"Early Christian and Byzantine art and architecture merged innovative designs with symbolic

expressions, creating enduring legacies of faith and beauty."

3. INTRODUCTION

The Roman Empire was divided into the Eastern and Western Empires upon Constantine's death in 337.
Rome, the capital of the Western half, saw a fall while Constantinople, the ancient city of Byzantium, the
capital of the Eastern half (the Byzantine Empire) prospered.
The Roman Empire eventually fell.

What is Early Christian?

Jesus Christ's teachings and the apostolic evangelism marked the beginning of early Christianity, which
lasted from the first to the fourth century AD. Despite fierce persecution, the Jewish sect that gave rise
to it swiftly expanded throughout the Roman Empire. Its reach was extended to Gentiles by important
people such as Paul. Early Christians wrote key theological literature, such as the New Testament,
celebrated the Eucharist, and lived in community. One of the major occasions was when Emperor
Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, officially establishing Christianity. The foundation for
Christianity's ascent as a significant global religion was built during this time.

What is Byzantine? - The Christian East

The early Byzantine period (330–726)

Christian art and architecture were believed to have started in the second part of the first century CE, or
after Christ's death, until the early 1900s. Early Christian architecture spread throughout the Roman
Empire's provinces, blending seamlessly with the pre-existing pagan structures. Later on, it developed its
own forms that changed in accordance with the evolution of local styles. Emperor Constantine the Great
established Constantinople, or old Byzantium, as the new capital, which was to become a significant
hub. This city's art and architecture spread throughout the Christian East and was thereafter dubbed
Byzantine.

Timeline
Geography

- The early Christian communities were scattered throughout the Roman Empire, which
encompassed vast territories in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Significant centers of
early Christianity included:
Judea: The birthplace of Christianity, where Jesus Christ lived and taught.
Antioch: One of the first major centers of Christianity outside Judea.
Alexandria: An important hub of early Christian thought and scholarship in Egypt.
Rome: The heart of the Roman Empire, which became a central location for Christian leaders.
Constantinople: Later became a major center after Emperor Constantine’s conversion and the
establishment of Christianity as the state religion
- The Byzantine Empire once encompassed most of the region that surrounds the Mediterranean
Sea, encompassing parts of North Africa and the Middle East as well as what is now Italy,
Greece, and Turkey. It reached its greatest extent under the reign of Emperor Justinian I in the
sixth century, but internal strife and foreign invasions—such as those by the Seljuq Turks and
the Normans—led to a major decline in its size by the eleventh century.

Culture (design, architecture)

- Early Christian art originated at the time when Christianity was still a small and occasionally
persecuted faith. It wasn't until 313 that the Christian emperor Constantine the Great ordered
the official toleration of Christianity that it could reach its full potential.
- From the beginning of Christianity until roughly 260–525 AD, Christians or those under their
patronage created early Christian, or Paleochristian, art.
- Early Christians employed the same creative mediums as the local pagans. These artistic forms
included illuminated texts, sculptures, mosaics, and frescoes.
- Christian art used iconography that was shared with pagan culture but had a particular meaning
for Christians, making it inherently and purposefully confusing and covert. The walls of Christian
tombs in Rome's catacombs include the oldest examples of surviving Christian art, which dates
from the late second to early fourth century. At first, Jesus was symbolically depicted indirectly
by pictograms like the anchor, peacock, Lamb of God, or Ichthys (fish). Early Christians employed
the Late Classical style, adapting Roman patterns to give previously pagan symbols new
meanings.
- Since temple architectural principles were inappropriate, Christians adopted the basilica model
instead, which featured an apse at one end and a central nave with one aisle on each side.
- a fourth- or fifth-century Christian basilica situated behind a completely fenced courtyard
encircled by an arcade or colonnade. A row of buildings that extended along the public street
allowed entry to this forecourt from the outside.
- By 1460 or soon after, the autonomous Orthodox nations (apart from Russia) and what was left
of the empire after Constantinople fell in 1453 belonged to the Turks. However, Byzantine
painting persisted in Greece, the western Balkans, and Bulgaria because the new Muslim rulers
did not outlaw Orthodox Christian art.
 - -After AD 330, Constantinople (now Istanbul, formerly ancient Byzantium) adopted Byzantine
architecture as its architectural style. Roman temple design was a major source of inspiration for
the eclectic Byzantine architects.
-

