TAY NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

ENGLISH FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS

DakLak, 2012

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1 CELLS..................................................................................................................................................3
UNIT 2 BACTERIA..........................................................................................................................................8
UNIT 3 TISSUES: CELL SPECIALIZA TION......................................................................................12
UNIT 4 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM.................................................16
UNIT 5 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM.............................................................................................................20
UNIT 6 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM................................................................................................26
UNIT 7 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM......................................................................................................32
UNIT 8 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM............................................................................................................37
UNIT 9 DISEASE: ITS SYMPTOMS AND CURES...................................................................................41
UNIT 10 COMMON DISEASE AND AILMENTS.........................................................................................44
UNIT 11 SURGERY.....................................................................................................................................47
UNIT 12 GOING TO THE MEDICAL CENTER.....................................................................................50
FURTHER READINGS....................................................................................................................................54
GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................................................................66

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UNIT 1 CELLS

There are several criteria for differentiating living from non-living things. One of these
is the presence of protoplasm. This jelly like material is always present in living things
and never in non-living things. Protoplasm is usually transparent and colourless. It
often has the appearance and consistency of the inside of a chicken egg. Protoplasm is
present only in cells and as necessary as cytoplasm. Without it, all cells would stop
living.

Most cells can be seen only with a microscope. They are microscopic in size. A few
relatively large and can be seen without a microscope. Cells are of various kinds and
properties. Some cells, for example, can move around the tissue, i.e. they are motile.
They move like the amoebae: they have the property of amoeboid movement.

Let's study the properties of the two most common cells: red blood cells (erythrocytes)
and white blood cells (leukocytes). Both erythrocytes and leukocytes are flexible. In
other words they can bend into many shapes. Neither of them is adhesive. Leukocytes
are phagocytic, i.e. they can destroy bacteria, whereas erythrocytes are not. Leukocytes
can pass through the capillary walls, however, veins, which are muscular, are
impermeable to them.

Platelets, or thrombocytes are small, regularly-shaped clear cell fragments (i.e. cells that do
not have a nucleus containing DNA). The average lifespan of a platelet is normally just 5 to 9
days. Platelets play a fundamental role in hemostasis and are a natural source of growth
factors. They circulate in the blood of mammals and are involved in hemostasis, leading to the
formation of blood clots.

Cells differ in shape as well as in size. But they are similar in composition and
structure. All cells are made up of protoplasm, and most of them have a nucleus, which
control the life activities in the cells. The nucleus determines whether a cell shall be a
bone cell, a muscle cell, or any of many kinds which make up the structure of the
body. In the cell nucleus lie the genes which pass on certain traits from one generation
to another. The protoplasm outside the nucleus is the cytoplasm. In plants and some
animals, cytoplasm often contains vacuoles. A vacuole is a cavity that is filled with

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watery liquid. Vacuoles hold food until it is digested and help eliminate excess water
from the cell.

A cell

Another structural similarity of all cells is the cell membrane that encloses the
protoplasm. Food entering the cell and wastes leaving it always pass through this
membrane. Some cells have cell walls outside their membranes. Composed of
cellulose, cell walls give strength and protection to the cells.
The body grows through cell division, each kind of cell dividing to take more of its
own kinds, and only its own kind. Cells also control, through a mechanism not yet
understood, the stopping of the growth at maturity
COMPREHENSION
A. TRUE/FALSE
1. Cells are always round.
2. Protoplasm is not always colorless.
3. Only cells contain protoplasm.
4. Cytoplasm is found outside the nucleus.
5. The cytoplasm in plants often contains cavities that are filled with liquid.
6. A platelet has a nucleus.
7. Plant cell walls are made of cellulose.
8. Not all cells are motile.
9. Erythrocytes are flexible whereas leukocytes are not.
10. Veins are permeable to leukocytes.

B. COMPLETION
1. Protoplasm is not present in ..................(animals, plants , cells, rocks)

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2. There is usually an absence of.............in protoplasm (material, colour, life,
consistency.)
3. The inside of an egg and protoplasm often have the same ............ ( consistency,
shape , size, liquid )
4. Some cells do not have .......... ( protoplasm, cytoplasm, a nucleus, membrane)
5. A nucleus is found in most ......... .. (membranes, cavities, material, cells)
6. Before it is digested, food is held in the cell by the ......:..... ( nucleus, vacuoles,
cellulose, protoplasm)
7. All cells are similar in that they each (are microscopic, contain vacuoles, have a cell
membrane, have a nucleus.)
8. Some white blood cells can destroy bacteria, i.e. leukocytes are ............ .. (motile,
adhesive, phagocytic, flexible )
9. Leukocytes are phagocytic ......................... erythrocytes are not. (as well as , on the
other hand, yet, whereas.)
10. All cells are .......in size (big, similar, alike, different)
11. The gene lie in ............ (the stomach, the cell, the heart, the cell's nucleus)
12. The body grows through........... (cell classification, an unknown mechanism, cell
division, cytoplasm)
C. QUESTION
1. What is one of the criteria for differentiating living from non-living things?
2. What is the protoplasm?
3. What are some special properties of cells?
4. What are some common kinds of cells that you know?
5. What does the word ' phagocytic" mean?
6. How are the cells alike?
7. What's the important function of the nucleus of the cell?
8. What pass on certain hereditary traits from parents to children?
9. How does the body grow?
10. How do cells control the stopping of growth at maturity?
D. WORD MEANING: Choose the words or phrases which have the closest meaning
to the word underlined
1. Glass is a transparent material.
a. dark b. clear c. hard d. soft
2. Living things are composed of many cells.
a. separated by b. covered by c. made up of.
3. Vacuoles help to eliminate excess water from the cell.
a. draw in b. remove c. cut out d. aspirate
4. Food can pass through the cell membrane.
a. move from b. stay c. go away from d. go through
5. Vacuoles hold food until it digested.
a. make b. use c. contain d. eat
E. GRAMMAR: Adjectives to describe properties
Noun phrase + be+ adjective
Both erythrocytes and leukocytes are flexible.
Elastoplasts sticks to the skin. It is adhesive.

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 The skin can bend into many shapes. It is flexible
I. Fill the following sentences with the given words

bend flexible pass through phagocytic adhesive

amoeboid motile stretch permeable elastic impermeable

1. Some cells can pass through capillary walls. In other words capillaries are
………….
2. Some white blood cells can destroy bacteria. They are ..............
3. Platelets are very small particles which stick together to stop bleeding, i.e. they
are .............
4. Erythrocytes can ........... to get through narrow blood vessels and then return to their
original shape. In other words, erythrocytes are ………..
5. Blood cells cannot pass through artery walls. This means that arteries are..............
6. Leukocytes can pass through capillary walls. This means that capillary walls
are .............to leukocytes.
7. Leukocytes can move around in the tissues. In other words, they are ……………
8. Veins are wide blood vessels with some muscle in their walls, i.e veins are
……………… (blood vessels)
9. Some cells move like the amoebae: they have the property of ...........movement.
10 Arteries are long, tubular blood vessels which can bend and stretch, i.e. they are
………… and ………..
11. Erythrocytes cannot pass through capillary walls. In other words, capillary walls
are usually.............
II. Using the above information, complete the following table.

flexible phagocytic motile adhesive

erythrocyte
leukocyte
platelets

permeable impermeable muscular elastic

arteries
capillaries
veins
III Linking words
Both… and, neither….. nor, but, whereas, however, on the other hand
Both erythrocytes and leukocytes are flexible.
Neither erythrocytes nor leukocytes are flexible.
Leukocytes are phagocytic, whereas erythrocytes are not.
but
Leukocytes are phagocytic. Erythrocytes, however, are not.
on the other hand
Complete the following sentences
1. Both arteries and …………….. impermeable.

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2. Arteries are elastic blood vessels but …………………
3. Capillaries have very thin walls whereas …………………. muscular walls.
4. Neither …………………………………………. are phagocytic.
5. Platelets are ……………………………. erythrocytes are not.
6. Skin is ……………………….. . Bone ……………. is rigid.
7. ……………. do not have the ………………. of amoeboid movement.
leukocytes ………. can ……..tissues.
8. Capillaries are permeable to ……… Erythrocytes, on the other hand
……………

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UNIT 2 BACTERIA

Very small organisms that can be seen only with a microscope are called
microorganisms. Some microorganisms are classified as animals, some as plants.
Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are examples of microorganisms that are considered
plants by most of biologists.

Although they are very small, bacteria are present in most places than any other kind
of organisms. They live in the ocean, on the desert and in the snow. They have been
found many kilometers high in the air, as well as at the bottom of rivers and lakes.
Bacteria also live in and on animals and plants. Although an individual bacterium
cannot be seen without a microscope, groups or colonies of bacteria can often be seen
with the naked eye.

Most bacteria have only one cell. This cell is spherical, spiral, or rod-shaped, and it is
usually covered by a strong cell wall. Most bacteria have a slimy capsule surrounding
their cell wall for additional protection. Many rod and spiral-shaped bacteria have tail-
like extensions of cytoplasm called flagella (singular, flagellum), which they use for
swimming. Most spherical bacteria do not have flagella.

A few kinds of bacteria are able to get the energy they need from certain chemicals
like iron and sulfur. However, most bacteria get their energy from plants and animals.
Bacteria that live on dead organism or on substances produced by living plants or
animals are called parasites. The organism on which the parasite lives is called the
host.

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Although some bacteria cause disease, most bacteria are very helpful. For instance,
when saprophytes feed on dead organism, they break down the organic material into
elements and compounds that can be used in the synthesis of protoplasm by other
organisms. Without bacteria, all life would eventually cease because these elements
and compounds would be tied up in the bodies of dead organism.
COMPREHENSION
I. Yes/ No answers
1. Are bacteria classified as animals by most scientists?
2. Can bacteria live in water?
3. Can group of bacteria ever be seen without a microscope?
4. Different kinds of bacteria have different shapes, don't they?
5. Are bacteria cells ever covered by anything other than a cell wall?
6. Are the host and the parasite the same organism?
7. Do saprophytes get their energy from iron and sulfur?
8. Most bacteria don't get their energy from inorganic substances, do they?

II. Completion Choose the best answer

1. Bacteria that live in living things are ...................

a. host b. flagella c. dead d. parasites
2. The capsule outside the cell wall of some bacteria helps ...................
a. protect the cell b. give it energy c. it swim d. them avoid anger
3. Some bacteria...................
a. are organic b. have no cells c. are called hosts d. can cause disease
4. Most bacteria depend on ..............for their food.
a. other organism b. flagella c. saprophytes d. slimy capsules
5. Flagella are used for ...................
a. digesting food b. attacking c. eating d. moving
6. Certain bacteria feed on organic material that ..............other living things.
a. are helpful b. are dangerous to
c. are synthesized by d. are not microorganism
7. Without bacteria, all life would ...........,,,.,.
a. free of sickness b. depend on photosynthesis
c. slowly stop d. by synthesized
III. QUESTIONS

1. Where can bacteria be found?

2. When can bacteria be seen with the naked eye?
3. What is the use of slimy capsule surrounding the cell walls of bacteria?
4. Do all bacteria have flagella?
5. What are flagella and what are they used for?
6. What are parasites?
7. What is the host?
8. What would happen to life if there were no bacteria?
IV/ COMPLETION

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1. Although bacteria are very small, they are ..............other life on earth .
a. unimportant to b. less interesting to c- necessary to d. smaller than
2. Trees are organic materials, but .................. are not
a. animal bodies b. dead plants c. hosts d. iron and sulfur
3. When the heart cease all activities, a person .................
a. need medicine b. is healthier c. dies d. gets thin
4. Most..................are rod-shaped
a. mountains b. pencils c. clocks d. roads
5. .................move their tails when they are pleased.
a. people b. children c. dogs

EXTENSION

USEFUL BACTERIA

Most of us think of bacteria as "germs" -- unseen threats to our health and welfare. But
for each of the few disease-producing kinds which can live in the human body, there
are hundreds of others upon which we depend for our very existence. Bacteria help us
digest our food. Without bacteria we would have no food.

They belong to the vegetable world, being minute one-celled colorless plants so small
that the dot over this "i" can cover nearly a million of some kinds. Some are rod-
shaped, some are round, some are corkscrew or spiral-shaped, and some have hair-like
whip-like filaments with which they swim actively in fluids. Most kinds multiply
by simply splitting in two: each bacterium dividing into two equal “daughter" bacteria
every 20 or 30 minutes, under favorable conditions. Though microscopic in size, they
can multiply so fast that, after a day and a half, the billions of billions of offspring of a
single one would load a long freight train -- if it were possible to feed so many. Under
unfavorable conditions, some kinds form thick-walled spores which can withstand
prolonged drying, extreme cold, and even boiling; and may lie inactive for days or
even years.
All animals depend upon plants, directly or indirectly. Plants depend upon the fertility
of the soil, which in turn depends upon bacteria. Inconceivable numbers of them
inhabit the soil -- roughly a billion per teaspoonful -- where some convert plant and
animal remains into humus and plant food, and others make the minerals in the
soil available as plant food. All decomposition and decay in the dead bodies of plants
and animals are caused by bacteria and their close relatives: molds, fungi and yeasts.
Our huge garbage dumps are decomposed by them. Our modern methods of sewage
disposal employ speeded-up bacterial action to rapidly break down and
oxidize household and industrial wastes. Nothing escapes these scavengers. They are
in the ground, in the water, in the air -- everywhere.
Nitrogen in the form of nitrates is an essential plant food frequently lacking in soils.
Nitrogen from the air is inert and difficult to change and combine with other
substances, but certain bacteria have the rare ability to absorb it and change it into

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forms which other plants and animals can use. Some of these nitrogen-fixing bacteria
live in nodules or lumps on the roots of legumes such as clover, alfalfa, peas,
beans and locust trees.
Fermentation, as when wine and cider turn into vinegar, is caused by bacteria. Of
hundreds of different kinds, a few of the common bacteria are those used to make rye
bread, sauerkraut from cabbage, pickles from cucumbers, silage from corn, linen from
flax, glycerin, citric acid, lactic acid, and dairy products.
Fresh warm milk is an ideal food for many kinds of bacteria, especially the common
one which causes milk to sour and curdle. Cream so soured and ripened is easily
churned into butter. Cottage cheese is made from sour milk. Most cheeses are made
from curds produced by treating milk from cows, sheep or goats with "rennet", a
digestive ferment. The ripening, and the different textures and flavors,
are accomplished by various pure cultures of bacteria and molds which are added to
the curd as "starters", depending also upon special conditions of air, moisture and
temperature. Some extremely hard Italian cheeses contain little water and are
correspondingly slow to ripen. "Soft" cheeses contain more water and ripen more
rapidly. The blue-green mold of Roquefort is due to powdered bread mold sifted into
the curd. The holes in Swiss cheese come from gas generated by bacteria.
The bacteria in Limburger are little stinkers.

