Spectrum Analyzer Series

APPLICATION NOTE 150-1

Spectrum Analysis
Amplitude and Frequency Modulation

November 1971
APPLICATION NOTE 1 5 0 - 1

Printed N O V E M B E R 1971

HEWLETT M PACKARD
 !
I I' ' i I' '

Page
Chapter 1. Modulation Methods 1

C h a p t e r 2. Amplitude Modulation 2

Modulation D e g r e e and Sideband Amplitude 2

Special Forms of Amplitude Modulation 6

Chapter 3. Angular Modulation 8

Definitions 8

Bandwidth of F M Signals 10

F M M e a s u r e m e n t s with the Spectrum Analyzer 13

AM plus F M (Incidental F M ) 17

Appendix 1 18
 S i n c e R F „ s i g n a l s h a v e b e e n u s e d for c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e p r o b l e m s o f m o d u ­
l a t i n g t h e c a r r i e r w i t h t h e m e s s a g e to b e t r a n s m i t t e d a r e o f b a s i c i n t e r e s t . A v a r i e t y
o f m o d u l a t i o n m e t h o d s h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o find t h e o p t i m u m p e r f o r m a n c e for a
specific requirement.
I n e a c h t y p e o f m o d u l a t i o n , s o m e property ( a m p l i t u d e , f r e q u e n c y , or p h a s e ) o f
t h e c a r r i e r w a v e is m o d u l a t e d ( v a r i e d ) i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s amplitude
of the i n f o r m a t i o n - b e a r i n g w a v e f o r m to b e transmitted. T h e usual e q u a t i o n d e s c r i b ­
ing the u n m o d u l a t e d carrier w a v e is:

e = A cos (ail •(/).!

w h e r e : e is t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s a m p l i t u d e o f t h e c a r r i e r at t i m e t;

A is t h e p e a k a m p l i t u d e o f t h e c a r r i e r .

o) is t h e a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y , / ( e . g . ,

o) = -Inf).
4> is t h e i n i t i a l p h a s e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e c a r r i e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o s o m e
arbitrary reference.

T w o b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s a v a i l a b l e for m o d u l a t i o n a r e t h e a m p l i t u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d
a n g u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c a r r i e r . A n g u l a r m o d u l a t i o n is o r d i n a r i l y subdivided
into the m o r e familiar categories o f f r e q u e n c y modulation and p h a s e modulation. I n
all t h e s e m o d u l a t i o n s y s t e m s t h e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e m o d u l a t e d p r o p e r t y o f t h e c a r r i e r
( w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v a l u e o f t h a t p r o p e r t y i n t h e u n m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r ) is m a d e p r o ­
portional to the i n s t a n t a n e o u s a m p l i t u d e o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g signal (e.g., the informa­
t i o n to b e t r a n s m i t t e d ) .

1
 C H A P T E R 2

A M P L I T U D E M O D U L A T I O N

MODULATION DEGREE AND SIDEBAND AMPLITUDE

A m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n o f a s i n e o r c o s i n e c a r r i e r r e s u l t s in a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e c a r r i e r
a m p l i t u d e in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l . I n t h e t i m e d o ­
m a i n ( i . e . , a m p l i t u d e v e r s u s t i m e ) , a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n of a s i n u s o i d a l c a r r i e r b y
a n o t h e r s i n u s o i d w o u l d a p p e a r as in F i g u r e 1A. T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n for
this c o m p l e x w a v e s h o w s that it is t h e sum o f t h r e e s i n u s o i d s o f different f r e q u e n c i e s .
O n e o f t h e s e h a s t h e s a m e f r e q u e n c y a n d a m p l i t u d e as t h e u n m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r . T h e
s e c o n d s i n u s o i d i s at a f r e q u e n c y e q u a l to t h e s u m o f t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y a n d t h e
modulation f r e q u e n c y ; t h i s c o m p o n e n t is c a l l e d t h e upper sideband. T h e third
s i n u s o i d is a t a f r e q u e n c y e q u a l t o t h e c a r r i e r f r e q u e n c y m i n u s t h e m o d u l a t i o n fre­
q u e n c y ; t h i s c o m p o n e n t is c a l l e d t h e l o w e r s i d e b a n d . T h e s e t w o s i d e b a n d c o m ­
p o n e n t s h a v e e q u a l a m p l i t u d e s ; t h e a m p l i t u d e is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a m p l i t u d e o f
the modulating signal. F i g u r e I B shows the carrier and sideband c o m p o n e n t s o f the
amplitude m o d u l a t e d w a v e o f F i g u r e 1 A as t h e y w o u l d a p p e a r i n t h e frequency
d o m a i n (i.e., a m p l i t u d e versus f r e q u e n c y ) .

A m e a s u r e o f t h e a m o u n t o f m o d u l a t i o n is m, t h e d e g r e e o f m o d u l a t i o n . U s u a l l y
t h i s is e x p r e s s e d as a p e r c e n t a g e , c a l l e d t h e p e r c e n t m o d u l a t i o n . I n t h e t i m e d o m a i n ,
d e g r e e o f m o d u l a t i o n for s i n u s o i d a l m o d u l a t i o n is c a l c u l a t e d as in F i g u r e 2 A .

m =
E,.
S i n c e t h e m o d u l a t i o n is s y m m e t r i c a l :

J
^' max & c K r ^min

and

=
2 ''

F r o m t h i s , it is e a s y to s h o w that:

m = y? — ' o r
sinusoidal modulation
AMPLITUDE (Volts)

AMPLITUDE (Volts)

LSB USB

f f f f + f
c- M o c M

Figure 1A. Time domain (oscilloscope) Figure 1B. Frequency domain ( s p e c t r u m

display of an a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t e d car­ analyzer) display of an a m p l i t u d e m o d u ­
rier. lated carrier.

2
 E
max
E = 2? E e = nj e
LSB 2 C USB 2 c

c M c ; c m

A B

Figure 2. Calculation of degree of a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n f r o m t i m e domain a n d f r e q u e n c y

domain displays.