Philosophy

The expansion and acceptance of Christianity was the most significant social phenomena of the Early
Christian era. Following Jesus' death, Christianity existed as a secret society from the first to the third
centuries. This resulted from the emperors' view that Christianity was harmful and subversive,
endangering their authority, and the common conviction that Christians posed a threat to the pagan
religion and beliefs of the past. House churches are places where Christians congregated in secret in
private homes and tombs. But throughout time, it expanded and gained widespread acceptance in
Rome and Asia Minor. Although the religion was accepted, it lacked any legal standing until 313 AD.

The catacombs are ancient underground cemeteries, used by the Christian and the Jewish communities,
above all of Rome, used these to bury their dead and to practice their religion in secret. Christians did
not want to cremate their dead (as done by the Romans) due to their belief in bodily resurrection.

What is the special of this era?

Difference between Roman art and Christine art?

Greeks, and especially Romans produced art that was very realistic. Beauty, grace, god-like perfection,
realism. Whereas, early Christian and Byzantine art was more concerned with Symbolic Representation

Difference between Christine art and Byzantine art?

However, the Byzantines held that since God was experienced with the heart rather than the eyes,
religious representations did not need to be realistic or idealized. Therefore, the realism of the early
Christian period vanished and was replaced with highly symbolic representations in Byzantine art.
4. ANALYSES

a. Hagia Sophia - “Holy Wisdom”

History Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey)

- In 360, Emperor Constantius, the son of Emperor Constantine, dedicated the church known as
Hagia Sophia, which means "Holy Wisdom" in modern Istanbul. The city's cathedra, or bishop's
seat, was Hagia Sophia. Around 430, the building known as Megale Ekklesia, or the Great
Church, was renamed Hagia Sophia. The second church, constructed and dedicated in 415 by
Emperor Theodosius II, burned down during the Nika insurrection of 532, which caused
extensive destruction and casualties throughout the city. The previous church edifice was
destroyed during riots in 404.
- Was once the largest church in the world
- Immediately after the riots, Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–65) ordered the church rebuilt. The new
building was inaugurated on December 27, 537. Architects Anthemios of Tralles and Isidoros of
Miletos most likely were influenced by the mathematical theories of Archimedes (ca. 287–212
B.C.).
- After Mehmet II’s conquest of the city in 1453, Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque
(Ayasofya Camii), which it remained until the fall of the Ottoman empire in the early twentieth
century. During this period, minarets were built around the perimeter of the building complex,
Christian mosaic icons were covered with whitewash, and exterior buttresses were added for
structural support. In 1934, the Turkish government secularized the building, converting it into a
museum, and the original mosaics were restored.

Overview:

Hagia Sophia is not simply a Christian church, it is one of the wonders of architecture. It is a monument
of insuperable beauty which stands today with its indomitable magnificence as a feat of modern
architecture.

The present church was mainly erected between 532 and 537 during the reign of Justinian. In its
architectural form, it tries to reconcile the traditions of longitudinal basilicas (pic) and central vaulted
churches (pic).The main dome which had a diameter of over 30 m was the biggest church dome until the
fifteenth century. (pic)

The Hagia Sophia was the church of both the emperor and the patriarch where the most important
religious and state ceremonies were held. The emperor had direct access to it from the palace by a
bridge crossing the street (pic), and the patriarch had his residence in a palace immediately on the south
side of the church (pic).
Architects

The names of the building’s architects—Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus—are well known,
as is their familiarity with mechanics and mathematics. They were Architects, Mathematicians, Scholars,
Engineers, Physicist, Inventor (Isidore), Writer (Anthemius) (6th century), (c447 – 558).