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UNIT 3 TISSUES: CELL SPECIALIZA TION
The cell is the fundamental microscopic building of all living matter. The human body
is made up of millions of cells. Each one has a special task within the body. Cells
usually do not work alone. Groups of cells of the same type that do a particular kind
of work are organized into tissues.
Growth is one of the criteria by which we differentiate between living and non- living
things. Growth begins to occur when a cell in one living thing increase in size or
number. Individual cells do not increase in size very much, even when they are
mature, almost all cells are microscopic in size. Therefore, growth usually involves an
increase in the number of cells.

As living things grow, they usually become more complex. The cells become
organized into tissues to perform different life activities. There are several kinds of
tissues in most higher plants and animals. For instance, in the human body there are
four basic types of tissue, epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous.

The outer layer of skin is composed of epithelial tissue, also called epithelium.
Epithelium also forms glands and lines organs inside the body, such as stomach.
Connective tissue serves the important function of connecting other tissues to each
other and to the bones of the skeleton, which support and protect the body. The
skeleton itself is built of a special kind of connective tissue. Another type of
connective tissue produces blood cells. Connective tissue also connects those muscle
cells to bones.

Muscles make possible all of the movement necessary for life activities. Muscular
tissue is composed of long, thin cells, or fibers, which can contract and relax. Groups
of muscles work together to perform a body motion. These muscles can be classified
as smooth or striated, depending on what they look like under a microscope. Two

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groups of muscles that work together are called antagonistic grows. For example, flex
your forearm, bending it toward your shoulder. Your biceps contracts or shortens, and
the triceps relaxes. Extend your forearm. The biceps muscle relaxes while the triceps
contracts. Flexion and extension are two terms you should know. Two others are
abduction, which means moving a part away from the body, and adduction, which
means moving it toward the body.

Muscle is the most infection-free of all the body’s basic tissues. This is largely because
of its rich blood supply. Muscles not only move the body but also help to keep the
body warm, especially during activity. If a muscle is kept inactive for too long, it tends
to shrink and waste away. This is called atrophy

Nervous tissue makes up the brain, spinal cord and nerves. Nerve cells receive stimuli
from inside and outside the body. They conduct these stimuli to the brain and the
spinal cord. In response to the stimuli, impulses are sent out to the muscles and glands.
This causes the muscles to contract or relax and the glands to secrete or stop secreting
fluids.

When similar cells are organized into one group, they are called a tissue. Several
different tissues organized into a large group form an organ. It is composed of four
types of a tissue found in the human body. When a group of organs work together to
perform one general function, they form a system. The nervous system, composed of
the brain, spinal cord and nerves, is the most complex of all the body systems.
COMPREHENSION
A. True/ False

1. Complex living things have groups of cells that can perform special functions.
2. Growth in living things usually occurs through the production of more cells.
3. Tissues often are composed of only one cell.
4. Few higher plants and animals have more than one kind of tissue.
5. Epithelium is present only on outer surfaces of the body.
6. Connective tissue cells serve the same function as epithelial cells.
7. Nervous tissue is composed of cells that are specialized to contract.
8. Stimuli are carried to the brain before they go to muscles and glands
9. Glands respond to nervous impulses by secreting fluids.
10. Living things having specialized cells are considered to be more complex than
those with unspecialized cells.
B. Completion:

1. Contraction of a muscle is a response to ..................

a. stimuli b. fibers c. glands d. growth
2. The stomach is .................
a. an organ b. a gland c. epithelium tissue d. the skeleton
3. Connective tissue does all of the following except......................
a. connect other tissue to each other b. support and protect the body

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c. produce blood cells d. connect stimuli to glands
4. Most animals are able to move around because ......................
a. they are organized into different groups b. They have cells which can contract
5. Each kind of tissues ..................
a. serves special functions b. can be found in every organ
c. covers and lines parts of the body d. can contract and relax
6. Nervous tissue does not.................
a. connect tissue to bones b. receive stimuli from outside the body
c. conduct impulses to muscle cells d. cause gland cells to secrete
7. Muscles and glands receive .................from the brain and spinal cord.
a. contraction b. secretions c, fluids d. impulses
8. All of the organs in the body are composed of..................
a. muscle b. epithelium tissue c. specialized cells d. system
9. Living things become more complex when..................
a. the cells mature and die b. the cells are destroyed
c. there are no organs d. there is cell specialization
10. When you flex your forearm, your biceps ……….
a. contracts b. relaxes
c. bends d. extends
C. Questions
1. What form a tissue?
2. What are the four basic types of tissue?
3. What does epithelium do?
4. What is the function of connective tissue?
5. Why is muscle the most infection-free of tissues?
6.What is atrophy?
7. What makes up the brain, spinal cord and nerves ?
8. What makes up an organ?
9. What comprises a system?
D. Word meaning
1. The inside of the stomach is LINED WITH a mucous membrane.
a. covered on top with b. combined with c. made of d. covered inside with
2. Water is a FLUID
a. a chemical b. a substance c. a mixture d. a liquid
3. Dr. John has just RECEIVED a call from the hospital.
a. given b. returned c. answered d. got
4. Some materials CONDUCT electricity better than others.
a. control the strength b. differentiate between the kinds
c. permit the movement of d. break down and synthesize

E. Completion: Fill the blanks with proper words given below.

blood brain fibers function glands impulses

responds skin spinal cord stimuli stomach system
1. The ............... runs from the brain to the lower part of the back.

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2. ...................... is an essential liquid in the body.
3. A tree is made up of thousands of strong.....................
4. Food is broken down for the use of the body in the ..................
5. When a driver stops a red light, he is responding to ..................
6. Staying in the sun too long will make the ....................dark.
7. Which................. of the body has the function of eliminating waste.
8. The most important........ of food is to provide energy for the body.
9. Small ................. in the mouth release fluids that help break down food. ,
10. The ...........makes it possible for a man to think and to learn.

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UNIT 4 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Your body's communications Net-work

All living things are able to take note of and respond to various factors in the
surrounding world. This ability depends on a highly organized system called the
nervous system. This system consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is known as
the central nerves system. Connected with the brain and spinal cord are peripheral
nerves including the twelve cranial nerves, which arise in the brain and serve mostly
the sense organs.

Another part of the body's communications network is the automatic system. This
system affects the automatic or involuntary actions of the internal organs, such as the
heart, blood vessels, lungs, stomach, intestine, kidneys, bladder and sweat glands.

An important function of the nervous system is to pick up sensations of light, sound,

touch, taste, heat, cold, pain... etc....... These sensations are carried from sense organs
to the brain over the sensory nerves. The brain receives these messages of sensations
and reacts to them, makes plans, and sends orders to for action. These orders are
carried by the motor nerves to the muscles of a particular part of the body. Thus the
brain is the control center of the entire nervous system. It is a soft, spongy mass of
tissue surrounded and protected by the bones of the cranium. Both brain and spinal
cords consist of two kinds of nervous tissue called grey matter because of nerve cell
bodies, white matter is made up of nerve fibers.

Sense organs contain specialized endings of the sensory neurons. These are activated
by sudden changes in the outside environment called stimuli.

Remember, the sense organs must send their messages to the brain and receive
directions how to respond to the stimuli. If this pathway is not intact, the sense organ
cannot function and the patient loses the use of it. For example, if the nerve pathways
to the eye are damaged; the patient will not be able to see.

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NERVE CELLS - The basic unit of the nervous system is the nerve cells or neuron.
Like all cells of the human body, the neuron contains a nucleus which is surrounded by
cytoplasm. All neurons are, however, distinguished from other body cells by thin
fibers or extensions, called dendrites and axon. A neuron may have many dendrites,
but each neuron has only one axon. Dendrites are the parts of the nerve cells that
receive a stimulus from any part of the body. The stimulus passes into the nerve cell
and then into the axon. The axon carries the impulse along to the dendrite of another
nerve cell. The nerve fibers of the connecting nerve cells do not meet or even touch
each other at their points of connection. They communicate their impulse chemically
across gaps called synapses.

The tiny cell body is the vital part of the cell though it is the least conspicuous part. If
it is destroyed, it cannot be repaired. But if an axon or dendrite is cut, it will often heal
and function again.
When part of the brain is damaged, as in a stroke or accident, either the path along
which impulses travel or the brain itself is damaged. If possible, another part of the
brain or impulse pathway can be trained to take over the function of the part that has
been damaged. Remember that nerve cells do not grow back once they die. You will
work with the rehabilitation department in your hospital, helping patients learn to do
things again after such damage has occurred.

KINDS OF NERVES - The sensory nerves carry stimuli from the various sense organs
to the brain. Motor nerves carry impulses from the brain or other nerve centers to. the
muscles. A third kind of nerves are associative or connecting nerves. These nerves
serve as connections between each other and between sensory and motor nerves.

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The nervous system plays a vital part in our life activities. Without it our ability of
taking note of or respond to various factors in the surrounding world is entirely
destroyed and useless.
Hormones and the Endocrine System
The endocrine glands secrete liquids called hormones into the bloodstream. These
chemicals are secreted in one place, but work in another. The organs that manufacture
the chemicals are called endocrine glands.
The endocrine gland works by a “feedback mechanism”. When the body requires more
of a specific hormone, the gland supplies it. When the level is high enough, production
stops. This is a very sensitive balance. If it is not perfect, the body produces too much
or too little of a hormone. This results in some body misfunction. Through the
feedback mechanism, the endocrine glands regulate bodily functions and interact with
other system, - to keep our bodies working at their best.

QUESTIONS

1. Does the nervous system consist of only the brain and the spinal cord?
2. Does the automatic system affect the automatic or involuntary actions of some
internal organs, such as the heart, blood vessels, lung ....?
3. Are sensations of light, sound, touch ..... carried from sense organs to the brain over
the motor nerves?
4. Is the brain the control center of the entire nervous system?
5. Does Grey matter consist largely of nerve cell bodies?
6. Does the neuron serve as the basic unit of the nervous system?
7. Does each neuron have more than one axon?
8. Will an axon heal and function again if it is cut?
9. Is the dendrite the branching part at the receiving end of a nerve cell?
10. Is the cerebellum located in the lower back of the brain?
11.Are hormones secreted by endocrine glands?
12. Do hormones work in the same place where they are secreted?

PRACTICE

Word meaning: Write the word on the line before the corresponding definition
Receive Neuron Heart Consist of Conspicuous
Motor nerves synapse Nervous system Endocrine system
Entirely hormones But for blood stream

1. The basic unit of the nervous system.

2. The vital organ of the circulatory system.
3. Take something offered or sent.
4. Include
5. A combination of nerve cells.
6. Places where a nerve impulse passes from one nerve cell to another.
7. Easily seen.

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 8. Those nerves that carry impulses from the brain or other nerve centers to the
muscles.
9. The blood as it flows around your body
10. a chemical substance produced by your body that influences your body’s
growth.
11. Without
12. Completely
13. The system of glands that secrete hormones

Definition meaning
1. The highest nervous structure which organizes and control the body activities
(b.........................)
2. The main part of the human brain, occupying the upper portion of skill activity
and is the center of the higher mental faculties such as memory, responding,
judgment, intelligence, and the emotions (c...................)
3. The part of the brain that is located in the lower back of it. It helps control and
balance muscular activity (c.............................)
4. The lowest part of the brain system ,continuos with the spinal cord concerned with
regulating action and vital organs (m......................)
5. The thick, whitish cord of nerve which extents from the medulla to the second
lumber vertebra (s................c........................,).
6. Place where a nerve impulse passes from one nerve cell to another
(s....................)

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UNIT 5 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Your body's framework

The human body consists of many bones and substance resembling bone known as
cartilage or gristle. The primary purpose of skeleton is to support the body. The bones
are held together by tough tissue called ligaments.

Bones have another important function besides support. They protect vital organs of
the body. The skull, which is the bone cell, gives the protection to the brain. The spinal
column, or "back bone " is made up of 33 small bones called vertebrae which
completely encase or surround the spinal cord.

The ribcage has 12 pairs of ribs. The ribs are attached to the spinal column. Then they
curve around to the front, where 12 pairs fasten themselves to the sternum or

20
breastbone. The ribcages protects organs in the thoracic area such as the lungs and the
heart.

TYPES OF BONES - There are more than 200 bones in the human body at maturity.
They are of three principle types _ long as in lower arms, the thighs, and legs, and
collarbones. The breastbones, the ribs, and certain bones of the skull are called flat
bones. Irregular bones are of many different sizes and shapes. Some irregular bones
are found in hands, feet, ears, pelvic girdle and spinal column.

STRUCTURE OF BONES - Bones contain living cells. The hard outer portion of the
bone contains special cells called osteocytes. This outer bone is largely made up of
mineral called calcium. The active portion of the bone is the material inside, called
bone marrow. The marrow looks like a sponge. These active cells manufacture the
hard outer layer of the bone and red blood cells. Certain types of white blood cells are
also made by the marrow.

More than 20 percent of the weight of living bone is water. Of the remaining 80
percent, about 75 percent is minerals and 25 percent organic matter. However, newly
formed bones may have a considerably higher percentage of organic material in
relation to minerals.

The minerals are salt or compounds of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and other
elements. These salts deposits greatly strengthen the tough organic matrix, the
foundation of the bone.

The organic matrix is about 97 collagen, a type of protein fiber that is also found in
tendons, skin and connective tissue. The remaining 3 is a cement-like substance, called
ground substance, which is composed of extracellular fluid plus a sulfate and an acid
compound.

OSTEOBLASTS.
One type of cell is the osteoblast, which is associated with the construction or
deposition of new bone material and the repair of broken bones. Osteoblasts are found
on most surfaces of the bones and in many cavities. The osteoblasts secrete an organic
material which, after being secreted combine mainly to form the collagen fibers which
make up organic matrix of the bone.

A small amount of osteoblastic activity occurs continually in all living bones so that at
least some new bone matrix is constantly being formed. The matrix in turn possesses a
special property, which causes calcium phosphate (Ca PH04) precipitation. During this
early mineralization of bone, these initial deposits of calcium and phosphate are
gradually transformed into a more permanent type of calcium salt. This transformation
into the harder and more durable crystals requires anywhere from several weeks to
months.