W h e n a l l t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e m o d u l a t e d s i g n a l a r e in p h a s e , t h e y a d d t o g e t h e r
linearly, a n d form t h e m a x i m u m signal a m p l i t u d e E m a x (Figure 2):

E
max = E,. +E vsli +E B
LS

m = =
\ / E, E e

a n d , s i n c e /•.'».,. = E Lsn =E SB

m = —p—

For 1 0 0 % m o d u l a t i o n (m = 1.0), t h e a m p l i t u d e o f e a c h s i d e b a n d w i l l b e o n e -
h a l f o f t h e c a r r i e r a m p l i t u d e ( v o l t a g e ) . T h u s , e a c h s i d e b a n d w i l l b e 6 dB l e s s t h a n
t h e carrier, or one-fourth o f t h e p o w e r o f t h e carrier. S i n c e t h e c a r r i e r c o m p o n e n t
is n o t c h a n g e d w i t h a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n , t h e t o t a l p o w e r i n t h e 1 0 0 % m o d u l a t e d
w a v e is 5 0 % h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e u n m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r .
A l t h o u g h i t is e a s y t o c a l c u l a t e m o d u l a t i o n p e r c e n t a g e M ( = m • 1 0 0 % ) f r o m a
l i n e a r p r e s e n t a t i o n in f r e q u e n c y or t i m e d o m a i n , t h e l o g a r i t h m i c d i s p l a y on t h e s p e c ­
t r u m a n a l y z e r offers s o m e a d v a n t a g e s , e s p e c i a l l y at l o w m o d u l a t i o n percentages.
D u e to t h e h i g h d y n a m i c r a n g e o f u p t o 7 0 dB t h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r a l l o w s a c c u r a t e
m e a s u r e m e n t s o f m o d u l a t i o n p e r c e n t a g e M as l o w as 0 . 0 6 % . T h i s c a n e a s i l y b e s e e n
in F i g u r e 3 , w h e r e M = 2 % ; i . e . , t h e s i d e b a n d a m p l i t u d e s a r e o n l y 1 % o f t h e c a r r i e r
a m p l i t u d e . F i g u r e 3 A s h o w s a t i m e d o m a i n d i s p l a y o f an a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t e d car­
r i e r w i t h M = 2 % . I t is difficult t o m e a s u r e M o n t h i s d i s p l a y . F i g u r e 3 B s h o w s t h e
signal in f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n with t h e l o g a r i t h m i c display. T h e s i d e b a n d amplitudes
c a n e a s i l y b e m e a s u r e d i n dB b e l o w t h e c a r r i e r a n d t h e n c o n v e r t e d i n t o M . ( V e r t i c a l
10 d B / D i v . )

Figure 3. Time and f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n views of low level (2%) A M .

3
 M [%]

E E d B
S B - c ( l

Figure 4. Modulation p e r c e n t a g e M vs. Sideband level (Log Display).

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a n d the l o g a r i t h m i c display c a n b e e x p r e s s e d as:

EsBidm ~ E c((t B ) = 2 0 log ^

or

Esmum - E c l M ) + 6dB = 2 0 log m

F i g u r e 4 a l l o w s a n e a s y c o n v e r s i o n o f a l o g d i s p l a y ( l i n dB s c a l e ) i n t o m o d u l a ­
tion percentage M.
F i g u r e 5 a n d 6 s h o w t y p i c a l d i s p l a y s o f a c a r r i e r m o d u l a t e d b y a s i n e w a v e at
d i f f e r e n t m o d u l a t i o n l e v e l s in t i m e a n d f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n .
U s i n g t h e a n a l y z e r as a m a n u a l l y t u n e d r e c e i v e r ( " z e r o s c a n " ) , w e c a n r e c o v e r
the amplitude modulation o f a transmitter b y tuning the signal into the c e n t e r o f the
I F b a n d p a s s filter a n d d i s p l a y t h e d e t e c t o r o u t p u t in t i m e d o m a i n o n t h e a n a l y z e r ' s
C R T . I n t h i s o p e r a t i o n m o d e i t is i m p o r t a n t t o s e l e c t a n I F b a n d w i d t h w h i c h i s a t
least twice the highest modulation frequency of interest. Also the analyzer must b e
o p e r a t e d in l i n e a r m o d e . D u e to t h e s l o w scan s p e e d u s e d in this application, a
v a r i a b l e p e r s i s t e n c e display (storage) is v e r y helpful. F i g u r e 7 s h o w s an e x a m p l e .
E —E i
Using the formula m = m a x
, the maximum modulation degree during a
-'-'max "i ^min
t e n - s e c o n d t i m e i n t e r v a l is c a l c u l a t e d to m = 0 . 8 3 o r M = 8 3 % .
Note: F i g u r e 7 shows the variations o f the modulating signal, not the modula­
tion e n v e l o p e o f an R F carrier.
W e also can listen to the d e m o d u l a t e d signal b y c o n n e c t i n g a (high i m p e d a n c e )
set o f h e a d p h o n e s to t h e " V e r t i c a l O u t p u t . "

4
 5A 6A

'.or;
I
1 i__
•
- ' ' ', ' '

....
-40 ]

5B
Figure 5. A shows a t i m e d o m a i n photo­
graph of an a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t e d carrier.
The percent m o d u l a t i o n is: M = ( 6 - 2 ) /
(6+2) = 4 / 8 = 5 0 % . (Scope c a l i b r a t i o n 0.1
msec/division, 50 m y / d i v i s i o n . ) The same
waveform is measured in t h e f r e q u e n c y
d o m a i n in B. Since t h e carrier and side­
bands d i f f e r by 12 dB, M = 5 0 % . Fre­
q u e n c y scan is 10 /(Hz/division centered
at 6 0 MHz, and t h e log reference level is
+ 1 0 dBm. You can also measure t h e 2 n d
and 3rd harmonic distortion on this wave­
f o r m . 2nd harmonic sidebands at f ± 2 f c m
6B
Figure 6. A shows an o v e r m o d u l a t e d
(M > 100%) 3 0 MHz signal in t i m e do­
main, f,„ = 2 kHz. (0.2 m s / D i v , 5 0 mVI
Div). The carrier is c u t off at the m o d u ­
lation m i n i m a . B is the f r e q u e n c y domain
display of the signal. Note t h a t t h e first
sideband pair is only 4 dB lower t h a n the
carrier. Also t h e o c c u p i e d b a n d w i d t h is
m u c h greater because of severe distor­
tion of the m o d u l a t i n g signal. (5 kHzlD'w,
10 d e / D i v , BW 100 Hz.)

are 28 dB d o w n .