Isidore (pic) was born in Miletus sometime during the 6th century. He was a scholar and architect and
was the founder of an engineering school in the Byzantine Empire. He taught physics and stereometric
geometry, first in Alexandria and then in Constantinople. He compiled works of Archimedes and Euclid,
wrote important treatises of his own and was rector of the Academy of Athens. In addition, he is
credited with inventing an instrument for the measurement of hyperbolae.

Anthemius (pic) was another brilliant architect and writer who taught geometry in the University of
Constantinople. His profound knowledge on the conic sections enabled him to construct complex
architectural marvels. He had special interest on physics as proven by his researches on mirrors.
Anthemius was also an engineer who created anti flooding systems for the capital.

Both were undoubtedly genius mathematicians and possessed extraordinary engineering skills, for
which they were tasked in 531 with the construction of Hagia Sophia in the capital of the Byzantine
Empire, the holiest Greek orthodox church dedicated to God’s wisdom. Emperor Justinian entrusted
them with the creation of the Hagia Sophia and appointed them in charge of one hundred architects,
each of whom was assigned 100 workers divided into two teams, each consisting of 5000 workers. In
just 5 years, 10 months and 4 days, the church had been completed. They represented the Greek
architectural science. The shape of Hagia Sophia comes directly from the ancient Greek Stoa Basileios or
Royal Stoa, where the people used to have gatherings.

Describe

They created Hagia Sophia's large, airy naos in Constantinople for Emperor Justinian between 532 and
537, and it is an architectural marvel. The basilica has a complicated system of vaults and semi-domes,
culminating in a central dome that is 101 feet (31 meters) in diameter and 160 feet (48.5 meters) tall. It
is often referred to as the dome of heaven and is supported by four huge arches resting on tympana and
semi-domes. Despite its complexity, the project had difficulties: the first dome collapsed in 558 and was
rebuilt in 562 at a higher height (pic). Earthquakes and subsidence have also had an impact on the
building, but the basic structure remains mostly intact.

The interior was lavishly decorated with colored marbles and ornamental stone inlays, with marble
columns repurposed from ancient buildings. Initially, the upper part featured minimal gold decoration
with a large cross at the dome's summit. After the Iconoclasm period (726–843), new figural mosaics
were added, some of which survive today. Hagia Sophia’s architecture combines the basilica and
symmetrical central-plan (Greek-cross-plan) church, with a square central mass and four equal-length
arms topped by a distinctive dome. To support the dome above a square base, architects used either the
squinch or the pendentive.

The structure's soaring spaces and sumptuous decorations, including marble columns, inlaid-stone
pavements, and mosaics on the vaults, exemplify Byzantine architectural style. This style spread
throughout the Christian East and continued in use in places like Russia after Constantinople's fall in
1453. Hagia Sophia, one of the most spectacular Byzantine churches, originally had curtain walls with
windows and interiors covered with icons, which were destroyed during Iconoclasm and later covered
when converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest. Some mosaics, like the 13th-century Deesis
Mosaic, have been recently uncovered, revealing the static and consistent style of Byzantine art."

Each of these constructions embodies ideals and beliefs: immaculate proportions, industrial confidence,
and a distinct spirituality. The builders of Hagia Sophia left the world with a magical architecture, thanks
to their overall impression and attention to detail. The building's fabric rejects that it can be supported
just by its structure. Hagia Sophia's existence appears to scream out for an otherworldly explanation for
why it remains, since much of the edifice appears dematerialized, an impression that must have been
quite genuine in the eyes of the medieval devout.

The dematerialization may be noticed in as minor a detail as a column capital or in the building's main
feature, the dome. (pic)

A look at a column capital (pic)

The capital is a descendant of the Classical Ionic order, with variants of the Roman composite capital and
Byzantine innovation. Shrunken volutes emerge at the corners, and ornamental ornamentation extends
across the lower portions of the capital. The column capital serves a crucial function, transitioning from
what it supports to the round column underneath. What we see here is ornamentation that makes the
capital look light and insubstantial. The overall appearance is more like filigree work than solid stone
capable of holding great weight on the column.