21
HOW BONES GROW - Your bones grow thicker as you get older. The thin covering
the outside of the bones put down hard new bone cells to make the bone thicker and
stronger. Your bones also grow in length. During your growing years, the end of your
long bones is fastened to the bone shaft, mainly by a wide cartilage plate known as the
growth plate, or epiphysis. Gradually bone cells come up from the shaft and start
destroying the cartilage cells and putting down hard new cells in their place. The
cartilage cells are then forced to move out toward the ends of the long bones. As the
cartilage grows out, your long bones grow longer.
When a bone is broken, healing takes place through the action of the bone making
cells in the bone and its covering membrane.

Broken or fractured bones usually can mend solidly, but the process is slow and
gradual. Bone cells grow and reproduce slowly compared to other types of cells. The
hardening of the new bone is a gradual process of depositing calcium. As we age, our
bones become more brittle. The blood supply is often decreased, calcium is not as
readily stored, and the body's powers of general resistance to infection and healing are
decreased. For this reason an elderly person who breaks a bone will require a longer
time to heal than a younger person. In addition, when an elderly person falls, because
his bones are so brittle, he is more subject to fractures than a younger person.

JOINTS - Places where bones come together are called joints. Some joints are
movable while others are immovable. Immovable joints are called fixed joints, for
example, those in the cranium.

Some movable joints have more movements than others. Two of the most familiar
types of movable joints are the ball-socket joints as in the shoulder and hip, the hinge
joints, as in the knees, fingers and toes. Another type of movable joints is the pivot
joint. Pivot joints in the body are combined with the hinge joints.

Joints are held together by ligaments, muscles, and tendons. Ligaments are tough
stringy bands which hold the bones together, tendons join the muscles to the bones.
The joints in the shoulder, hip, and knee are each enclosed in a strong capsule lined by
a membrane that secretes a lubricated fluid. Movable joints are constructed so that two

22
ends of the bones do not rub against each other. A pad of cartilage at the end of the
bone absorbs jolts, and cushions the bone ends. Injury to joints may cause a ligament
or tendon to be strained in what is called a sprain.

COMPREHENSION
I/TRUE/FALSE:
1. The human body is supported by ligaments.
2. Osteocytes are cells in the hard layer of the bones.
3. The tissues which hold bones together are weak.
4. The backbone is made up of 33 vertebrae.
5. Irregular bones are generally found in the hands, feet, pelvic, girdles, etc.......
6. The active cells of the bones are located inside the bone itself.
7. The bone marrow manufactures the white blood cells of the body.
8. Bones are composed of water, minerals, and organic matter.
9. Most of the weight of the bone is water.
10. Osteoblasts are found on the inside and outside of bone.
11. Osteoblasts are cells which dissolve bone.
12. Calcium aids in the development of the hard portion of the bone.
II/ COMPLETION
1. The special cells in the bone are called..........
a. marrow b. active cells c. osteocytes d. lymphocytes
2. The active portion of the bone is ..............
a. around the bone b- around the ligaments
c. outside the bone d. inside the bone
3. The inside portion of the bone is called.................................
a. a sponge b. red blood cells c. joints d. marrow
4. The knee and the elbow joints are ...................
a. slightly movable b. very movable c. immovable
5. Calcium is produced in...................
a. bone marrow b. red blood cells c. joints d. osteocytes.
6. The vertebral column.................. the spinal cord.
a. divides b. completes c- goes around d. holds up.
7. The ribcage is attached in the front to the ...............
a. rib b. sacrum c. back-bone d. sternum
8. The thoracic cage must be movable to allow the lung to ...........
a. collapse b. relax c. contract d. b and c
9. The ribcage is ...........
a. square b. straight c. curved d. triangular
10. The brain is ..................
a. a shell b. an organ c. a cord d. a vertebral
III QUESTIONS
1. How many bones are there in the body?
2. How bones are held together?
3. What is the ribcage composed of and what function does it serve?
4. What are the three principle types of bones?

23
 5. Where are irregular bones found?
6. What does the hard outer portion of the bone contain?
7. What is the use of calcium?
8. What's the marrow?
9. What are joints and how many kinds of joints are there?
10. What cushions bone ends?
PRACTICE
Word meaning Replace the capital words with those from the text that has the
same meaning:
1. Our body is HELD UP by the skeleton.
2. The MAIN purpose of the skeleton is to give support to the body.
3. The SPINE is BUILD UP OF 33 small bones called vertebrae
4. Of the twelve pairs of ribs, ten pairs fasten themselves to the BREASTBONE.
5. The SKULL, which is a shell, MADE UP OF BONE, gives protection to the brain.
6. The hard outer portion of each bone contains special cells called BONE
MAKING CELL.
7. The marrow RESEMBLES a sponge.
COMPLETION
Complete each sentence with a proper word.

1. The special cells in the bone are called ................

2. The outer portion of the bone is very ..............................
3. The inner portion of the bone is called ..........................
4. The vertebral column ...............the spinal cord.
5. The ribcage is attached in front to the ............................
6. The bones protect.................. ..organs of the body .
7. The thoracic cage must be .................. ..to allow the lungs to contract.
8. Calcium, which is a......................,is necessary in the development of the body.
9. Ligaments are made up of..................... ..tissue.
WORD FAMILY

Complete the sentences with words related to the word move.

a. move (v) d. motion (n) g. movable i. movement
b. motion (v) e. immovable
c. moving (adj) f. motion picture h. motionless

1. Abduction means ……………..a part away from the body.

2. Voluntary muscles are those we ……………..consciously.
3. A hall-and-socket joint, such as the hip joint, allows a very wide range of motion. It
is a freely ______ joint.
4. The muscular system makes all ______ possible.
5-6-7. Bones are the passive organs of (5)_____ They do not (6) ______ by
themselves. They must be (7) _______ by muscles.
8. The joints between the bones of the head that protect the brain do not move at all.
They are_____ joints.

24
9. Be very careful when changing lanes in fast ______ traffic.
10. The patient sat staring out of the window, quite ___________
11. Muscles function to allow _____ .
12. Joints, which are formed where bones meet, allow the body to ______ .
13. ______ is both an art and an industry.
14. The teacher ______ to her to be quiet.
15. The clock got broken during the ______.
16. Jackson's speech was so ________ that it made me cry.

25
UNIT 6 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is made up of the blood, the heart, the lymph system, and
the blood vessels - arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart actually acts as a pump
for the blood, a liquid which carries the nutrients (food) and oxygen to the cells of
the body and removes waste products.
The blood vessels leading away from the heart are called arteries. Usually these
vessels carry blood rich in oxygen. (This is true of all arteries except the pulmonary
artery.) Arteries have thick elastic walls. These walls can absorb the pressure of the
heart constantly pumping blood.
Arteries branch into a vast network throughout the body. As they branch, the blood
vessels become smaller and smaller until they are so thin they become capillaries.
The walls of the capillaries are only one cell-layer thick. Through these walls,
gases, nutrients, waste products, and other substances are exchanged between the
red blood cells in the capillaries, the tissue fluid, and the tissue cells.

26
After the blood has given up its oxygen, which is carried on the surface of the red
blood cells, it returns to the heart through the veins. The veins, which carry blood
to the heart, have valves in them. These function as trap doors so the blood flowing
against gravity will not fall backwards. When these valves do not work well and
blood pools in veins they stretch. This condition is known as varicose veins. People
who have too few red blood cells have anemia, people with too many red blood
cells have too much iron and oxygen in the circulatory system,
The heart is made up of four chambers the two atria and the two larger and more
powerful ventricles. The right atrium receives the blood from the body that is high
in carbon dioxide and other waste products. This blood flows into the right
ventricle. Then it is pumped, through pulmonary artery, to the lungs. Here, in the
lungs, the blood exchanges the carbon dioxide for oxygen and returns to the heart
through the pulmonary veins, it re-enters the heart in the left atrium, flows to the
left ventricle and is pumped out to the body through the aorta. The aorta is the
largest blood vessel in our body. This cycle is then repeated.
It is necessary that heart muscle be supplied with blood carrying oxygen. The
coronary arteries, which surround the heart, carry the needed oxygen and nutrients
to the cardiac muscle tissue. When one of the branches of the coronary artery is
blocked, as by a blood clot, the patient suffers a heart attack. This can result in the
death of some heart tissue. This event is called a myocardial infarction (MI).
The liquid portion of the blood, called plasma, transports both the red blood cells
(carrying oxygen and iron) and white blood cells (that fight infection). When a
person has an inflammation or injury, white blood cells rush to the infected area to
help fight the foreign material. The waste product of this battle is pus.
The liver is the place where toxins or poisonous substances are removed from the
blood. Damage to the liver can be caused by drinking alcoholic substances or
taking drugs that are harmful to its tissue. The liver is also responsible for the
production and storage of some elements necessary for proper circulation of the
blood and for blood clotting. Blood clots are not always bad. When a blood vessel
has been injured, a clot may form that holds the blood within the closed vessel until
healing occurs. Sometimes, however, a blood clot can he dangerous because it may
prevent new blood from passing through the vessel. This means that part of the
body will not receive its nutrients or get rid of its waste
A person’s circulation tends to slow down when he is in bed. Therefore, when you
have orders to help a patient out of bed, remember that his circulation is not at its
peak. Make sure he moves carefully and slowly. Allow him to sit at the edge of the
bed until his circulation stabilizes, that is, comes back to normal. Then assist him to
a standing position. If the patient becomes dizzy or feels faint, have him sit down
again.

27
 The lymphatic system is considered part of the circulatory system. The function of this
system is to assist the circulatory system in draining fluid from the body tissue. Lymph
channels are located in the body near veins. The channels get bigger as they get closer to
the heart. Two large lymph vessels empty into the venous blood system in the neck area.
Lymph fluid is always moving toward the heart. Lymph contains fluid plasma, white
blood cells, carbon dioxide and other chemicals, depending on what the body must flush
out,
Lymph nodes are lymph tissue. They help the body fight infection. While doing this, they
often enlarge and become tender, This is called "enlarged nodes or "swollen glands."
Two glands, the spleen and the thymus are also part of the lymphatic system. The spleen
produces, stores, and destroy blood cells. The thymus gland is one we do not know much
about. We do know, however, that it is used by the body to fight infection
COMPREHENSION
1. What does blood carry to the cells of the body?
2. How thick is the wall of capillaries?
3. What do veins have in them?
4. Which arteries surround the heart?
5. What happens to a patient when a branch of the coronary artery is blocked?
6. What do white blood cells fight?
7. Where are toxin removed?
8. What are the two causes of liver damage?
9. What is an advantage of a blood clot?
10. What happens to the circulation of a person when he is in bed?

COMPLETION A
Complete the sentences with the words or phrases given
a. aorta b. chamber c. oxygen d. plasma
e. pus f. spleen g. thymus h. valve
i. varicose j. vessel

28
 1. The ………….. produces, stores, and destroys blood cells.
2. A/ An ………….. prevent the fluid from flowing backwards.
3. A/an ………….. is a channel for carrying a fluid.
4. A/an ………….. is a cavity, e.g. the left atrium of the heart.
5. ………….. occur when veins stretch because valves do not work well.
6. In the lungs, blood exchanges carbon dioxide for …………..
7. Blood is pumped out to the body through the …………..
8. ………….. is the liquid portion of the blood.
9. ………….. is the waste product of the battle between white blood cells and foreign
material.
10. The ………….. is used by the body to fight infection.

COMPLETION B

Complete the sentences with the words or phrases given

a. balance b. carbon dioxide c. contraction d. hormones
e. nutrients f. oxygen g. re-circulated h. red blood cells
i. white cells

1. The blood gets …………. from the lungs to carry to the cells.
2. …………. is a waste product carried by the blood from the cells to the lungs.
3. …………. are absorbed by the blood from the duodenum and brought to the cells.
4. The …………. from the endocrine glands are transported by the blood.
5. Dilation and …………. of the blood vessels help regulate body temperature.
6. The blood helps maintain the fluid …………. of the body.
7. The …………. of the blood help defend the body against the disease.
8. Blood is continually …………. through a closed system in our body.
9. …………. exchange oxygen, iron, and other nutrients for waste products from the
body.
COMPLETION C
Complete the following sentences
1. Blood carries …………. and oxygen to the cells of the body.
2. The liquid portion of the blood, called …………. transports both red blood cells and
white blood cells.
3. The liver is the place where …………., or poisonous substances, are removed from
the blood.
4. Allow the patient to sit at the edge of the bed until his circulation…………. , that is ,
comes back to normal.
MATCHING A
a. anemia
b. branch 1. swelling and soreness on or in a part
c. cardiac muscle of your body, which is often red and
d. myocardial infarction hot to touch.
e. nutrients 2. an organ near your stomach that
f. inflammation controls the quality of your blood
g. network 3. death of heart tissue that results from
h. spleen a heart attack following a blood clot.
i. stabilize 4. enlarged and tender lymph nodes

29
j. swollen glands 5. come back to normal
6. a group of things that are connected
or that work together
7. divide into smaller parts
8. chemicals or foods that provide what
is needed for plants or animals to live
and grow.
9. a condition in which there are too few
red cells in your blood
10. muscles of the heart

MATCHING B
1. A capillary a. is the material unused or unusable
2. A vein to the organism.
3. An artery b. is a very small blood vessel, often
4. An atrium finer than hair.
5. Atria c. pumps blood into the aorta.
6. The aorta d. pumps blood into the lungs.
7. The coronary artery e. channels blood back to the heart.
8. The left ventricle f. pump blood into the lower
9. The pulmonary artery chamber of the heart.
10. The right ventricle g. conveys venous blood from the
11. waste right ventricle of the heart to the
lungs.
h. is one of the two upper chambers
of the heart.
i. channels blood away from the
heart to the tissue.
j. supplies the heart tissue.
k. is the largest blood vessel in our
body
WORD FAMILY

Complete the sentences with words related to the word heart.

a. heart b. heart disease c. heartbeat
d. heart attack e. heart-broken f. heartburn
g. heart-lung machine h. know by heart i. kind-hearted
j. cardiac k. cardiac cripple l. cardiologist

1. When her parents split up, she was ______ .

2. He put his hand across his _____, to show where the pain was.
3. The ______ pumps blood and oxygen around the patient's body during a medical
operation.
4. Indigestion sometimes causes ______, an unpleasant burning feeling in your
stomach or chest.
5. You have to ______ all the diagram ______

30
6. A decrease in the blood supply to the heart causes a ______
7. Eating too many fatty foods is bad for the ______
8. A______ blames everything on his heart attack and his fear of another one.
9. A ______ failure occurs when the heart stops working.
10. A ______ treats diseases of the heart.
11. Overweight middle-aged men are more likely than others to suffer from______
12. You have a slow, rhythmical ______
13. He’s a ______ person. He’s kind, caring and sympathetic to other people

31
UNIT 7 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Breathing or respiration is a process over which man has only some control. Without
this control he could not sing or talk. Yet he does not completely control the
respiratory system. If he did, he would not be able to sleep. Asleep, he could not force
his body to breathe. Due to other body systems, respiration becomes somewhat
automatic and involuntary.