Figure 5. Figure 6.

Figure 7. Picture of a voice m o d u l a t e d

AM t r a n s m i t t e r , Zero Scan, IF b a n d w i d t h
10 kHz, Display Sweep Time 1 sec/Div,
Linear Display.

5
SPECIAL FORMS OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION

W e k n o w t h a t a c h a n g e in t h e d e g r e e o f m o d u l a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r c a r r i e r d o e s
n o t c h a n g e t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e c a r r i e r c o m p o n e n t i t s e l f . It is t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e
s i d e b a n d s t h a t is c h a n g e d , t h u s c h a n g i n g t h e a m p l i t u d e of composite wave. Since
the a m p l i t u d e o f t h e c a r r i e r c o m p o n e n t d o e s not c h a n g e , all t h e t r a n s m i t t e d informa­
tion m u s t b e c o n t a i n e d in t h e s i d e b a n d s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e rather c o n s i d e r a b l e p o w e r
t r a n s m i t t e d in t h e c a r r i e r is e s s e n t i a l l y w a s t e d . F o r i m p r o v e d p o w e r e f f i c i e n c y , t h e
carrier c o m p o n e n t may b e suppressed (usually b y the use of a b a l a n c e d modulator
circuit), so that the transmitted w a v e consists only o f the u p p e r and l o w e r sidebands.
T h i s t y p e o f m o d u l a t i o n is c a l l e d D o u b l e S i d e b a n d - S u p p r e s s e d C a r r i e r , o r D S B - S C .
T h e c a r r i e r m u s t b e r e i n s e r t e d at t h e r e c e i v e r , h o w e v e r , t o r e c o v e r t h i s t y p e of m o d u ­
l a t i o n . I n t h e t i m e a n d f r e q u e n c y d o m a i n s , D S B - S C m o d u l a t i o n a p p e a r s as in F i g u r e 8.

Single Sideband
F o r t o d a y ' s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t y p e o f a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n is
s i n g l e s i d e b a n d with s u p p r e s s e d c a r r i e r ( S S B ) . E i t h e r t h e u p p e r or l o w e r s i d e b a n d
c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d , g i v i n g e i t h e r S S B - U S B o r S S B - L S B . ( T h e S S B prefix m a y a l s o
b e o m i t t e d . ) S i n c e e a c h s i d e b a n d is d i s p l a c e d from t h e c a r r i e r b y t h e s a m e f r e q u e n c y ,
a n d t h e t w o s i d e b a n d s h a v e e q u a l a m p l i t u d e s , it f o l l o w s that a n y i n f o r m a t i o n c o n ­
t a i n e d in o n e m u s t a l s o b e in t h e o t h e r . E l i m i n a t i n g o n e o f t h e s i d e b a n d s c u t s t h e
p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s by half and also halves the transmission b a n d w i d t h (frequency
spectrum width) required t o t r a n s m i t t h e s i g n a l . T h i s is e s s e n t i a l for l o n g range
c o m m u n i c a t i o n links in the c r o w d e d short-wave b a n d s .

S S B is a l s o u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e t e l e p h o n e s y s t e m s to c o m b i n e m a n y
separate m e s s a g e s into a c o m p o s i t e signal ( b a s e b a n d ) b y f r e q u e n c y multiplexing.
B y t h i s m e t h o d , u p to s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d 4 kHz w i d e c h a n n e l s c o n t a i n i n g v o i c e , r o u t i n g
signals, and pilot carriers are c o m b i n e d . T h i s c o m p o s i t e signal can e i t h e r b e sent
d i r e c t l y v i a c o a x i a l l i n e s o r u s e d to m o d u l a t e m i c r o w a v e l i n k t r a n s m i t t e r s .

T h e S S B s i g n a l is c o m m o n l y g e n e r a t e d at a fixed f r e q u e n c y b y filtering or b y
p h a s i n g t e c h n i q u e s . T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s m i x i n g a n d a m p l i f i c a t i o n to g e t t h e desired
transmitting frequency and output power. T h e s e stages following the S S B generator
m u s t b e e x t r e m e l y l i n e a r to avoid a n y distortion o f the signal r e s u l t i n g in u n w a n t e d
in-band and out-of-band intermodulation products w h i c h can introduce severe inter­
ference in adjacent channels.

Vertical: 1 0 dB/Div. Vertical: Uncalibrated.

Horizontal: 1 MHz/Div. Horizontal: 1 0 0 ns/Div.

Figure 8. Frequency and time domain presentations of balanced modulator output. Note
suppression of carrier ( > 4 0 d B ) . (Inputs: fc = 5 0 MHz at 5 mW, fm = l MHz at 1 4 0 mV.)

6
 T h u s i n t e r m o d u l a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s h a v e b e c o m e a v i t a l r e q u i r e m e n t for d e ­
signing, manufacturing, and maintaining multi-channel communication networks.
The m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d t y p e o f m e a s u r e m e n t is t h e s o - c a l l e d " T w o T o n e T e s t " .
Two s i n e w a v e s i g n a l s i n t h e a u d i o f r e q u e n c y r a n g e ( 3 0 0 - 3 1 0 0 Hz) w i t h l o w h a r ­
m o n i c c o n t e n t a n d a f e w h u n d r e d h e r t z a p a r t a r e u s e d to m o d u l a t e t h e S S B g e n ­
erator. T h e o u t p u t o f t h e s y s t e m is t h e n e x a m i n e d for i n t e r m o d u l a t i o n products
with t h e aid o f a s e l e c t i v e r e c e i v e r . T h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r displays all i n t e r m o d u l a ­
tion products simultaneously, thus decreasing measurement and alignment time
substantially.
F i g u r e 9 s h o w s an i n t e r m o d u l a t i o n test o f an S S B transmitter.