The link between the two is analogous to the transition of the antique to the medieval as shown in San
Vitale's mosaics. A capital piece on the grounds of Hagia Sophia exemplifies the carving method. The
stone is deeply bored, casting shadows behind the vegetal decorations. The capital surface looks to be
thin. The capital contradicts its task rather than expressing it.

Compare to the original (pic)

Compare the Hagia Sophia capital to a Classical Greek Ionic capital, this time from the Greek Erechtheum
on the Acropolis in Athens. The capital is lavishly decorated, yet this does not detract from the capital's
ability to function. The lines between the two spirals dip, indicating the weight carried, whilst the spirals
appear to represent pent-up energy that propels the capital up to meet the entablature, indicating the
weight it contains. The capital is a functioning member, and its design conveys this in an exquisite
manner.

How is the dome of HAGIA SOPHIA supported differently?

(pic)

This new system of dome building revolutionized architecture by placing the dome above four triumphal
arches with pendentives—upside-down triangular shapes in the spaces where the arches meet. This
design allowed for a taller dome with a clerestory, a row of windows along the base, creating a well-lit
interior symbolizing divine wisdom. To achieve a transcendental environment, the dome had to be
lightweight, unlike typical vault techniques. Architects addressed this by creating pendentives on top of
piers, enabling thinner walls with numerous windows to illuminate the space. Pendentives, concave
triangular masonry pieces, provided the transition from the square base to the circular dome,
supporting it while creating the illusion of a lighter structure.
A golden dome suspended from heaven (pic)

“…the huge spherical dome [makes] the structure exceptionally beautiful. Yet it seems not to rest upon
solid masonry, but to cover the space with its golden dome suspended from Heaven.”

from “The Buildings” by Procopius, Loeb Classical Library, 1940, online at the University of Chicago
Penelope project

A look at the base of the dome helps explain the descriptions. The windows at the foot of the dome are
tightly spaced, giving the impression that the base of the dome is insubstantial and hardly touches the
building itself. The architectural planners did more than just push the windows close; they also covered
the jambs or sidewalls of the windows with gold mosaic. As light strikes the gold, it bounces about the
holes, eats away at the framework, leaving room for the imagination to envision a floating dome.

The Story

An old story about Hagia Sophia, a story that comes down in several versions, is a pointed explanation of
the miracle of the church. So goes the story: A youngster was among the craftsmen doing the
construction. Realizing a problem with continuing work, the crew left the church to seek help (some
versions say they sought help from the Imperial Palace). The youngster was left to guard the tools while
the workmen were away. A figure appeared inside the building and told the boy the solution to the
problem and told the boy to go to the workmen with the solution. Reassuring the boy that he, the
figure, would stay and guard the tools until the boy returned, the boy set off. The solution that the boy
delivered was so ingenious that the assembled problem solvers realized that the mysterious figure was
no ordinary man but a divine presence, likely an angel. The boy was sent away and was never allowed to
return to the capital. Thus the divine presence had to remain inside the great church by virtue of his
promise and presumably is still there. Any doubt about the steadfastness of Hagia Sophia could hardly
stand in the face of the fact that a divine guardian watches over the church.*

b. San Vitale in Ravenna

Justinian was also responsible for building the imperial basilica in Ravenna, considered the capital of the
Western branch of the Empire, even though Justinian never set foot there. This is the church of San
Vitale in Ravenna, built as a centrally planned octagon, and covered with mosaics and precious marbles
on the interior.

The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, is a significant sixth-century church, notable for its unique
central plan and octagonal structure. It features an ambulatory, or aisle, surrounding the central space,
and an extension with an apse on the east side. The church’s interior is adorned with magnificent
mosaics, among the finest from the early medieval period. These mosaics cover the walls and are
illuminated by numerous windows, creating a luminous and dynamic interior.

The church's structure includes massive piers and double columns that support the building while
adding a sense of delicacy. The eastern end of San Vitale is richly decorated with dense mosaics that
convey themes of eternal life in heaven. These mosaics use a variety of materials, including colored
glass, gold, silver, and mother of pearl, to create vibrant contrasts and dynamic imagery that resolve into
images from a distance.
Prominent among the mosaics are the depictions of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora, flanking
the apse. Justinian is shown wearing purple, symbolizing his imperial authority, and is surrounded by his
court, religious figures, and soldiers, representing the unity of church, state, and military. Theodora’s
panel mirrors Justinian’s, indicating her co-equal status in ruling.