The respiratory system is made up of the nose and nasal cavities (the sinuses, etc.....)
Just inside the nostrils are tiny hairs or cilia. The hairs strain or filter particles of dust
and other undesirable foreign materials from the air so that they do not enter the lungs.
The nasal cavities are lined with a mucus membrane which secretes or releases a
somewhat thick, sticky fluid called mucus. The mucus as well as the cilia collects dust
and foreign matters. Together the noses, nasal cavities clean, moisten and warm the air
before it enters the lungs.

From the nasal passage, the air then moves into the pharynx. This tube serves as a
passage way for both food and air. Before going in to the larynx, the air crosses over
the path used by food on its way to the stomach. When the air reaches the opening of
the larynx, the flap of cartilage at the opening remains open, allowing the air to pass
into the larynx. But when food is swallowed, this flap, called the epiglottis, folds over
the opening of the larynx. If this fails to occur, food starts down the wrong tube and
causes the person to choke. This sets off the coughing reflex, which helps to expel the
foreign substance from the larynx.

32
The larynx or voice box is located below the pharynx. The vocal cords within the
larynx are surrounded and protected by nine cartilages. These cords vibrate when air is
forced from the lungs through the larynx. These vibrations produce sound or speech.
The trachea, consisting mostly of horseshoe-shaped cartilage, is a continuation of the
larynx. The trachea divides into the right and left bronchi, which enter the lungs. Each
bronchus divides and subdivides into smaller and smaller: bronchioles. The
bronchioles lead into the alveoli or tiny air sacs of the lungs.

The right and left lungs lie within the thoracic cage on either side of the heart. The
contraction and expansion of the lungs is caused by diaphragmatic action. The
diaphragm which is a sheet of muscle attached to the ribs and spinal column, contracts
and relaxes during respiration.

The billions of air sacs of the lung have thin, membranous walls. Surrounding each
alveolus or air sacs are many minute blood vessels. This relationship between the air
sacs and the capillaries forms the basis for chemical respiration.

During inspiration the oxygen of the outside air enters the air sacs and then passes into
the blood of the capillaries. At the same time, the carbon dioxide in the capillaries
enters the air sacs and is expelled into the respiratory passageways through the
pharynx during expiration. Thus inspiration is the taking in of oxygen into the blood;
while expiration is the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood and expelling it into
the air.

COMPREHENSION
I/TRUE/FALSE
1. The larynx removes foreign matters from the air.

33
 2. When food enters the wrong passage, a person will start coughing.
3. Large hair lie the inside of the nostrils.
4. Mucus comes from the bone marrow.
5. The larynx is closed when food is swallowed.
6. The pharynx leads to both the stomach and the lungs,
7. Breathing is completely involuntary and automatic.
8. The nasal cavity is lined with a thick, sticky fluid.
9. The vocal cords are located between the larynx and the pharynx.
10. There is one lung on the other side of the heart.
11. Oxygen goes into the alveoli before entering the blood.
12. Carbon dioxide leaves the body during the inspiration
13. Expiration occurs when oxygen enters the air sacs of the lungs.
14. Relaxation of the diaphragm causes the lungs to expand
15. During respiration, oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide is
removed from the body.
16. The capillaries which surround the air sacs of the lungs are large, blood filled
tubes.
II/ COMPLETION
1. Air begins its journey to the lungs through the body at.,....,,.,,...
a. the pharynx b. the lungs c. the nasal cavities d. the nostrils
2. The nose and nasal cavities have the job of.................
a. taking the air to the heart b. closing the larynx
c. controlling the temperature of the air d. filtering the cilia from the air.
3. Both food and air move through............
a. the nasal passage b. the nostrils c. the larynx d. the pharynx
4. When food is swallowed, the epiglottis.........
a. carries the food into the stomach b. allows the food to pass into the larynx
c. starts the coughing reflex d. closes over the larynx
5. The hairs in the nose acts as .........................
a. heaters b. filters c. flaps to close off the nasal cavities
d. moisture controls
6. The epiglottis is a piece of...........
a. cartilage b. hair c. sticky fluid d. skin
7. A person will start coughing if......,.
a. he breathes b. food enters the larynx
c. air reaches the opening of the larynx d. the epiglottis closes
8. The lungs are connected to the trachea by ..............
a. the vocal cords b. the bronchi c. the alveoli d. the diaphragm
9. The lungs consist of.................
a. the bronchioles b. the alveoli c. capillaries d. all of the proceeding
10. The air sacs of the lungs are encircled by ........
a. air b. blood capillaries c. oxygen d. tough membrane
11. The alveoli get..............from the blood.
a. membrane b. blood c. oxygen d. carbon dioxide
12. The blood vessels which surround the air sacs receive ...................from them.

34
a. blood b. contractions c, oxygen d. bronchioles
13. During the inspiration, a person is ...........
a. taking air into the body b. breathing out
c. neither of the proceeding d. both of the proceeding
14. The relationship between the air sacs and the capillaries is what makes
a. a person talk b. breathing possible c. a person inhale
d. expansion of the lung possible.
III/ QUESTIONS
1. Where does air enter the body?
2. What are cilia?
3. What do the hairs that lie in the nostrils do?
4. What else in the nose catches particles of dust?
5. Where does the mucus come from?
6. Where does the air go after it has been cleaned, moistened and warmed?
7. What is the pharynx?
8. What keeps food from entering the larynx?
9. What happens if the epiglottis doesn't fold over the opening?
10. Is the coughing reflex an involuntary reflex?
PRACTICE
1- The vibrations of the vocal cords produce sound
a. stopping b. closing c. moving d. resting e. a +b
2. The trachea is a continuation of the larynx.
a. an extension b. a shortening c. a closure d. the beginning e. none of those
3. The diaphragm contracts and relaxes during respiration.
a. expands b. loosens up c. strengthens d. tightens up e. a and d
4. The alveoli are surrounded by minute blood vessels.
a. tiny b. enlarged c. round d. short
5. The contraction and expansion of the lungs is caused by diaphragmatic action.
a. shrinking b. dropping c. enlargement d. stretching e. spreading
6. The two lungs are inside the thoracic cavity.
a. are wedged between b. are above and below c. enter through
d. lie within e. none of those
7. Carbon dioxide is taken out of the body during expiration
a. removed from b. expired from c. exhaled from d. sent out of from
e. all of these
WORD FAMILY
Complete the sentences with words related to the word prevent.
a. prevent b. preventable c. preventive
d. preventive medicine e. prevention
1. Simple ______ measures will reduce the risk of infection.
2. Lacey has a back injury that may __________ him from playing in tomorrow's
game.
3. Poliomyelitis is now a ______ disease.
4. ______ is intended to prevent diseases of bad health.
5. The accident could have been _____ .

35
6. Accident ______ is one of the main aims of the campaign.
7. Nine thousand children a day die from one of six _______ diseases.
8. The epiglottis ______ food from going into the lungs.

36
UNIT 8 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system (gastrointestinal system) is responsible for breaking down food
into a form that can be used by the body cells. This action is both chemical and
mechanical, The digestive tract is about 30 feet long. The entire length of it is
important in reducing food in form the body needs.

Digestion begins in the mouth, where food is chewed and mixed with saliva. This is
the first step of digestion. During swallowing, the food moves in a moistened ball
down the esophagus to the stomach. The stomach churns and mixes the food at the
same time it is being broken down chemically. The most important part of digestion
and absorption of nutrients occurs in the duodenum. This is the first part of the small
intestine. It is here that digestive juices from the duodenum and the pancreas, and bile
from the gallbladder, finish the job of breaking down the food stored in the
gallbladder, but manufactured in the liver.

The lining of the duodenum is composed of thousands of tiny fingerlike projections

called villi. Each villus is capable of absorbing the end products of digestion. The
products are then moved into the bloodstream, where they are carried to individual
cells.

A lot of water is necessary for the chemical reduction of food into its end products.
Food is moved along the length of the intestines by the rhythmic contraction of the
muscle walls. This is called peristalsis. What is left of the food, after some has been
absorbed by the small intestines, moves through the large intestines where water is
reabsorbed into the body. The material that cannot be used by the body is excreted
from the rectum through the anus as feces or waste.

37
The liver is part of the digestive system. Besides manufacturing bile, the liver is a
storage area for glucose. This form of sugar is released in large amounts when the cells
need it for energy.

On the right of the colon, or large intestine, at the junction between the small intestine
and the large intestine, there is a pouch with a projection called the appendix. Because
there is very little peristalsis in this area, the appendix may have material trapped in it.
Then it becomes infected. This is known as appendicitis. Surgery is usually performed
to remove the appendix and correct this condition.

The lowest portion of the large intestine curves in an S shape into the rectum. The
rectum is made up of very delicate tissue. It has an internal and external sphincter
muscle. When the rectum has fecal matter in it, a message is received by the brain. The
brain returns a message to the muscles of the rectum, allowing them to relax. This is
called a bowelmovement, Sometime blood vessels that supply the rectal area become
enlarged and filled with blood clots, resulting in hemorrhoids.

COMPREHENSION
A. Questions
1. How long is the digestive tract?
2. Where does digestion begin and where does it end?
3. What does the stomach do?
4. Where does bile in the duodenum come from?
5. Where does the most important part of digestion and absorption of nutrients occur?
6. What organ manufactures bile and where is it stored?
7. What can be found on the lining of the duodenum?
8. What's peristalsis?
9. What does the body need glucose for?
10. Why may material be trapped in the appendix?
B. Specific Terms
1. What's the singular form of the noun villi?
2. What are the adjectives corresponding to the nouns feces, rectum, and intestine?
3. Which syllable of the word esophagus is stressed?
4. What's the last sound of the word stomach?
5. What's the verb corresponding to the noun absorption?
6. What letter is silent in the verb moisten?
7. Which syllable of the word peristalsis is stressed1?
8. Find equivalents of these terms: digestive system, villi, glucose, feces.
COMPLETION
I. Complete the sentences with the words or phrases given.
a. appendicitis b. esophagus c. feces d. gallbladder e. gastrointestinal
f. pharynx g. rectum h. stomach i. swallow ed j.villi
1. The part of the digestive tract below the diaphragm is called the …………………
tract.
2. The portion of the digestive system that servers as both an air passage and a food
passage is the …………………….

38
3. The absorptive surface area of the muscle walls is increased by millions of
fingerlike projections called …………………….
4. In …………………….the appendix becomes inflamed and infected.
5. The …………… receives food, mixes it, carries on some absorption, and moves
food into the small intestine.
6. The ……………stores bile from the liver and releases it when needed.
7. …………… largely consist of water, undigested material, mucus, and bacteria.
8. After food in the mouth is chewed, moistened, and softened by saliva, it is ready to
be ……………
9. Despite its name, the ……………is not straight.
10. The ……………propels food from the pharynx into the stomach
III. MATCHING
Match the words in Column A with their definitions or functions in Column B.
COLUMN A COLUMNS
1. digestion a. stores bile between meals
2. duodenum b. secretes bile and stores glucose
3. esophagus c. stores, mixes, and digests food
4. gallbladder d. leads from the mouth to the esophagus
5. liver e. part of the small intestine
6. peristalsis f. part of the large intestine
7. pharynx g. becomes less efficient with age
8. rectum h. moistens food so that it can be swallowed
9. saliva i. carries food from the pharynx to the stomach
l0. stomach j. pushes food along the esophagus into the stomach
WORD FAMILY A

Complete the sentences with words related to the chemical.

a. chemical (n) b chemical(adj) c. chemically d. chemistry e. biochemistry
f. chemist g. chemist's h. chemotherapy

1. The breaking down of food into a form that can be used by the body cells is both
…………….. and mechanical.
2. The stomach breaks down food ……………..
3. Hormones are …………. that are secreted in one place but work in another.
4. A lot of water is necessary for the ……………..reduction of food into its end
products.
5.…………….. is the use of drugs to control and cure diseases.
6.…………….. is concerned with studying the structure of substances and the way
they change.
7.……………..the two substances are very similar.
8. Also called a druggist, a…………… prepares drugs and works in a shop.
9. ………….. is the scientific study of the chemistry of living things.
10. You go to a …………… to buy drugs.
11. A scientist who has a special knowledge in chemistry is a……………
WORD FAMILY B

39
a. digest (v) b. digestion (n) c. indigestion (n)
d. digestible e. indigestible f. digestive juice
g. digestive system h digestive tract i. undigested

1. Most babies can…………… a wide range of food easily.

2. He cut up the meat into small, easily ,…………… pieces.
3. A good walk helps …………….
4. She can't …………… any wheat products.
5. Fresh vegetables are not as ……………as cooked ones.
6. Exercise speeds up
7. The organs of the……………receive food from the outside
8. His ……………has always been poor.
9. Feces largely consist of water, …………… material, mucus, and bacteria.
10. Food that is ………… cannot easily be broken down in the stomach into
substances that the body can use.
11. You'll get………………..eating so fast
12. In the small intestine, ………… from the duodenum and the pancreas, and bile
from the gallbladder, finish the job of breaking down food.

40
UNIT 9 DISEASE: ITS SYMPTOMS AND CURES

Scientists have learned a great deal about the prevention and cure of ailments and have
virtually eliminated certain diseases as major threats but there are still ailments which
afflict mankind. We no longer fear the bubonic plague, for example, and cholera and
smallpox have largely been eradicated. But we must still contend with heart attacks,
cancer, and other diseases of the modem era.

People notice changes in their bodies which they associate with illness. These are
called symptoms. The most clearly recognizable symptom is pain. A pain in the
stomach may indicate simple indigestion or a more serious ailment such as an ulcer or
dysentery. A headache is associated with colds, the flu, and head injuries while a pain
in the chest may be a warning of a heart attack or lung trouble.

Fever is another symptom of ill health. Normal body temperature is 98.6° when
measured on the Fahrenheit scale or 37° Centigrade on the Celsius thermometer. A
higher temperature than normal indicates that the body is fighting a disease.

Other symptoms of disease include coughing and bleeding. A cough may be dry or it
maybe produces a lot of phlegm or sputum. It is associated with ailments of the throat,
chest, and lungs. Bleeding may be severe as in hemorrhage or minimal as with a small
abrasion or cut.

Fainting or dizziness is other symptoms that something is wrong. They may indicate a
low red blood cell count, a condition or other injury to the brain.

