels to the muscle along the axon of a motor neurone.

This sort of reaction is called a reflex action. Automatically and rapidly integrating and
coordinating stimuli with the responses of effectors (muscles and glands).
Reflex actions are examples of involuntary actions.
They are not under conscious control
Many of our actions are voluntary. They happen because we decide to carry them out.

The eye
Its function it to detect light, and to transfer the energy in
Is a receptor organ
the light to electrical energy in a nerve impulse.
 The iris:
In front of the lens is a circular piece of
tissue called the iris.
This is the colored part of your eye.
The iris contains pigments, which
absorb light and stop it getting through
to the retina.

The retina:
Is at the back of the eye.
When light falls on a receptor cell
in the retina, the cell sends an
electrical impulse along the optic
nerve to the brain.
Focusing light

The cornea is responsible for most of the refraction of the light. The lens makes fine adjustments.
Light rays coming from an object in the distance will be almost parallel to one another.
This adjustment in the shape of the lens, to focus light coming from different distances, is called
acommodation.
Homones
Endocrine glans
We have seen how nerves can carry electrical impulses very quickly from one part of an animal´s body
to another.
Animals also use chemicals to transmit information from one part of the body to another.
The chemicals are called hormones.
Hormones are made in special glans called endocrine glans, which secrete the hromones directly into
blood capilaries.

There are two adrenal glands, one
above each kidney.
Adrenaline
Has several effects which are
designed to help you to cope with
danger know as the flight or flight
response

Also causes the liver to release glucose into

There are two adrenal glands, one the blood. This provides extra glucose for the
above each kidney. muscles, so that they can release energy from
it and use the energy for contracting.
 Endocrine glans
Animals and plants are able to respond to their environment.
Plants respond to simuli by changing their rate or direction of growth.
These responses are called tropisms. A tropism is a growth responde by a plant, in which the direction
of the growht response by a plant, in which the direction of the growth is affected by the direction of the
stimulus.

Plant hormones
ropisms are examples of chemical control of plant growth.
One kind of plant hormone is called auxin
he more auxin makes the cells just behind the tip get longer.
As they grow, they get longer (elongate), without auxil, they
will not grow.
Homeostasis
Maintaining the internal environment
The cells inside your body, do not have a changing environment.
Your body keeps the environment inside you almost the same, all
the time.
Keeping this internal environment constant is called homeostasis.
Temperature
Keep their temperature almost constant, even though the temperature of
their environment changes.
The skin is involved in the regulation of
temperature.
Human skin is made up of two layers. The top
layer is called the epidermis, and the lower
layer is the dermis.
All cells in the epidermis have been made in the
layer of cells at the base of it. These cells are
always dividing.
Cells in the epidermis contain a dark brown
pigment, called melanin. Melanin absorbs the
harmful UV rays in sunlight.
Adipose tissue, is made up of cells which
contain large drops of oil.
The hypothalamus is involved in the regulation
of temperature.
If the body is too hot (hyperthermia), the
hypothalamus triggers mechanisms to cool
it down, such as dilating blood vessels in the
skin to promote heat loss through sweating
or increasing respiration rate to release
heat through the lungs.
If the body is too cold (hypothermia), the
hypothalamus activates processes to
conserve heat, such as constricting blood
vessels near the skin to reduce heat loss or
inducing shivering to generate heat through
muscle activity.
Control of blood glucose concentration
The control of the concentration of glucose in the blood is a very important of
homeostasis.
Cells need a steady supply of glucose to allow them to respire, without this, they
cannot release the energy they need.
Brain cells are especially dependent on glucose for respiration, and they die quite
quickly if they are deprived of it.
These cells do not make pancreatic juice. They make two hormones called insulin
and glucagon.
Reproduction in plants
Reproduction is one of the fundamental characteristics of all living things.
In reproduction, each new organisms obtains a set of chromosomes from its parent
or parents.

These genes vary slightly Chromosomes are long threads, made of DNA,
from one another in found in the nucleus of every cells and they
different individuals. contain sets of instructions known as genes

Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction The parent organisms produces sex cells called
gametes.
Involves just one parent
Eggs and sperm are example of games.
Some of the parent organism´s
Gametes join and their nuclei fuse together.
cells divide by a kind of cell division
This is called fertilization.
that produces new cells containing
The new cell formed by fertilisation is called a
exactly the same genes at the
zygote.
parent cell