Figure 9A. S S B generator modulated Figure 9B. S a m e signal after passing

with 2 sine wave signals of 1 8 0 0 and
2 6 0 0 Hz. The 2 0 MHz carrier (Display
Center) is suppressed 5 0 dB, lower side­
band signals and intermodulation prod­
u c t s are more than 5 0 dB down. Log ref
- 3 0 dBm. S c a n 1 kHz/D'w, 1 0 dfi/Div,
Bandwidth 3 0 Hz.
through an amplifier with 1 dB c o m p r e s ­
sion. Intermodulation products are pene­
trating into t h e suppressed sideband.
Log ref + 1 0 dBm. S c a n 1 /fHz/Div, 1 0
de/Div, Bandwidth 3 0 Hz.

7
 C H A P T E R 3

A N G U L A R M O D U L A T I O N

DEFINITIONS
The: two b a s i c kinds o f angular modulation are f r e q u e n c y modulation and phase
m o d u l a t i o n . A b a s i c e q u a t i o n a p p l i c a b l e to b o t h k i n d s o f m o d u l a t i o n i s :

At ^ A/peak
A<Ppeak = m = —7.
Jin

where:

=
A</>peak peak phase deviation of carrier (radians)

m = modulation index

=
4fi>eak peak frequency deviation of carrier (Hz)

fm = modulation frequency (Hz)

N o t e t h a t n o n e o f t h e s e t e r m s , as d e f i n e d , c o n t a i n a n y r e f e r e n c e to t h e amplitude
of the modulating signal. Definitions of the two kinds o f angular modulation relate
t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y o f t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l to e i t h e r t h e p h a s e o r
f r e q u e n c y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e carrier, as follows:

Frequency Modulation: The instantaneous f r e q u e n c y deviation of the modulated

c a r r i e r w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e u n m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r is p r o p o r t i o n a l
to the a m p l i t u d e o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g signal. ( T h e ratio o f the peak f r e q u e n c y devia­
t i o n o f t h e c a r r i e r to t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l is m, t h e m o d u l a t i o n
i n d e x . T h e m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x is e q u a l to t h e p e a k p h a s e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e c a r r i e r
in r a d i a n s . )

Phase Modulation: T h e instantaneous phase deviation o f the modulated carrier

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p h a s e o f t h e u n m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e a m p l i ­
t u d e o f the m o d u l a t i n g signal. ( T h e p e a k p h a s e d e v i a t i o n o f t h e carrier, in radi­
a n s , is t h e m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x . As in f r e q u e n c y m o d u l a t i o n , t h e m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x
is e q u a l to t h e r a t i o o f t h e p e a k f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n o f t h e c a r r i e r to t h e f r e q u e n c y
of the modulating signal.)

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e s e f o r m s o f m o d u l a t i o n a r e i n d e p e n ­
d e n t o f the m o d u l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y . In e a c h c a s e , the m o d u l a t e d property o f the carrier
is d e v i a t e d in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s a m p l i t u d e o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l ,
r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e rate at w h i c h that a m p l i t u d e m a y b e c h a n g i n g . I n a n g u l a r m o d u l a ­
t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l is i m p o r t a n t a n d a p p e a r s in
t h e e x p r e s s i o n for m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x .

C o m p a r i n g the b a s i c e q u a t i o n with the definitions o f both modulation forms, w e

c a n find t w o e s s e n t i a l f a c t s :

1. A c a r r i e r s i n e w a v e m o d u l a t e d w i t h a s i n g l e s i n e w a v e o f c o n s t a n t f r e q u e n c y a n d
amplitude will give the s a m e resultant signal properties (i.e., the s a m e spectrum
d i s p l a y ) for f r e q u e n c y a n d p h a s e m o d u l a t i o n . A d i s t i n c t i o n in t h i s c a s e c a n b e m a d e
o n l y b y a d i r e c t c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s i g n a l w i t h t h e m o d u l a t i n g w a v e as s h o w n in
F i g u r e 10.

2. P h a s e modulation can generally be converted into frequency modulation by

c h o o s i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e o f t h e m o d u l a t o r s o t h a t its o u t p u t v o l t a g e is
p r o p o r t i o n a l to ! / / , „ ( i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l ) .

8
 Modulating Wave

Phase-modulated Wave

Frequency-modulated Wave

Figure 10. Phase and f r e q u e n c y modulation of a sine wave carrier by a sine wave signal.

B e c a u s e p h a s e m o d u l a t i o n c a n b e a p p l i e d in an a m p l i f i e r s t a g e o f a t r a n s m i t t e r ,
a v e r y s t a b l e c r y s t a l - c o n t r o l l e d o s c i l l a t o r c a n b e u s e d . T h u s , " i n d i r e c t K M " is c o m ­
m o n l y u s e d in V H F a n d U H F c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t a t i o n s w h e r e h i g h s t a b i l i t y o f t h e
carrier frequencies are required.

It can also b e s e e n that the a m p l i t u d e o f t h e m o d u l a t e d signal always stays con­

stant, r e g a r d l e s s of modulation frequency and amplitude. T h e modulating signal
a d d s n o p o w e r to t h e c a r r i e r as it d o e s w i t h A M .

A m a t h e m a t i c a l t r e a t m e n t s h o w s that, in contrast to A M , an angular modulation

of a sine w a v e carrier with a single s i n e wave yields an infinite n u m b e r of sidebands
s p a c e d b y t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y , /',„. F o r a d i s t o r t i o n - f r e e d e t e c t i o n o f t h e m o d u ­
lating signal, all s i d e b a n d s m u s t b e transmitted. T h e s p e c t r a l c o m p o n e n t s ( i n c l u d i n g
t h e c a r r i e r c o m p o n e n t ) c h a n g e t h e i r a m p l i t u d e s w h e n m is v a r i e d . T h e s u m o f t h e
squares of t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s always yields a composite signal with an average p o w e r
w h i c h is c o n s t a n t a n d e q u a l to t h e a v e r a g e p o w e r o f t h e u n m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r w a v e .