The church also features innovative architectural elements, such as non-classical columns made from
high-quality marble and intricately carved capitals depicting vines and tendrils, symbolizing growth and
abundance. These are not Doric, they're not Ionic, they're not Corinthian. They are early Christians trying
to invent a new iconography for their architecture. And on top of the capitals, we see impost blocks that
help make the transition up to the arches. The use of mosaics, marble panels, and decorative columns
reflects the luxurious and dynamic space of San Vitale. This church, though distant from the empire’s
capital, underscores Ravenna’s importance and showcases the artistic and architectural ingenuity of the
early Christian period.

c. Justinian and Attendants (547 A.D)

- Found in the San Vitale Church in Ravenna, Italy, the apse behind the altar contains two of the
most interesting mosaics in the church, depicting Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora with
their attendants. These mosaics highlight the importance of the emperor in Byzantine church
rituals, symbolically placing Justinian and Theodora within a space they never physically entered.
Justinian is depicted with 12 attendants, symbolically connecting him with Jesus, including the
bishop Maximianus. The soldiers in the mosaic have the Chi-Rho on their shields, linking them
with Constantine, often considered, albeit erroneously, the first Christian emperor. Theodora, of
lower status than Justinian, is positioned further back in the picture plane with fewer
attendants, located in the atrium outside the church, as evidenced by the fountain in the image.
- The mosaics in San Vitale are iconic for their strong use of symbolism and stylized figures.
Emperor Justinian is shown with the archbishop, deacons, soldiers, and attendants, where the
bodies of the most important figures overlap those of lesser importance. The figures are stiff
and stylized, featuring full frontal viewpoints, elongated bodies, and faces with large, dark eyes
and almond shapes. The costumes are decorative, yet the clothing appears flat and linear, as if
hung on hangers rather than covering three-dimensional bodies. There is little suggestion of
space; figures overlap to show depth but are all the same height, and their hanging feet do not
appear to touch the ground. Religious figures often have halos to indicate holiness, and the
faces are generally expressionless and not exact portraits, contributing to the abstract, flat
appearance of the composition.

5. CONCLUSION

The art and architecture of the Early Christian and Byzantine periods represent a profound
transformation in both aesthetic and structural design, reflecting the evolving religious and cultural
landscape of the time. Early Christian art, emerging from the Roman tradition, focused on symbolic
representation and the development of iconography that conveyed spiritual themes and narratives. This
period saw the creation of catacomb frescoes, sarcophagi, and basilica-plan churches, which served as
both places of worship and symbols of the Christian faith.

Byzantine architecture, epitomized by structures like Hagia Sophia and San Vitale, introduced innovative
design elements such as the central-plan church, extensive use of mosaics, and complex dome
construction using pendentives and squinches. These architectural advancements allowed for grand,
light-filled interiors that symbolized the heavens and divine wisdom. Byzantine art further developed the
use of mosaics, incorporating gold, colored glass, and intricate designs to create images that were both
spiritually significant and visually stunning.

Together, Early Christian and Byzantine art and architecture laid the foundation for future developments
in Western art, influencing religious, artistic, and architectural practices for centuries. Their legacy is
seen in the enduring beauty and spiritual resonance of their creations, which continue to inspire and
captivate people around the world. These periods marked a significant shift towards a more abstract
and symbolic artistic expression, emphasizing the transcendental and eternal nature of the divine.

6. REFERENCE

https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-early-Christianity

https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/cavestocathedrals/chapter/early-christian-art

https://www.britannica.com/art/Early-Christian-art

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https://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire

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https://www.nga.gov/features/byzantine/byzantine-empire-chronology-.html

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https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haso/hd_haso.htm

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https://smarthistory.org/hagia-sophia-istanbul/

https://greatestgreeks.wordpress.com/2016/06/29/isidore-of-miletus-anthemius-of-tralles/