Nausea and vomiting are associated with stomach and intestinal disorders such as flu,
food poisoning, or dysentery. Chest pain or a congested feeling can be a symptom of
heart trouble while sweating, itching, and rashes are skin manifestations of problems
such as allergies, or even cancer

Someone who experiences these symptoms should try to determine if they are
characteristics of a serious ailment or a common one. If the ailment is not serious, it
can be treated without medical advice. If serious, however, a doctor should be
consulted.
The common cold is a good example of an ailment which does not require expert
medical attention. Most colds are caused by viruses rather than getting wet or standing
in a draft, as is the common belief. It is true, though, that getting chilled can lower
one's resistance and make one more susceptible to attack by the virus. The symptoms
of a cold may include a runny nose, a cough, a sore throat, a fever, and various aches.
None of the antibiotic drugs, such as penicillin, are effective in treating a cold.
Drinking tea with honey and whiskey, a common home remedy, does not cure a cold
nor does taking massive doses of Vitamin C. About all one can do is stay in bed and
rest for five to seven days duration of the illness. Happily, most virus infections in
otherwise healthy people are self-limited.

41
While common available antibiotics do not help in the cure of a cold, other
medications can relieve some of the accompanying aches. Aspirin, a common pain
reliever, minimizes the headaches and other muscle aches. Gargling with salt water or
sucking lozenges can soothe a sore throat. An antihistamine may decrease the
stuffiness of the nose. And a prescription cough medicine with codeine or any other
mild narcotic will suppress the urge to cough.

The cold and the flu are good examples of communicable diseases. They are caused by
virus particles which are transmitted from person to person. These submicroscopic
particles enter the body through the mouth or nose, through the skin, or through the
intestines in food or water and cause infection. Depending on where the virus particles
settle and multiply, different illnesses develop. A virus entering through the nose may
cause a cold or a strep throat while one which is swallowed may result in the flu or a
more serious ailment.
In addition to bacteria and viruses, fungi and parasites can cause infection. The
severity of the infection depends on the body’s ability to resist infection. This ability is
termed immunity and may be natural or acquired. Natural immunity is provided by
such bodily defense mechanisms as the skin and mucous membranes, the harmless
bacteria in the body which interfere with the growth of harmful germs, and specialized
white blood cells that live in the tissues, fluids and blood. Acquired immunity is
developed by exposure to germs and their products and depend on specific antibodies
produced by sensitized plasma cells. By introducing germs artificially in a controlled
manner into the body, the body is stimulated to produce the antibodies which will
prevent the growth of the same antigen in the future.
Vaccines are used to produce an acquired immunity. A person is vaccinated with a
living but weakened germ, a killed germ, or a toxic poison from the germ. The body
responds by developing an immunity to the germ. Because this acquired immunity
often does not last a lifetime, it may be necessary to immunize people periodically
with booster shots of the vaccine.
Despite vaccinates and other precautions, however, people become ill. When this
happens, drugs can be used to cure the illness. Nearly one thousand different drugs are
currently available for the treatment of illness and new ones are continually being
developed. The most effective drugs are available by prescription only. These drugs
are potent and may be dangerous if taken overdose. Some are addictive. Therefore
their use must be strictly controlled. A patient can buy these medicines only if a doctor
prescribes them and writes a prescription, or order, for a pharmacist to fill.

42
COMPREHESION Answer the following questions

1. Is the bubonic plague still a common disease?

2. Name several symptoms of ill health.
3. What problems can a stomachache indicate?
4. What instruments is used to measure body temperature? Name the two temperature
scales.
5. Is a small cut likely to produce a hemorrhage?
6. What are the two symptoms of a brain concussion?
7. What is the cause of a common cold?
8. What are the symptoms when you catch a cold?
9. What do you think is the best way to cure a cold?
10. What are codeine and narcotic used for?
11. How are communicable diseases transmitted?
12. What is the difference between natural and acquired immunity?
13. How does a vaccination produce immunity? Why are booster shots given?
II. Use each of the following terms in a sentence of your own
Fever infection drug
Immunity overdose addictive
Hemorrhage sedative antihistamine
Penicillin headache pharmacist
Aspirin nausea ointment
Flu booster shot resistance
Gargle cure remedy
Fahrenheit virus cough
Allergy

III. Describe the most recent disease you have had. What were the symptoms? What
treatment did your doctor prescribe?

IV. Have you ever been vaccinated? Against what disease or diseases?
V. WORD FAMILY
Complete the sentences with words related to the word weigh.

a. weigh b. weight c. overweight d. underweight e. weightlifting

1. The doctor says I'm a little ______ since my illness.

2. The average ______ of a baby at birth is just over seven pounds.
3. Recently I ate a lot. I'm ______ by 2 kg according to my doctor.
4. I'll take a look at the baby. I'll just measure to see how much he ______.

43
5. Omar can't lift heavy ____ because of his bad back.
6. Her ______ has increased to 70 kg.
7. He's practicing_________. He lifts heavy objects as a sport.
8. Since his illness, he has lost a lot of______ .
9. You have a higher risk of hypertension if you are _________
10. _____ middle-aged men are more likely than others to suffer from heart disease.

44
UNIT 10 COMMON DISEASE AND AILMENTS

Scientific discoveries have virtually eliminated certain diseases as threats and greatly
diminished the severity of others. Smallpox, for example, has been eradicated in most
parts of the world by vigorous immunization campaigns. The Salk and Sabin vaccines
have reduced the threat of poliomyelitis. Drugs such as isoniazid (INH) are effective
against tuberculosis. Nonetheless, diseases and other ailments continue to interfere
with human productivity. In fact, some of the threats to health today, such as heart
disease and cancer are more prevalent than in the past.

One of the most common afflictions in modern society is heart disease. More than half
of all deaths recorded in the United States each year are the result of heart disease. The
heart is the strongest muscle in the body. For most people it functions healthily
throughout their entire lives. Yet, like any piece of complicated machinery, it can wear
out or break down.

Heart disease can appear in a variety of forms. Some can be treated successfully. Other
heart ailments are fatal, either because they are diagnosed too late or because the
damage caused is too extensive. Doctors can often predict heart problems by
measuring the rate of the heartbeat, called the pulse, and from the blood pressure.

One condition which can be treated by changing the environment is arteriosclerosis or

hardening of the arteries. With this disease, the inner walls of the arteries are gradually
thickened by layers of fatty material, narrowing the channel for the passage of blood.
Blood clots may form and block the circulation entirely. One way to decrease the
likelihood of this condition is by reducing the cholesterol content of the diet,
emphasizing vegetable oils, avoiding smoking and increasing exercise.

A patient who suffers a heart attack has what doctors call a coronary thrombosis
leading to myocardial infarction or cardiac arrest. One or more of the arteries
supplying the heart muscle with blood becomes narrowed by a blood clot. Symptoms
include pain in the chest, shortness of breath and nausea.

Another major killer in the twentieth century is cancer. Cancer is characterized by an

unrestrained growth of abnormal cells. There are three main types of cancer. A
carcinoma originates from the surface cells of the skin or the linings of the internal
organs. A sarcoma attacks the muscles, bones, tendons, cartilage, fat, blood vessels,
lymph system or connective tissue. Leukemia afflicts the blood forming cells. Some
cancers grow slowly; others spread rapidly, doubling in bulk in days. Cancers can
appear anywhere in the body but some common sites are the lungs, the breasts, the
uterine cervix, the skin, the colon, and the blood.

Cancer is fatal if it is untreated but it can often be cured in the early stages. As soon as
a tumor is discovered, exploratory surgery is undertaken and a biopsy for examination

45
of the tissue is performed. If the tumor is malignant, it may either be removed
surgically or treated with radiation or chemotherapy.

The causes of cancer remain an enigma to scientists. Some of the accompanying

conditions are known, however, including excessive cigarette smoking, overexposure
to x-rays and sunlight, and contact with certain chemicals. A virus may be responsible;
or a tendency to cancer may be inherited. Scientists are now conducting extensive
research to learn more about the disease.

Communicable diseases differ from heart disease and cancer for they are passed from
one person to another. One familiar communicable disease is tuberculosis. The
tubercle bacillus microorganisms are carried through the air on droplets coughed up by
victims from their lungs where the disease settles. Until recently there was no known
cure and most people who contracted the disease died from it.

Today the tuberculin test is administered to detect sufferers of the disease at an early
stage. An infected person will demonstrate an allergic reaction to this test. The chest x-
ray is another means of diagnosing the disease.

A disease which attacks the kidney is nephritis. The kidneys regulate the elimination
of liquid wastes, called urine, from the body. A person can function with only one
kidney but can not survive if both kidneys are destroyed. A victim of infective
nephritis suffers painful urination, backache and general weakness. If the disease
becomes severe enough to destroy the kidneys, the victim can be saved through the
transplantation of the donor’s kidney or by regular use of a renal hemodialysis
machine.
This machine substitutes for the kidneys, cleansing the body and its wastes. Although
effective, renal hemodialysis is nonetheseless a painful and time consuming ordeal,
requiring the patient to spend about twenty hours weekly in bed attached to the
machine.
Viral hepatitis (commonly called jaundice because of the yellowish tinge to the skin) is
due to a viral infection in the liver. Hepatitis can be contracted from contaminated
food, hypodermic needle, or blood transfusion. Symptoms of the disease do not
usually appear until after incubation period of several weeks. These symptoms include
the loss of appetite, fatigue, fever, and nausea in addition to the yellowish color.
Hepatitis can be treated with gamma globulin.
Diabetes is a disease in which the body no longer uses sugar properly. In a healthy
body special cells in the pancreas secret the hormones insulin and glucogin which help
to store sugar. This no longer happens when one suffers from diabetes. A victim of
diabetes thus must limit sugar and starch intake and possibly take daily injections of
insulin.
Arthritis and rheumatism are ailments of the bones and joints. They are particularly
common among the elderly. Symptoms include swelling, pain, and stiffness. There are
many different varieties of rheumatic diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis,
osteoarthritis, and gout.

46
Allergies are common, and may increase with environmental deterioration. Person
who cannot tolerate certain foreign substances may react with a rash or hives, with hay
fever or asthma, or with eczema or other manifestations. The substance acts as an
antigen which stimulates excessive antibody reaction. The reaction can usually be
weakened by medication or by desensitization injects, but the only real cure is to avoid
the allergies.
Diseases which are common on childhood include chickenpox, measles, mumps,
diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough. In the United States children are routinely
immunized against most of these. This is not true in all parts of the world, however,
and many children suffer needlessly as a result. Fortunately, these diseases are not
usually fatal.

Discussion

1. Why are smallpox and poliomyelitis no longer serious threats to mankind?

2. What disease is the greatest killer in modem society? Is it always fatal?
3. Explain what happens to a patient suffering from arteriosclerosis. How can the risk
of arteriosclerosis be reduced?
4. Name two types of cancer. Where does each originate?
5. Explain what happens to a victim of cancer. Why is cancer so feared?
6. What part of the body is affected by tuberculosis? Name two methods of detecting
sufferers of T.B.
7. Painful urination is a symptom of a disease affecting one particular organ. Which
one?
8. What disease requires daily injections of insulin?
Review
Choose the answer which is most correct to answer the question or complete the
statement

1. More than half of all deaths recorded in The United States are caused by ————
( automobile accidents, cancer, poliomyelitis, heart disease)
2. A disease which is nearly always fatal if not detected early is .......... It can often be
treated by radiation or surgery (arthritis, cancer, tuberculosis, jaundice.
3. All but one of the following is a common childhood disease. Which one is not?
(chickenpox, whooping cough, mumps, hemorrhoids.
4. Many varieties of ......... cause pain, swelling, and stiffness in the joints, particularly
among the elderly, (diabetes, hepatitis, dysentery, rheumatism)

WORD FAMILY
a. heat (n) b. heat (v) c. hot d heater
1. It’s far too ………… in here; can’t we open a window?
2. Babies can lose body ………… very quickly.
3. I’ll ………… some soup for lunch.
4. Have you switched on the water …………?
5. We had …………dog for lunch yesterday.

47
6. The milk should be about blood …………
7. Your forehead feels very …………
8. You were outside in the heat of the sun for too long. You have a ______stroke.
9. The patient has pain in his abdomen. He needs a _______ -water bottle.
10. Please wait a minute. The nurse is _______your food.
11. Water alone should never be ___________ in a microwave oven.
12. He took the dish and put it in the microwave oven__________ it up.

48
UNIT 11 SURGERY
Special terms:
Operation: Surgical treatment involving cutting into the body.
Scalpel: Knife used in surgery
Forceps: long-like instrument used in surgery for gripping tissue.
Amputate: Cut off part of the body, such as a leg.
Anesthesia: Insensibility to pain, induced by inhalation or injection of an anesthetic
drug. These drugs are usually administered by a trained anesthetist or anesthesiologist.
They produce either general or local anesthesia.
Sterile: Perfectly clean; germs free. All instruments used in an operation must be
sterilized to avoid infection.
Exploratory Surgery: Surgery in which the aim is to discover the extent of a problem.
Corrective Surgery: Surgery in which the aim is to treat the problem.
Vital signs: Indications of functions essential to life. The blood pressure, the pulse, and
the rate of respiration, and the temperature are the major vital signs.
Intravenous: Within a vein. Fluids and drugs are often given intravenously through a
catheter.
Sutures: Another name for the stitches used in sewing up the opening after an
operation
Ambulation: Walking about; moving of one's own volition. Early ambulation is
encouraged after surgery to avoid complications.
Appendectomy: Operation in which the appendix is removed. An appendectomy is
usually performed on an emergency basis following an acute appendicitis attack.
Malpractice: Improper or negligent medical treatment. A doctor guilty of malpractice
is often sued for a large sum of money. Most doctors protect themselves against such a
suit with malpractice insurance.

The most familiar and dramatic medical specialty is surgery. Nearly everyone has seen
pictures of an operating room or has known someone who has had an operation. The
words, scalpels and forceps, are familiar to most people.

People have tried to cure medical problems by cutting into the body ever since ancient
times. Surgical operations are depicted on the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs, dating
from 3000 BC. These early operations were painful and hazardous. A patient whose
leg needed to be amputated did not have the benefit of an anesthetic drug to ease the
pain. Alcohol was often used to dull the pain somewhat. And once the leg had been
removed, the patient risked infection because the use of antiseptics was unknown.

Today this has all changed. Operations are now performed under sterile conditions. A
variety of anesthetic drugs are available to reduce the pain. Great care is taken after
each operation to avoid infection. In addition, the hospital stay has been reduced to a
week or less for most operations.