T h e curves of Figure 11 show the relation (Bessel function) b e t w e e n the carrier

and sideband amplitudes of the modulated w a v e as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e modulation
i n d e x m. N o t e t h a t t h e c a r r i e r c o m p o n e n t / „ a n d t h e v a r i o u s s i d e b a n d s ] , , g o t o z e r o
a m p l i t u d e a t s p e c i f i c v a l u e s o f in.

F r o m these curves w e can get the amplitudes of the carrier and the sideband
c o m p o n e n t s in relation to t h e u n m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r . A s a n e x a m p l e , w e find for a
modulation index of m — 3 the following amplitudes:

Carrier J„ = 0 . 2 7

First order sideband ] t = 0.33

S e c o n d order sideband / 2 = 0.48

Third order sideband J = 0.33 etc.

s

9
 Carrier

s t
1 Order
Sideband

n
• 2 ^ Order Sideband m — -
AMPLITUDE

m—"
m = 3t
Figure 1 1 . Carrier a n d sideband a m p l i t u d e s f o r angle-modulatad signals.

The s i g n o f t h e v a l u e s w e g e t from t h e c u r v e s is o f n o s i g n i f i c a n c e s i n c e t h e
spectrum analyzer displays only the absolute amplitudes.

T h e e x a c t v a l u e s for t h e m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x c o r r e s p o n d i n g to e a c h o f t h e c a r r i e r
z e r o s a r e l i s t e d in T a b i c I.

Table I. Values of Modulation Index f o r W h i c h

Carrier A m p l i t u d e Is Zero

O r d e r of Carrier Z e r o Modulation Index

1 2.40
2 5.52
3 8.65
4 11.79
5 14.93
6 18.07
n (n > 6 ) I8.07 + TT(?I-6)

BANDWIDTH OF FM SIGNALS
I n p r a c t i c e t h e s p e c t r u m o f an F M s i g n a l is n o t i n f i n i t e . T h e s i d e b a n d amplitudes
become negligibly small beyond a certain frequency r a n g e from t h e c a r r i e r , d e ­
p e n d i n g on t h e m a g n i t u d e o f in. W e c a n d e t e r m i n e t h e b a n d w i d t h r e q u i r e d for a l o w
distortion transmission b y counting the n u m b e r of significant sidebands. With the
word "significant" w e usually m e a n all those s i d e b a n d s w h i c h h a v e a v o l t a g e at
l e a s t 1 p e r c e n t ( — 4 0 dB) o f t h e v o l t a g e o f t h e u n m o d u l a t e d carrier.
W e w i l l n o w i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s p e c t r a l b e h a v i o r o f a n F M s i g n a l for d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s
o f rn. I n F i g u r e 1 2 w e s e e t h e s p e c t r a o f a s i g n a l for m = 0 . 2 , 1, 5 , 1 0 . T h e s i n u s o i d a l
modulating s i g n a l h a s t h e c o n s t a n t f r e q u e n c y / „ „ so t h a t m is p r o p o r t i o n a l to its
a m p l i t u d e . I n F i g u r e 1 3 t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l is h e l d c o n s t a n t a n d ,
t h e r e f o r e , m is v a r i e d b y c h a n g i n g t h e m o d u l a t i n g frequency.

10
 f + ,
'o-'m c <c m

f 2 f f
c - m c < +2f
c m

Bandwidth

f +
c -8f m f c 'c 8f m

Bandwidth

'c - 1 « m fc +
I4l m

Bandwidth

Figure 12. A m p l i t u d e - f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m , FM signal (sinusoidal m o d u l a t i n g signal,

f.„ f i x e d , a m p l i t u d e varying), (a) m = 0.2; (b) m - 1 ; (c) m = 5; (d) m = 10.

2Af

2 Af

2 Af

2 Af

Figure 13. A m p l i t u d e - f r e q u e n c y s p e c t r u m , FM signal ( a m p l i t u d e of A f f i x e d , f m decreasing,

(a) m = 5; (fa) m - 10; (c) m = 15; (of) m - > «>.

11
 W e c a n s e e t w o i m p o r t a n t facts f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g p i c t u r e s :

1. F o r v e r y l o w m o d u l a t i o n i n d i c e s (TO l e s s t h a n 0 . 2 ) , w e g e t a c t u a l l y o n l y o n e s i g ­
n i f i c a n t p a i r o f s i d e b a n d s . T h e r e q u i r e d b a n d w i d t h i n t h i s c a s e is 2 • / „ , as w i t h A M .
2 . F o r v e r y h i g h m o d u l a t i o n i n d i c e s ( m m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 ) , t h e b a n d w i d t h e q u a l s 2- A_f k. pea

F o r v a l u e s o f TO b e t w e e n t h e s e m a r g i n s w e h a v e t o c o u n t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t s i d e b a n d s .

F i g u r e s 14 and 15 show the analyzer displays of two F M signals, one with m =

0.2, the other with m = 9 5 .

Figure 14. 50 MHz carrier m o d u l a t e d Figure 15. 50 MHz carrier m o d u l a t e d

w i t h f,„ = 10 kHz and m = 0 . 2 , 1 0 kHz/Oh, w i t h f = 1.5 kHz a n d m = 9 5 , 50 kHzlOiv,
m

10 cfB/Div, B - 1 kHz. 10 dS/Div, 6 - 100 Hz.

F i g u r e 1 6 s h o w s t h e b a n d w i d t h r e q u i r e m e n t s for a l o w d i s t o r t i o n t r a n s m i s s i o n
i n r e l a t i o n t o TO:
F o r v o i c e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a h i g h e r d e g r e e o f distortion can b e tolerated; i.e., all
s i d e b a n d s w i t h l e s s t h a n 1 0 % o f t h e c a r r i e r v o l t a g e ( — 2 0 dB) c a n b e n e g l e c t e d in
this case. W e can c a l c u l a t e the n e c e s s a r y bandwidth B with the approximation:

B = 2A/ p e a k + 2 /„,

or

B = 2f„ (1 +TO)
All t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n o n F M s i d e b a n d f r e q u e n c i e s a n d b a n d w i d t h h a s b e e n
b a s e d o n a s i n g l e s i n e w a v e as t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l . T h e e x t e n s i o n to m o r e c o m p l e x

Figure 16. B a n d w i d t h requirements vs. m o d u l a t i o n index, m.

J2
Figure 1 7 . This is t h e s p e c t r u m for an FM signal at 50 MHz. The deviation has been a d j u s t e d
for t h e f i r s t carrier null. f is 10 kHz, therefore, A f
m = 2.4 x 10 kHz = 2 4 kHz. 2 0 kHz/D'w,
peak
!
10 c/e/Div. B 1 kHz. : .

and more realistic modulating s i g n a l s is v e r y difficult. H o w e v e r , t h e s i n g l e tone

m e t h o d c a n p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n as t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s h o w s :
A n F M b r o a d c a s t s t a t i o n h a s a m a x i m u m f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n ( w h i c h is d e t e r ­
mined b y the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal) of A / p e a k = 75 kHz.
The highest modulation frequency /,„ = 15 kHz. This yields a modulation index
m = 5, and the resulting signal will have eight significant s i d e b a n d pairs. T h u s the
r e q u i r e d b a n d w i d t h c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d t o : 2 X 8 X 15 kHz = 2 4 0 kHz. F o r modulation
f r e q u e n c i e s b e l o w 15 kHz (same amplitude assumed), the modulation index increases
above 5 and the bandwidth eventually approaches 2 A f p e a k = 1 5 0 kHz for v e r y l o w
modulation frequencies.
T h u s w e can calculate the required transmission bandwidth using the highest
modulation frequency and the maximum frequency deviation Af p e a k .

T h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r is a v e r y u s e f u l t o o l for m e a s u r i n g A f p e a k , m, a n d for f a s t
and accurate adjustments o f F M t r a n s m i t t e r s . I t is a l s o f r e q u e n t l y u s e d for c a l i b r a ­
tion of frequency deviation meters.
A s i g n a l g e n e r a t o r o r t r a n s m i t t e r is a d j u s t e d t o a p r e c i s e frequency deviation with
the aid of the spectrum analyzer using one of the carrier zeros and selecting the
a p p r o p r i a t e m o d u l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y . I n F i g u r e 1 7 , a m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f 1 0 kHz
a n d a m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x o f 2,4 (first c a r r i e r n u l l ) n e c e s s i t a t e a c a r r i e r p e a k f r e q u e n c y
d e v i a t i o n o f e x a c t l y 2 4 kHz. S i n c e the modulation frequency can b e easily set ac­
curately with the aid o f a frequency c o u n t e r , a n d t h e m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x is a l s o k n o w n
a c c u r a t e l y , t h e f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n t h u s g e n e r a t e d is e q u a l l y a c c u r a t e .
T a b l e I I is a u s e f u l c h a r t t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y t o b e s e t o n
t h e c o u n t e r for c o m m o n l y u s e d v a l u e s o f d e v i a t i o n for t h e v a r i o u s o r d e r s o f c a r r i e r
zeros.
Table II. List of Modulation Frequencies to Be Used t o Set Up
Certain Convenient FM Deviations.

Order of C o m m o n l y U s e d Valued of F M Peai D e v i a t i o n

Modulation
Zero Index 7.5 kHz 10 kHz 15 kHz 25 kHz 30 kHz 50 kHz 75 kHz 100 kHz 150 kHz 250 kHz 300 kHz

1 2.40 3.12 4.16 6.25 10.42 12.50 20.83 31.25 41.67 62.50 104.17 125.00
2 5.52 1.36 1.81 2.72 4.53 5.43 9.06 13.59 18.12 27.17 45.29 54.35
3 8.65 .87 1.16 1.73 2.89 3.47 5.78 8.67 11.56 17.34 28.90 34.68
4 11.79 .66 .85 1.27 2.12 2.54 4.24 6.36 8.48 12.72 21.20 25.45
5 14.93 .50 .67 1.00 1.67 2.01 3.35 5.02 6.70 10.05 16.74 20.09
6 18.07 .42 .55 .83 1.88 1.66 2.77 4.15 5.53 8.30 13.84 16.60

13
 T h e p r o c e d u r e for s e t t i n g u p a k n o w n d e v i a t i o n is as f o l l o w s :

1. S e l e c t t h e c o l u m n w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d e v i a t i o n r e q u i r e d , s u c h a s , for e x a m p l e ,
250 kHz.
2 . S e l e c t a n o r d e r o f c a r r i e r z e r o n u m b e r w h i c h g i v e s a f r e q u e n c y in t h e t a b l e t h a t
is c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h t h e n o r m a l m o d u l a t i o n b a n d w i d t h o f t h e g e n e r a t o r to b e
t e s t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , i f an a u d i o m o d u l a t i o n c i r c u i t is p r o v i d e d in t h e 2 5 0 kHz
e x a m p l e a b o v e , it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o g o to t h e 5 t h c a r r i e r z e r o to g e t a m o d u l a t i n g
frequency within the audio passband o f the generator (16.74 kHz).

3 . S e t t h e m o d u l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y to 1 6 . 7 4 kHz. Monitor the generator output spec­

trum on t h e a n a l y z e r a n d adjust t h e a m p l i t u d e o f the a u d i o m o d u l a t i n g signal until
the carrier a m p l i t u d e has g o n e through four z e r o s a n d s t o p w h e n t h e c a r r i e r is
at its fifth m i n i m u m . W i t h t h e m o d u l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y o f 1 6 . 7 4 kHz a n d t h e s p e c t r u m
at its fifth z e r o , t h e n a u n i q u e 2 5 0 kHz d e v i a t i o n is b e i n g p r o v i d e d b y t h e s e t u p .
T h e modulation m e t e r m a y then b e calibrated. You can m a k e a q u i c k c h e c k by
m o v i n g to t h e adjacent carrier zero a n d resetting t h e m o d u l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y a n d
a m p l i t u d e ( i . e . , 1 3 . 8 4 kHz at t h e s i x t h c a r r i e r z e r o in t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e ) .