During this century in particular, major advances have been made. Operations are now
performed that had not even been imagined fifty years ago. The heart can be opened

49
and repaired in open heart surgery. Clogged blood vessels can be cleaned out or
replaced. Kidneys can be transplanted from one person to another. A lung or part of
the stomach can be removed without impairing the patient's ability to lead a normal
life.

Most operations are performed by surgeons who specialize in one area of surgery. An
orthopedic surgeon, for example, repairs broken bones while a neurosurgeon handles
cases involving malfunctioning nerves. A plastic surgeon repairs and replaces limbs,
features, and organs while a thoracic surgeon operates on patients with chest and
respiratory ailments. There are also heart surgeons and brain surgeons, among others.

Most patients who receive surgical treatment have been referred to the surgeon by
their own physician. He has diagnosed a problem which he feels can be best corrected
by an operation and suggests that the patient seek the advice of a surgeon. The surgeon
may not agree with the physician, however. Surgeons themselves often disagree about
the practicality of performing an operation. Some advise surgery at the first sign of a
problem while others wait until a patient manifests severe discomfort. Frequently a
surgeon will perform exploratory surgery to learn more about the patient's problem
before undertaking actual corrective surgery.

Once the decision has been made to perform an operation, a trained anesthetist is
called in. Anesthesia, a state of insensibility, is produced by an anesthetic drug. The
drug is administered either locally to reduce feeling in the area of the operation or
generally to put the patient to sleep. These drugs cause the muscles to relax, making it
easier for the surgeon to operate, as well as rendering the patient insensitive to pain.

Although it is not usually difficult to produce anesthesia in patients, the skills of a

carefully trained anesthetist are necessary, for anesthetic drugs can be dangerous. The
anesthetist must prepare the patient with a series of preparatory drugs. He or she must
also keep careful watch of the patient's vital signs throughout the operation to assure
that they remain as close to normal as possible.
A patient about to undergo surgery is counseled not to eat or drink anything for twelve
hours prior to the operation, to make it easier for the surgeon to operate but
particularly to avoid complications with the anesthesia. A patient is often given an
enema just before the operation to empty the colon of waste material. Usually a
urinary catheter is used as well to void the bladder. The area to be operated on is
routinely shaved.
The readied patient is then wheeled into the operating room and placed on the
operating table. A blood pressure cuff is attached to one arm just above the elbow to
measure the blood pressure at regular intervals and intravenous line attached to a
catheter is inserted into the other arm. Intravenous solution given in this fashion helps
maintain the body fluids and also provide s a way to administer essential drugs during
the operation. A mask is often placed over the patient’s mouth and nose, or a tube may
be placed in the wind pipe (trachea), through which a general anesthetic and oxygen
can be given. Anesthetic drugs can also be administered directly with a hypodermic

50
needle. Donated blood of the same blood type is usually on hand from the ‘blood
bank” in case a transfusion becomes necessary.

I DISCUSSION

1. Why were early operations so unpleasant and so dangerous?

2. What scientific discoveries revolutionized the field of surgery?
3. What are some operations which have been perfected in recent years?
4. What is meant by a kidney transplant?
5. What is the difference between exploratory and corrective surgery?
6. What is meant by anesthesia?
7. How does a local anesthetic differ from a general anesthetic?
8. Who usually administers the anesthetic?
9. What are some dangers associated with anesthesia? How are these avoided?

II. Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank spaces with the appropriate
word or words
1. A ................... is a doctor who perform operations.
2. To avoid infection, operations are performed in a very clean or ..............
surroundings.
3. ........... surgery is sometimes undertaken before corrective surgery.
4. An anesthetic drug which dulls the senses in one area of the body only is
a .......................... anesthetic.
5. When a blood transfusion is given, the .................... of the two bloods must match.
6. Prior to an operation, a patient is usually given an ............... to empty the colon of
waste.
7. The anesthetist must keep careful watch of the patient's ............ throughout the
operation.
8. The surgical................. covering a wound are changed frequently after an operation.
9. A patient on the operating table usually has a ............. on one arm and a ...........on
the other dripping in an intravenous solution.
10. An.............. surgeon repairs bone injuries.
WORD FAMILY

Complete the sentences with words related to the word loss.

a. loss b. lose c loses d. losing e. lost f. loser
1. He ______ his right arm in a motorbike accident.
2. It's very easy to ______your way in the forest.
3. Paul's been very depressed since _____ his mother.
4. This old watch ______ about 2 minutes in every hour.
5. I've ______ touch with all my old school friends.
6. The real ______ if Bailey died would be his kids.
7. He suffered from a temporary ______ of memory.
8. Police are generally happy to give directions to _______tourists.

51
UNIT 12 GOING TO THE MEDICAL CENTER

Symptoms: our bodies give us signs to show us that we are sick. These signs are called
symptoms. Here are some common symptoms.
I've got a sore throat.
a pain in my chest
a headache
a toothache
a stomachache
a backache
an earache
a swollen ankle
a runny nose
blocked ears
a temperature
a rash
an itchy eye
swelling in the face

52
 skin rash
watering eyes
breathing problem

I feel dizzy
nauseous
tired
irritable
thirsty
frequent urinating

I can't breathe properly

I get chest pains after running.
I've been vomiting every morning.
getting a lot of headaches recently.
I've had diarrhea

There's something wrong with his eyes

It hurts when I cough.

Exercise

I. Sylvia has a cold. What symptoms could she have?

1. She's got a sore throat.
2. She's got a toothache
3. She's got a runny nose
4. She's got a cough.
5. She's got a rash
6. She feels nauseous
II. Peter's doctor says he has food poisoning. What could his symptoms be?
1. He's got a sore throat.
2. He's got diarrhea.
3. He feels nauseous.
4. He can't breathe properly.
5. He's got itchy skin.
6. He's got pain in his stomach.
7. He's been vomiting a lot.
An examination

Match what they want with what they say

The dentist wants you

1. to open your mouth. She says, A. just look straight ahead

2. to wash out your mouth. She says, B. You can get dressed now.
The doctor wants....

53
3. to take your blood pressure. He says, C. Now let's have a look
4. to check your pulse. He says, D. Could you give me a little sample in
this bottle.
5. to listen to your chest. He says, E. Have a rinse •
6. to check your eyes . He says, F. Would you roll up your sleeve for me?
7. to check your throat. He says, G. Hold on your hand, please
8. to check your urine. He says, H. Open your mouth- Say 'Ah'
9. you to take off most of your clothes. He says, I .Lift up your top, please
10. you to put your clothes back on. He says, J. Could you strip down to your
underwear ?
III. Read the following conversations. What are their symptoms? What is the treatment for
each case?

Conversation 1
Patient: Good morning, Doctor.
Doctor: Good morning. What can I do for you?
Patient: I've hurt my wrist.
Doctor: How did it happen?
Patient: I fell downstairs and I bent my wrist
Doctor: When was that?
Patient: Three days ago now, I think, but it hasn't got any better.
Doctor Well, let me just take a look at it, Hmm. Yes, it is rather swollen. Can you
move it?
Patient A bit. but it's very painful.
Doctor Well, I think you've only sprained it, but it could be a fracture, so we'd better
get it X-rayed. You'll have to go to the hospital for that. Take this letter with you, and you
ought to go as soon as possible.
Patient Right. Thank you. Goodbye,
Doctor Goodbye now. And don't drive there, either!
Patient No, of course not, Doctor, Thanks. Bye.

Conversation 2
Doctor Ah, Mr Scales. Do come in and sit down,
Mr Scales Thank you.
Doctor How are you? Are you still feeling very tired all the time?
Mr Scales Yes, I am.
Doctor Well, I've got your test results back now and they confirm what I thought.
Your blood pressure and your cholesterol level are very high, and well, to put
it bluntly, if you don't change your lifestyle, you're going to have a heart attack
sooner or later.
Mr Scales Oh. I see. Oh, dear. What do I have to do?
Doctor Well, there are three things that you ought to do First, stop smoking. Secondly,
you really must lose weight. Your cholesterol level is very high so you must
reduce the amount of fat that you eat. And lastly, you must take more exercise.
You mustn't do too much exercise at first, but build up gradually.
Mr Scales I see. But what sort of exercise should I do?
Doctor Walking is best. You needn't exercise every day, but you should walk about
three miles four or five times a week.

54
Mr Scales But I don't have time. I'm just so busy at work.
Doctor That's another thing. You mustn't work so hard. Look, take this information
and read it through. Then make an appointment to see our lifestyle consultant.
She will work out a full diet and exercise programmers for you. And don't
worry. That's the last thing you should do! I'll see you again next month.
Mr Scales OK. Thank you, Doctor, Goodbye for now.
Doctor Goodbye.
Conversation 3
Receptionist Julia Carson to see Doctor Bates.
Patient Hello, Doctor.
Doctor Good afternoon. Do take a seat. Now what seems to be the problem?
Patient My car hurts. My left ear.
Doctor I see. Could you Just turn your head to the side a bit? That's it
Doctor Hmm. Yes. When did you first notice it?
Patient A couple of days ago. It started Tuesday evening and it's been getting steadily
worse.
Doctor Could I just take a look at the other ear? Thank you. ... Well, you've got a bit of
an infection in your left ear. I'll give you a prescription for some medicine.
Now, you aren't allergic to penicillin, are you?
Patient No.
Doctor Fine. I'm prescribing some drops and some tablets. Put the drops Into your left
ear every six hours and take one tablet twice a day.
Patient Drops every w hours and tablets twice a day?
Doctor Yes, that‘s right. It should clear up in about three days, but don't stop taking
the medicine. Make another appointment for a week's time.
Patient I will. Thank you, Doctor. Goodbye.
Doctor Goodbye.

55
FURTHER READINGS

Understanding Gene Testing

What are genes?
Genes are working subunits of DNA. DNA is a vast chemical information database
that carries the complete set of instructions for making all the proteins a cell will
ever need. Each gene contains a particular set of instructions, usually coding for a
particular protein.

DNA exists as two long, paired strands spiraled into the famous double helix. Each
strand is made up of millions of chemical building blocks called bases. While there
are only four different chemical bases in DNA (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and
guanine), the order in which the bases occur determines the information available,
much as specific letters of the alphabet combine to form words and sentences.

DNA resides in the core, or nucleus, of each of the body's trillions of cells. Every
human cell (with the exception of mature red blood cells, which have no nucleus)
contains the same DNA. Each cell has 46 molecules of double-stranded DNA. Each
molecule is made up of 50 to 250 million bases housed in a chromosome.

The DNA in each chromosome constitutes many genes (as well as vast stretches of
noncoding DNA, the function of which is unknown). A gene is any given segment
along the DNA that encodes instructions that allow a cell to produce a specific
product - typically, a protein such as an enzyme - that initiates one specific action.
There are between 50,000 and 100,000 genes, and every gene is made up of
thousands, even hundreds of thousands, of chemical bases.

Human cells contain two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from the mother
and one from the father. (Mature sperm and egg cells carry a single set of
chromosomes.) Each set has 23 single chromosomes - 22 autosomes and an X or Y
sex chromosome. (Females inherit an X from each parent, while males get an X
from the mother and a Y from the father.)

56
For a cell to make protein, the information from a gene is copied, base by base, from DNA
into new strands of messenger RNA (mRNA). Then mRNA travels out of the nucleus into the
cytoplasm, to cell organelles called ribosomes. There, mRNA directs the assembly of amino
acids that fold into completed protein molecule.

Each human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, which can be distinguished by size and
by unique banding patterns. This set is from a male, since it contains a Y chromosome.
Females have two X chromosomes.

57
Different genes are activated in different cells, creating the specific proteins that give a
particular cell type its character.
A gene is the basic unit of heredity in a living organism. All living things depend on genes to
hold the information to build and maintain their cells and to pass on their traits to offspring. In
general terms, a gene is a segment of nucleic acid that, taken as a whole, specifies a trait. The
colloquial usage of the term gene often refers to the scientific concept of an allele.

The notion of a gene has evolved with the science of genetics, which began when Gregor
Mendel noticed that biological variations are inherited from parent organisms as specific,
discrete traits. The biological entity responsible for defining traits was termed a gene, but the
biological basis for inheritance remained unknown until DNA was identified as the genetic
material in the 1940s. All organisms have many genes corresponding to many different
biological traits, some of which are immediately visible, such as eye color or number of
limbs, and some of which are not, such as blood type or increased risk for certain diseases, or
the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

In cells, a gene is a portion of DNA that contains both "coding" sequences that determine
what the gene does, and "non-coding" sequences that determine when the gene is active
(expressed). When a gene is active, the coding and non-coding sequences are copied in a
process called transcription, producing an RNA copy of the gene's information. This piece of
RNA can then direct the synthesis of proteins via the genetic code. In other cases, the RNA is
used directly, for example as part of the ribosome. The molecules resulting from gene
expression, whether RNA or protein, are known as gene products, and are responsible for the
development and functioning of all living things.

In more technical terms, a gene is a locatable region of genomic sequence, corresponding to a

unit of inheritance, and is associated with regulatory regions, transcribed regions and/or other
functional sequence regions.[1][2] The physical development and phenotype of organisms can
be thought of as a product of genes interacting with each other and with the environment.[3] A
concise definition of a gene, taking into account complex patterns of regulation and
transcription, genic conservation and non-coding RNA genes, has been proposed by Gerstein

58
et al:[4] "A gene is a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially
overlapping functional products".

Organs in the Human Body

An organ is a structure that contains at least two different types of tissue functioning together
for a common purpose. Some organs in the human body include (alphabetical order):

 adrenal glands  kidneys  skin

 anus  larynx (voice box)  skeletal muscles
 appendix  liver  small intestine
 bladder  lungs  spinal cord
 bones  large intestine  spleen
 brain  lymph nodes  stomach
 bronchi  meninges  thymus gland
 ears  mouth  thyroid
 esophagus  nose  tongue
 eyes  pancreas  trachea
 gall bladder  parathyroid glands  ureters
 genitals  pituitary gland  urethra
 heart  rectum
 hypothalamus  salivary glands

BONE IS A LIVING TISSUE

Bone is a hard substance that forms the framework around which the body is built. This
framework, or skeleton, contains over 200 separate bones that support and give shape to
the body and protect its vital organs. Contrary to a common misconception, bone is a
living substance! In fact, bone is one of the most active tissues in the body. It is constantly
being broken down and being rebuilt in a process remodeling and, like any other living
tissue, needs nourishment to stay strong and healthy.

How Bone is Formed

To begin the process of bone formation, bone cells use proteins and other building blocks
to produce a substance know as collagen. Collagen fibers develop quickly to form an
organic mesh, or net, that calcium, phosphorus, and numerous other minerals attach to.
Over a period of days and weeks (and through a crystallization processinvolving
substitution and addition of various minerals) the mixture of different minerals attatching
to this organic net changes, producing the finished product called hydroxyapatite crystals.
These hydorxyapatite crystals are what makes bone so hard. It is easy to appreciate that
bone (pictured in the illustration on the reverse side of this sheet) is much more than just
calcium. Other cells facilitate the nourishment of bone by participating in the exchange of
nutrients between the bone and the blood. Still other bone cells help to shape, or remodel,
the bone by digesting any extra unneeded pieces.

Why Strong Bones Depend on Proper Nourishment

There are three ways that strong bones are dependent on proper nourishment:
1) To keep the bone cells healthy and active.
2) To supply the variety of important nutritional building blocks needed to form the
organic matrix of bone.

59
 3) To supply the complex of minerals that need to be placed on that organic net making up
the finished, hardened component of bone know as hydroxyapatite crystals. With proper
nourishment, a healthy life style, and favorable genetics, healthy bones can last a lifetime!

Types of Calcium Supplements: Their Advantages and Disadvantages

Types Advantages Disadvantages

Microcrystalline 1.Well Absorbed calcium None

Hydroxyapatite source.
Concentrate 2.Comprehensive bone
25% Calcium nourishment.
Provides organic constituents
and mineral components.

Calcium Citrate 1. Well absorbed Not a complete bone food.

24% calcium 2.Reduces risk of kidney
stones
3.Absorbed by those with
poor digestion

Calcium Aspartate Well Absorbed Not a complete bone food.

20%

Calcium Amino Well Absorbed 1. Not a complete bone food.

Acid Chelate 2. Often incorrectly made as a soy
10-20% calcium blend.

Calcium Ascorbate 1. Well Absorbed Not a complete bone food.

10% 2. Non-acidic vitamin C
source.f

Calcium Lactate Well Absorbed 1. Not a complete bone food.

15% 2.May contain milk and/or yeast by-
products.
3. Made from fermentation of
molasses, whey, starch, or sugar with
calcium carbonate.

Calcium Carbonate Cheapest source of calcium 1. Not a complete bone food.

40% 2. May be malabsorbed by those with
poor digestion.
3. Antacid effect, may interfere with
digestion, cause gas.

Bone Meal Contains multiple minerals 1. May contain high lead, arsenic,
39% needed for bone. cadmium, etc.
2. Organic constituents substantially
destroyed by heating processing.

60
Microcrystalline Hydroxyapatite Concentrate:
Exceptional Bone Nourishment!
Microcrystalline hydroxyapatite concentrate (MCHC) is derived from whole bone and is
available as a nutritional supplement. It provides much greater nourishment than just calcium.
MCHC contains protein and other ingredients that comprise the organic portion of bone, as
well as calcium and other minerals in the normal physiological proportions found in raw bone.
There is no doubt that calcium is essential for healthy bone formation; however, trace
minerals and organic factors are also important. Because bone is a complex, highly
mineralized tissue, a number of trace mineral deficiencies can impair bone formation and
remodeling. Trace minerals also act as cofactors for several enzymes involved in the
production of the organic portion of bone. Because MCHC is actual bone, it contains these
vital components, which are important for a healthy skeleton. It truly is comprehensive bone
nourishment

Good Mineral Absorption With MCHC

As we age, our ability calcium and other minerals may decline. The calcium in MCHC is
bioavailable and may be well absorbed.

MCHC'c Benefits
A number of benefits related to MCHC are summarized in the list below:
1. A long with regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle, may help reduce the risk of
osteoporosis.
2. Bioavailable calcium source.
3. Contains collagen protein and the intact organic portion of bone.
4. Contains minerals other than calcium that are involved in bone formation and skeletal
metabolism: phosphorus, fluoride, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, etc.

Assuring the Purity of MCHC

All MCHC products are not created equal. There are many synonyms for the word
"hydroxyapatite" that are commonly, yet erroneously, equated with "microcrystalline
hydroxyapatite concentrate." They lack the full complement of minerals, organic factors, and
the microcrystalline structure so important to the effectiveness of true MCHC. Modern
laboratory analysis can now be conducted to confirm the presence of authentic MCHC in a
nutritional supplement.

61
 BONE DISEASES
Your bones help you move, give you shape and support your body. They are living
tissues that rebuild constantly throughout your life. During childhood and your teens,
your body adds new bone faster than it removes old bone. After about age 20, you can
lose bone faster than you make bone. To have strong bones when you are young, and
to prevent bone loss when you are older, you need to get enough calcium, vitamin D
and exercise.
There are many kinds of bone problems:
 Osteoporosis makes your bones weak and more likely to break
 Osteogenesis imperfecta makes your bones brittle
 Paget's disease of bone makes them weak
 Bone disease can make bones easy to break
 Bones can also develop cancer
 Other bone diseases are caused by poor nutrition, genetic factors or problems
with the rate of bone growth or rebuilding
Calcium
You have more calcium in your body than any other mineral. Calcium has many
important jobs. The body stores more than 99 percent of its calcium in the bones and
teeth to help make and keep them strong. The rest is throughout the body in blood,
muscle and the fluid between cells. Your body needs calcium to help muscles and
blood vessels contract and expand, to secrete hormones and enzymes and to send
messages through the nervous system.
It is important to get plenty of calcium in the foods you eat. Foods rich in calcium
include diary products such as milk, cheese and yogurt, and leafy, green vegetables.
The exact amount of calcium you need depends on your age and other factors.
Growing children and teenagers need more calcium than young adults. Older women
need plenty of calcium to prevent osteoporosis. People who do not eat enough high-
calcium foods should take a calcium supplement.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis makes your bones weak and more likely to break. Anyone can develop
osteoporosis, but it is common in older women. As many as half of all women and a
quarter of men older than 50 will break a bone due to osteoporosis.
Risk factors include
 Getting older
 Being small and thin
 Having a family history of osteoporosis
 Taking certain medicines
 Being a white or Asian woman
 Having osteopenia, which is low bone mass
Osteoporosis is a silent disease. You might not know you have it until you break a
bone. A bone mineral density test is the best way to check your bone health. To keep
bones strong, eat a diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, exercise and do not smoke. If
needed, medicines can also help.

62
Paget's Disease of Bone
Also called: Osteitis deformans
Paget's disease of bone causes your bones to grow larger and weaker than normal.
They also might break easily. The disease can lead to other health problems, too, such
as arthritis and hearing loss. You can have Paget's disease in any bone, but it is most
common in the spine, pelvis, skull and legs. The disease might affect one or several
bones, but not your entire skeleton. More men than women have the disease. It is most
common in older people.
Many people do not know they have Paget's disease because their symptoms are mild.
For others, symptoms can include
 Pain
 Enlarged bones
 Broken bones
 Damaged cartilage in joints
No one knows what causes Paget's disease. In some cases, a virus might be
responsible. It tends to run in families. You can treat Paget's disease with medicine and
sometimes surgery. A good diet and exercise might also help.
Fractures
Also called: Broken bone
A fracture is a break, usually in a bone. If the broken bone punctures the skin, it is
called an open or compound fracture. Fractures commonly happen because of car
accidents, falls or sports injuries. Another cause is osteoporosis, which causes
weakening of the bones. Overuse can cause stress fractures, which are very small
cracks in the bone.
Symptoms of a fracture are
 Out-of-place or misshapen limb or joint
 Swelling, bruising or bleeding
 Intense pain
 Numbness and tingling
 Limited mobility or inability to move a limb
You need to get medical care right away for any fracture. You may need to wear a cast
or splint. Sometimes you need surgery to put in plates, pins or screws to keep the bone
in place.
CA NCER
Cancer that starts in a bone is rare. Cancer that has spread to the bone from another
part of the body is more common.
There are three types of bone cancer:
 Osteosarcoma - develops in growing bones, usually between ages 10 and 25
 Chondrosarcoma - starts in cartilage, usually after age 50
 Ewing's sarcoma - begins in nerve tissue in bone marrow of young people, often
after treatment of another condition with radiation or chemotherapy
The most common symptom of bone cancer is pain. Other symptoms may vary
depending on the location and size of the cancer. Surgery is often the main treatment

63
for bone cancer. Other treatments may include amputation, chemotherapy and
radiation.
Osteogenesis Imperfecta
Also called: Brittle bone disease, OI
Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a genetic disorder in which bones break easily.
Sometimes the bones break for no known reason. OI can also cause weak muscles,
brittle teeth, a curved spine and hearing loss. The cause is a gene defect that affects
how you make collagen, a protein that helps make bones strong. Usually you inherit
the faulty gene from a parent. Sometimes, it is due to a mutation, a random gene
change.
OI can range from mild to severe and symptoms vary from person to person. A person
may have just a few or as many as several hundred fractures in a lifetime. There is no
cure, but you can manage symptoms. Treatments include exercise, pain medicine,
physical therapy, wheelchairs, braces and surgery.

64
 WHAT IS HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE?
High blood pressure (HBP) is a serious condition that can lead to coronary heart
disease (also called coronary artery disease), heart failure, stroke, kidney failure, and
other health problems.
"Blood pressure" is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as the
heart pumps blood. If this pressure rises and stays high over time, it can damage the
body in many ways.
Overview
About 1 in 3 adults in the United States has HBP. The condition itself usually has no
symptoms. You can have it for years without knowing it. During this time, though,
HBP can damage the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, and other parts of your body.
Knowing your blood pressure numbers is important, even when you're feeling fine. If
your blood pressure is normal, you can work with your health care team to keep it that
way. If your blood pressure is too high, treatment may help prevent damage to your
body's organs.
Blood Pressure Numbers
Blood pressure is measured as systolic (sis-TOL-ik) and diastolic (di-a-STOL-ik)
pressures. "Systolic" refers to blood pressure when the heart beats while pumping
blood. "Diastolic" refers to blood pressure when the heart is at rest between beats.
You most often will see blood pressure numbers written with the systolic number
above or before the diastolic number, such as 120/80 mmHg. (The mmHg is
millimeters of mercury—the units used to measure blood pressure.)
The table below shows normal blood pressure numbers for adults. It also shows which
numbers put you at greater risk for health problems.
Categories for Blood Pressure Levels in Adults (measured in millimeters of mercury, or
mmHg)
Systolic Diastolic
Category
(top number) (bottom number)
Normal Less than 120 And Less than 80
Prehypertension 120–139 Or 80–89
High blood pressure
Stage 1 140–159 Or 90–99
Stage 2 160 or higher Or 100 or higher
The ranges in the table apply to most adults (aged 18 and older) who don't have short-
term serious illnesses.
Blood pressure doesn't stay the same all the time. It lowers as you sleep and rises when
you wake up. Blood pressure also rises when you're excited, nervous, or active. If your
numbers stay above normal most of the time, you're at risk for health problems.

65
All levels above 120/80 mmHg raise your risk, and the risk grows as blood pressure
numbers rise. "Prehypertension" means you're likely to end up with HBP, unless you
take steps to prevent it.
If you're being treated for HBP and have repeat readings in the normal range, your
blood pressure is under control. However, you still have the condition. You should see
your doctor and follow your treatment plan to keep your blood pressure under control.
Your systolic and diastolic numbers may not be in the same blood pressure category.
In this case, the more severe category is the one you're in. For example, if your systolic
number is 160 and your diastolic number is 80, you have stage 2 HBP. If your systolic
number is 120 and your diastolic number is 95, you have stage 1 HBP.
If you have diabetes or chronic kidney disease, HBP is defined as 130/80 mmHg or
higher. HBP numbers also differ for children and teens. (For more information, go to
"How Is High Blood Pressure Diagnosed?")
Outlook
Blood pressure tends to rise with age. Following a healthy lifestyle helps some people
delay or prevent this rise in blood pressure.
People who have HBP can take steps to control it and reduce their risk of related
health problems. Key steps include following a healthy lifestyle, having ongoing
medical care, and following your treatment plan.
Revised April 2011
How Is High Blood Pressure Diagnosed?
High blood pressure (HBP) is diagnosed using a blood pressure test. This test will be
done several times to make sure the results are correct. If your numbers are high, your
doctor may have you return for repeat tests to check your blood pressure over time.
If your blood pressure is 140/90 mmHg or higher over time, your doctor will likely
diagnose you with HBP. If you have diabetes or chronic kidney disease, a blood
pressure of 130/80 mmHg or higher is considered HBP.
The ranges for HBP in children are different, as discussed below.
How Is Blood Pressure Tested?
A blood pressure test is easy and painless. This test is done at a doctor's office or
clinic.
To prepare for the test:
 Don't drink coffee or smoke cigarettes for 30 minutes prior to the test. These
actions may cause a short-term rise in your blood pressure.
 Go to the bathroom before the test. Having a full bladder can change your blood
pressure reading.
 Sit for 5 minutes before the test. Movement can cause short-term rises in blood
pressure.
To measure your blood pressure, your doctor or nurse will use some type of a gauge, a
stethoscope (or electronic sensor), and a blood pressure cuff.
Most often, you will sit or lie down with the cuff around your arm as your doctor or
nurse checks your blood pressure. If he or she doesn't tell you what your blood
pressure numbers are, you should ask.
Diagnosing High Blood Pressure in Children and Teens
Doctors measure blood pressure in children and teens the same way they do in adults.
Your child should have routine blood pressure checks starting at 3 years of age.

66
Blood pressure normally rises with age and body size. Newborn babies often have very
low blood pressure numbers, while older teens have numbers similar to adults.
The ranges for normal blood pressure and HBP generally are lower for youth than for
adults. To find out whether a child has HBP, a doctor will compare the child's blood
pressure numbers to average numbers for his or her age, gender, and height.
For more information, go to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's "A Pocket
Guide to Blood Pressure Measurement in Children."
What Does a Diagnosis of High Blood Pressure Mean?
If you're diagnosed with HBP, your doctor will prescribe treatment. You'll need to
have your blood pressure tested again to see how the treatment affects it.
Once your blood pressure is under control, you'll still need treatment. "Under control"
means that your blood pressure numbers are in the normal range. You also will need
regular blood pressure tests. Your doctor can tell you how often you should be tested.
The sooner you find out about HBP and treat it, the better. Early treatment may help
you avoid problems such as heart attack, stroke, and kidney failure.