O t h e r intermediate deviations and modulation indexes are settablc using various

orders o f sideband zeros but these are influenced by incidental amplitude modula­
t i o n . S i n c e it is k n o w n t h a t a m p l i t u d e m o d u l a t i o n d o e s n o t c a u s e t h e c a r r i e r to c h a n g e
b u t i n s t e a d p u t s all t h e m o d u l a t i o n p o w e r i n t o t h e s i d e b a n d s , i n c i d e n t a l A M w i l l
n o t affect t h e c a r r i e r z e r o m e t h o d a b o v e .

If it is n o t p o s s i b l e o r d e s i r a b l e to a l t e r t h e m o d u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y t o g e t a c a r ­
r i e r o r s i d e b a n d n u l l , t h e r e a r e o t h e r w a y s t o o b t a i n u s a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t fre­
q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n a n d m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x . O n e m e t h o d is t o c a l c u l a t e m b y u s i n g t h e
a m p l i t u d e i n f o r m a t i o n o f five a d j a c e n t f r e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t s in t h e F M s i g n a l . T h e s e
five m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e u s e d in a r e c u r s i o n f o r m u l a for B e s s e l f u n c t i o n s to f o r m t h r e e
calculated values of a modulation index. Averaging yields m with practical measure­
m e n t errors taken into consideration. B e c a u s e of the n u m b e r o f calculations n e c e s ­
sary, t h i s m e t h o d is o n l y a p p l i c a b l e b y u s i n g a c o m p u t e r . A s o m e w h a t e a s i e r m e t h o d
consists of two measurements.

First, the s i d e b a n d spacing o f t h e modulated c a r r i e r is m e a s u r e d b y u s i n g a

sufficiently small I F bandwidth ( B W ) , thus getting the modulation frequency /„,.
Second, the peak frequency deviation A/ p e a k is m e a s u r e d by selection of a con­
v e n i e n t s c a n w i d t h a n d an I F b a n d w i d t h w i d e e n o u g h to c o v e r all s i g n i f i c a n t s i d e ­
bands. Modulation index m can then b e calculated easily.

Figure 18. Measurement of f m a n d Af » •

PB k

14
 Picture shows a frequency modulated
carrier. Sideband spacing is measured to
8 kHz. 1 0 fcWz/Div, 1 0 d8/Div, 6 = 3 0 0 Hz.

The peak-to-peak frequency deviation of

the s a m e signal is measured to 2 0 kHz.
10 kHzlDn, 1 0 dS/Div, 8 = 3 0 kHz.

Insufficient Bandwidth: 8 = 1 0 kHz.

Figure 19. m can be calculated to m - ~ = 1-25.

N o t e that F i g u r e I 8 B s h o w s t h e peak-to-peak d e v i a t i o n . An e x a m p l e o f this t y p e

o f m e a s u r e m e n t is s h o w n in t h e p h o t o g r a p h s , F i g u r e 1 9 , A a n d B .
A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y to m e a s u r e A / is to u s e a m o d i f i e d I F s e c t i o n o f t h e a n a l y z e r
s y s t e m w h i c h h a s a 3 MHz I F o u t p u t . T h e o u t p u t s i g n a l c a n t h u s b e f e d i n t o an e x ­
ternal frequency discriminator. F o r this application, the spectrum analyzer must
b e u s e d as a m a n u a l l y t u n e d r e c e i v e r ( z e r o s c a n ) w i t h s u f f i c i e n t b a n d w i d t h . A t y p i c a l
s e t u p is s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 0 .
T h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r c a n a l s o b e u s e d to m o n i t o r F M t r a n s m i t t e r s ; e.g., b r o a d ­
cast or c o m m u n i c a t i o n stations. H e r e t h e statistical nature oi t h e m o d u l a t i o n must
b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h u s t h e s i g n a l m u s t b e o b s e r v e d for a s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g t i m e t o i n ­
crease the probability of catching the peak frequency deviations. T h i s necessitates
a s t o r a g e d i s p l a y o r at l e a s t a c a m e r a .

15
 SPECTRUM ANALYZER DISCRIMINATOR AC VOLTMETER
RF Section HP 5210A Plus HP 3400A
HP 10531A or
Low Pass Filter HP 8052A
AMPLIFIER
HP 8447A
(HP 461 A)

HP 8552A/B
Opt H 14

Figure 2 0 . A typical setup.

F i g u r e s 21 and 2 2 show F M broadcast stations, o n e modulated with a m o n o

s i g n a l , a n d t h e o t h e r w i t h s t e r e o m u l t i p l e x . N o t e t h a t in t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e s p e c t r u m
e n v e l o p e r e s e m b l e s a n F M s i g n a l w i t h l o w m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x . T h i s is d u e to t h e fact
t h a t t h e s t e r e o m o d u l a t i o n s i g n a l c o n t a i n s a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e frequency
r a n g e o f 2 3 to 5 3 kHz, far b e y o n d t h e a u d i o f r e q u e n c y l i m i t o f 1 5 kHz. Since the
o c c u p i e d b a n d w i d t h m u s t not e x c e e d the b a n d w i d t h o f a transmitter m o d u l a t e d with
a m o n o s i g n a l , t h e m a x i m u m f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n ot t h e c a r r i e r m u s t b e k e p t s u b ­
stantially lower.