67
GLOSSARY
ability(n) khả năng bend(v) : gập lại
abnormal (adj) bất trhường biopsy (n): sinh thiết
Abrasion (n): xây xát bladder (n):bàng quang
absolutely = completely = very Bleed (v) chảy máu.
absorb (v): hấp thu block (v) gây tắc nghẽn
Accompany (v) đi kèm blood clot (n) cục máu
action(n) :hành động blood vessel (n) mạch máu
activate (v) làm hoạt động bone / bony (adj)
active (adj) năng động bone marrow (n) : tủy xương
activity(n) hoạt động brain (n) bộ não
administer (v) thực hiện breathe (v) ; breath (n): thở
affect (v) : ảnh hưởng brittle (adj) dễ gãy
afflict (v): làm ưu phiền, khổ sở broken = fractured : gãy
ailment (n) =disease= illness: bệnh tật bronchiole (n)
air sac (n) bronchus , bronchi (n) phế quản
allergic (adj) dị ứng bubonic plague (n):nạn dịch hạch
allergy (n) dị ứng campaign (n) chiến dịch
alveolus, alveoli (n): phế nang: túi cancer (n): ung thư
phổi capillary (n) mạch máu
anatomy (n) : giải phẫu carcinoma (n) ung thư biểu mô
antibiotic drug (n): kháng sinh cartilage (n)= gristle (n) sụn
aorta (n) động mạch chủ cause (v) gây ra
arise (v): xuất phát cell: tế bào
arteriosclerosis (n) xơ cứng động mạch central nerve system: Hệ thần kinh trung
as common belief: như người ta thường ương
nghĩ chamber(n): ngăn
associative= connecting: liên kết characteristic (n): tính chất
atrium, atria (n): tâm nhĩ chemically (adv) về mạt hóa học
attach (v) đính chặt chemotherapy (n) hóa trị
attention (n) sự chú ý chest (n) lồng ngực
automatic (adj) =involuntary (adj) : tự chickenpox: bệnh thủy đậu
động choke (v): sặc
available (adj) sẵn có cholera (n) bệnh tả
awareness (n) sự nhận biết chop (v) = cut
axon (n): sợi trục cilia (n) lông rung
backache (n) đau lưng circulate (v): lưu thông, tuần hoàn
ball socket joints: khớp nối hình cầu circulation (n)
be composed of = be made up of cleanse (v) làm sạch, tẩy
be lined with: đựơc lót Codeine (n):
be made up of = be composed of collarbone (n) xương đòn
be subject to : khó tránh khỏi, dễ bị

68
communicable disease (n) bệnh truyền Disorder (n) : rối loạn
nhiễm distinguish (v) : phân biệt
compared to so sánh với divide(v) phân chia
completely (adv): hoàn toàn Dizziness (n) choáng váng
complex (adj)>< simple: phức tạp , draft(n) gió lùa
đơn giản droplet (n) giọt nhỏ
conduct (v) : dẫn truyền đi duct(n) :ống dẫn
Congested (adj)\ tức ngực due to = because of: do bởi
connect (v) connective (adj) Duration (n) = period (n): thời gian
conspicuous (adj): dễ thấy Dysentery (n) : lỵ
Consult (v) tư vấn, tham khảo ý kiến effective(adj) : có hiệu quả
consume (v) : tiêu dùng, tiêu hoá eliminate (v) : xóa bỏ
Contend with (v) :đương đầu với emphasize(v) chú ý nhấn mạnh
continuation (n) sự tiếp nối encase(v)= suround (v)
contract>< relax (v) co lại, giãn ra Enduring (adj) : có tính chịu đựng, bền bỉ
contracted: bị mắc phải energy (n) năng lượng
coronary thrombosis: chứng nghẽn động enigma (adj) điều bí ẩn
mạch vành entire= whole (adj): toàn bộ
covering membrane (n) màng bao phủ environmental changes: những thay đổi môi
cranial (adj): thuộc về sọ trường
cranium (n): hộp sọ epidermis ( n) : biểu bì
criterion (n), criteria (plural form) epiphysis (n)= bone shaft: đầu
cross (v) băng qua xương, mấu trên
crush (v) : nghiền nát epithelial (adj) Epithelium (n)
cure (n) Treat (v) treatment (n): = Era ((n): kỷ nguyên
remedy Eradicate (v) :trừ tiệt
curve(v) uốn cong exchange(v) : trao đổi
cytoplasm: (n) tế bào chất excrete(v) = secrete (v)
damage (n) sự tổn thương expel (v): tống ra
damage (v) : làm hại, làm hư hỏng Expert (n) chuyên gia
decrease (v)>< increase: giảm ><tăng expiration (n)= breathing out
demonstrate (v) lộ ra, biểu hiện exploratory surgery (n) giải phẫu thăm dò
dendrite (n): sợi nhánh extension (n) : phần nối dài
deposit (v) lắng đọng factor (n): yếu tố
destroy : phá hủy fail to = do not …
detect (v) phát hiện Faint (v): ngất xỉu
determine(v) quyết định familiar (adj) : tương tự
diabetes (n) bệnh tiểu đường fasten (v) thắt chặt
diaphragm (n) cơ hoành Fasten your seat belt
diaphragmatic action: hoạt động cơ fatal (adj) định mệnh, gây chết người
hoành fatty material (n) chất béo
differentiate (v): phân biệt sự khác nhau Fear (v) = be afraid of
digest (v) : tiêu hóa Fever (n) :sốt
digestion (n), digestive (adj) fiber (n) sợi , thớ
dignose (v) chẩn đoán fist (n): nắm tay
diminish (v) làm giảm đi
fixed joint (n) khớp cố định
diphtheria: bạch hầu
flake off: bong ra, tróc ra = rubbed of

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flap of cartilage = epiglottis (n) intact (adj): nguyên vẹn, không bị tác
flexible(adj): linh động động
Flu (n): cảm cúm intake (n) lấy vào, ăn vào
fluid (n) : dịch interfere (v) can thiệp, ảnh hưỏng
fold (v) gập lại internal (adj): bên trong
food poisoning: ngộ độc thực phẩm interpret (v): phiên dịch, giải mã
For instance= for example Intestinal disorder
force, forced: bắt buộc involve (v) gồm , bao hàm
foreign material : chất lạ Irregular bone(n) xương hình thù khác
form (v): hình thành Itching (n) ngứa
function (n) chức năng joint(n) khớp nối
fundamental (adj)= basic kidney (n): thận
gap (n) khoảng trống knee (n) đầu gối
Gargle (v) súc miệng larynx= voice box (n) thanh quản
Get chilled = bị lạnh layer of skin( n): lớp da
girdle (n) đai (shoulder girdle, hip leukemia (n) bệnh bạch cầu
girdle)ư ligament (n) dây chằng
gland (n) : tuyến : likelihood (n) sự có thể
gradually (adv) : dần dần line (v) lót bề mặt
grey matter: chất xám location (n) locate (v): nơi ,chốn
grow (v) phát triển lose (v), loss(n) : mất đi
grow (v), growth (n): phát triển lubricated: nhờn, trơn
hair (n) tóc , lông lymph: bạch huyết
hard (adj) : cứng machinery (n): cỗ máy
heal (v) : liền lại, lành lại major (adj)= main
malignant (adj) ác tính
heart attack (n): cơn đau tim
Manifestation (n) sự biểu lộ
Hemorrhage (n) sự xuất huyết
Mankind (n): nhân loại
hinge joint (n) khớp bản lề
manufacture = produce
hold-held-held : giữ
Massive dose (n): liều lượng cao
horseshoe-shaped: hình móng ngựa
hot –heat (n) mature (adj), maturity (n) : trưởng thành
immortal (adj): bất tử measles : sởi
immunization (n) sự tiêm chủng Measure (v) đo lường
impulse (n): xung động medication (n) thuốc
In addition: ngoài ra membrane(n) : màng
in bulk : với số lượng lớn membranous(adj)
In respond to: để đáp ứng lại microscopic (adj)=very small
increase (v) > < decrease (v) mineral (adj) khoáng chất
Indicate = show (v): chỉ ra, chứng tỏ minimal (adj) : nhẹ, xoàng
Indigestion (n) : Sự không tiêu hóa minute (adj) very small
individual (adj) : riêng lẻ, cá nhân moisten (v) làm ẩm
infection (n ) : sự truyền nhiễm moisture (n) : độ ẩm
inherit (v) di truyền motor nerve (n) dây thần king vận động
injection (n) tiêm movable(adj)><immovable: (không)cử
injury (n), injured(adj): tổn thương động
inspiration(n)= breathing in move (v) movement (n): chuyển động
instruction (n) hướng dẫn mucus (n) nhầy

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mumps: quai bị primary (adj)= principle, main, major
muscle (n) muscular (adj) process (n) quá trình
myocardial infraction (n) nhồi máu cơ tim produce (v) sản sinh ra
nail (n) : móng tay (fingernail)chân productivity (n) sự sinh sản
(toenail) properly (adv) đúng cách
nắp sụn thanh quản protect (v) bảo vệ
Narcotic (n) Thuốc an thần provide( v): cung cấp
narrow (v) làm hẹp đi pulmonary (adj) thuộc về phổi
nasal cavity (n) hốc mũi pulse (n) nhịp tim
naturally (adv): tự nhiên pump (v) bơm
Nausea (n): buồn nôn purpose (n) mục đích
nephritis (n) bệnh viêm thận put down hard = make st strong: làm
nerve (n) nervous (adj) chắc lại
neuron (n) nơ ron thần kinh radiation (n) xạ trị
nostril (n) lỗ mũi Rash (n): nổi mẫn đỏ
nucleus (n) nhân react(v): phản ứng
occur(v) = happen receive(v) : nhận
ordeal (n): việc gian nan recognizeable (adj) dễ nhận ra
order (n)= direction: lệnh reflex (n) phản xạ
organ (n) cơ quan regulate (v) : điều chỉnh
organize (v) / organization (n) rehabilitation department: khoa phục
Originate (v) = begin hồi
osteocyte (n) tế bào xương relationship (n) mối quan hệ
outer layer : lớp bên ngoài Relieve (v)= minimize (v), soothe (v):
overexposure (ad) tiếp xúc
làm dịu, giảm đi
pancreas ( n): tụy , lá lách
reliever: thuốc giảm đau
particle of dust (n) hạt bụi
particular (adj) = riêng biệt, cụ thể>< remain (v) duy trì, giữ lại
general (adj) chung chung remarkable (adj): đặt biệt, đáng chú ý
passage (n) hành lang , lối đi removal (n)
pelvis (n) : xương chậu remove (v) loại bỏ
perception (n) sự tiếp nhận renal hemodialysis machine (n) máy chạy
perform (v): thực hiện thận
peripheral (adj): ngoại biên repair (v) sữa chữa, hàn gắn
pevic (adj) , pelvis (n): xương chậu reproduce (v): tái tạo
pharynx (n) hầu họng require (v) yêu cầu, đòi hỏi
Phlegm (n) = sputum: đờm resemble (v) giống, tương tự
pick up (v): thu nhặt resistance (n) : sự kháng cự
pivot joint (n) khớp trục respiration (n) : sự hô hấp
plate (n) đĩa respiratory (adj): thuộc về hô hấp
poliomyelitis (n) bệnh bại liệt respond to: đáp ứng, trả lời
Portion (n) = part ribcage (n): bộ khung sườn
predict (v) đoán root (n) rễ, gốc
prescription (n) đơn thuốc runny nose : chảy mũi
prevalent (adj) thưòng thấy saliva (n), salivary gland (n) nước bọt
sarcoma: xa côm , bướu thịt
prevention (n) : sự ngăn chặn , phòng
Scale :thang độ
bệnh
secrete (v): tiết ra

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Self-limited : tự hạn chế sweating: đổ mồ hôi
send order: ra lệnh symptom: triệu chứng
sensation (n) cảm giác synapse (n): khớp thần kinh
sense organ (n) cơ quan cảm giác take note of: ghi nhận
sensory nerve: dây thần kinh cảm giác take over : đảm nhận
serious, severe (adj) nặng, nghiêm trọng task (n) : nhiệm vụ
set off: gây ra taste bud (n): gai vị giác
settle (v) : cư trú temperature (n) nhiệt độ
Severe (adj) tendency (n) khuynh hướng,
Severity (n) tính nghiêm trọng tendon(n) gân
sinus (n) xoang tetanus: uốn ván
skeleton (n) khung xương Therefore= so
skull (n) : hộp sọ Thermometer (n): nhiệt kế
Smallpox (n) : bệnh đậu mùa thicken (v) bị dày lên
soft(adj) mềm mại thigh(n): xương đùi
solidly (adj) : chắc chắn thoracic (adj.) (thuộc về ) ngực
sorethoat (n) viêm họng thorough (adj) : hoàn hảo, kỹ lưỡng
Special (a): đặt biệt threat (n) mối đe dọa
specialization (n) sự chuyên hóa throat (n) họng
specialize (v) : chuyên môn hóa time consuming : tốn thời gian
spinal cord (n) tủy sống Tissue: mô
spine/ backbone= spinal column touch (v) (n): sự đụng chạm
spongy mass: khối xốp tough (n) dai, chắc
Spongy(adj), sponge (n) trachea (n) : khí quản
stage (n) giai đoạn train (v) đào tạo, huấn luyện
starch (n): tinh bột transplant (v) cấy ghép
Sternum (n)= breastbone: xương ức transplantation (n)
sticky (adj) : dính, bám transport (v) vận chuyển
stimulus, stimuli (n): kích thích trouble (n) vấn đề
stomach(n) dạ dày tube (n) ống
store (v) dự trữ tubercle bacillus (n) vi trùng lao
strain (n) filter (n) lọc tuberculosis (n) bệnh lao
String (n) stringy band : dải dây tumor (n): khối u
stroke (n) : đột quỵ ulcer (n) : loét dạ dày
stuffiness (n) sự ngạt mũi undertake (v): thực hiên, đảm nhận
subdivide(v) : phân nhỏ undesirable(adj) không mong muốn
substance(n) chất unrestrained (adj) không bị kìm chế
substitute (v) thay thế urge to cough (n) cơn ho
suck (v) (lozenges) ngậm urination (n) việc đi tiểu
suffer (v) chịu đựng, bị bệnh urine (n) nước tiểu
supply (v) sự cung cấp useless (adj) : vô dụng
support (v) : nâng đỡ uterine cervix (n) cổ tử cung
Suppress (v)ngăn chặn utilize (v) = use :
surgically : bắng phẫu thuật various (adj) đa dạng
surrounding world: thế giới xung quanh ventricle(n) tâm thất
Susceptible (adj) dễ mắc phải vertebra (n) vertebrae (pl): đốt sống
swallow(v) nuốt vibrate (v): rung

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vibration (n) vocal cord (n): dây thanh
vigorous (adj) mãnh liệt Vomit (n): nôn
virtually (adv) : thật sự wear out (v) hao mòn
vital (adj) = essential (adj) : thiết yếu whooping cough: ho gà

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