A l t h o u g h t h e H P S p e c t r u m A n a l y z e r s h a v e n o b u i l t - i n F M d i s c r i m i n a t o r s , it is
p o s s i b l e to r e c o v e r t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l w i t h s u f f i c i e n t l i n e a r i t y b y s l o p e d e t e c t i o n .
H e r e t h e a n a l y z e r is u s e d as a m a n u a l l y t u n e d r e c e i v e r ( z e r o s c a n ) w i t h s u f f i c i e n t
I F b a n d w i d t h . B u t in c o n t r a s t to A M t h e s i g n a l is n o t t u n e d i n t o t h e p a s s b a n d c e n t e r
b u t to o n e s l o p e o f t h e filter c u r v e as i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 2 3 .

At t h e s l o p e , t h e f r e q u e n c y v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e F M s i g n a l a r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o a m p l i ­
t u d e v a r i a t i o n s ( F M to A M c o n v e r s i o n ) . T h e r e s u l t a n t A M s i g n a l is t h e n detected
w i t h t h e e n v e l o p e d e t e c t o r . T h e d e t e c t o r o u t p u t c a n t h e n b e d i s p l a y e d in t i m e d o ­
m a i n a n d is a l s o a v a i l a b l e at t h e v e r t i c a l o u t p u t .

A d i s a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s m e t h o d is t h a t t h e d e t e c t o r a l s o r e s p o n d s t o a m p l i t u d e
variations of the signal.

Figure 2 1 . FM broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r Figure 2 2 . FM broadcast t r a n s m i t t e r

m o d u l a t e d w i t h a mono signal. 50 kHzl m o d u l a t e d w i t h a stereo signal. 50 kHzl
Div, 10 dS/Div, 8 - 3 kHz, scan 50 msl Div, 10 dfi/Div, B = 3 kHz, scan 50 msl
Div, approx. 50 scans. Div, approx. 50 scans.

16
 Frequency Response
of the IF Filter

AM Signal

2Af Peak
FM Signal

Figure 2 3 . Slope d e t e c t i o n of an FM signal.

AM P L U S F M (Incidental F M )

Although A M and angular modulation are different modulation m e t h o d s , t h e y

h a v e o n e p r o p e r t y in c o m m o n : t h e y a l w a y s p r o d u c e a s y m m e t r i c a l s i d e b a n d s p e c ­
trum.
In F i g u r e 2 4 w e s e e a m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r w i t h u n s y m i n e t r i c a l s i d e b a n d s . ' H i e
o n l y w a y t h a t w e c a n h a v e o n e s i d e b a n d l a r g e r t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o t h e r is for
b o t h A M a n d F M o r p h a s e m o d u l a t i o n to e x i s t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d at t h e s a m e m o d u ­
l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y . T h e r e a s o n is t h a t t h e p h a s e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n c a r r i e r a n d s i d e b a n d s
a r e d i f f e r e n t for A M a n d a n g u l a r m o d u l a t i o n (see Appendix). Since the sideband
c o m p o n e n t s o f both modulation types add t o g e t h e r g e o m e t r i c a l l y , the resultant ampli­
t u d e o f o n e s i d e b a n d is r e d u c e d . T h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e o t h e r is i n c r e a s e d r e s p e c t i v e l y .
T h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r d o c s not r e t a i n a n y p h a s e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t h u s d i s p l a y s t h e
absolute magnitude of the result.
For relatively low amounts of KM the modulation d e g r e e o f the AM c o m p o n e n t
can b e calculated with a c c e p t a b l e accuracy b y taking the average amplitude o f the
first s i d e b a n d pair. T h e a m o u n t o f i n c i d e n t a l F M c a n o n l y b e c a l c u l a t e d i f t h e p h a s e
relation b e t w e e n t h e A M a n d F M s i d e b a n d v e c t o r is k n o w n . I t is not p o s s i b l e to
measure A/ p o a k of the incidental F M using the slope detection method, because
of the simultaneously existent AM.
The b e s t w a y is to u s e t h e 3 MHz I F o u t p u t of a m o d i f i e d I K s e c t i o n ( a n a l y z e r in
" z e r o s c a n " m o d e ) , a n d to f e e d t h e o u t p u t s i g n a l i n t o a l i m i t i n g a m p l i f i e r to r e m o v e
the AM c o m p o n e n t and measure the frequency deviation with a frequency discrimina­
tor. F o r h i g h e r s e n s i t i v i t y t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e o u t p u t s i g n a l c a n b e m u l t i p l i e d , t h u s
i n c r e a s i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n b y t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n f a c t o r . H o w e v e r , for l o w
deviations the residual KM o f the a n a l y z e r itself has to b e taken into consideration.

Figure 2 4 . Pure A M or FM signals always

have equal sidebands, but when t h e two
are present together, t h e modulation
vectors usually a d d in one sideband a n d
s u b t r a c t in t h e other. Thus unequal side­
bands are an i n d i c a t i o n of simultaneous
AM a n d F M . This CW signal is a m p l i t u d e
m o d u l a t e d 8 0 % at a 10 kHz rate. The
harmonic d i s t o r t i o n and incidental FM
are clearly visible.

17
 APPENDIX I

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

A sine wave carrier can be expressed by the general equation:

e ( n = A • c o s (<a t + (j> )
r 0 (IT)

I n A M s y s t e m s o n l y A is v a r i e d . A b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l
v a r i e s s l o w l y c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e c a r r i e r . T h i s m e a n s t h a t w e c a n t a l k o f an e n v e l o p e
variation or variation o f the locus o f t h e c a r r i e r p e a k s . T h e carrier, a m p l i t u d e modu­
l a t e d w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n / ( „ , h a s t h e form ( c a r r i e r a n g l e <j)„ a r b i t r a r i l y s e t to z e r o ) :

= A [1 + M • F \ • c o s CO,.t
U ) (IN = m o d u l a t i o n d e g r e e ) (1-2)

f o r / , , , = c o s H) t ( s i n g l e s i n e w a v e ) w e g e t :
m

«„, = A (I + m • c o s (D t) • c o s m (1-3)

or

M • A . M • A
e a) = A c o s <o,.t H — c o s (co,. + a> )t H
m -— c o s (<»,. — o) )t m (1-4)

We get three steady state c o m p o n e n t s :

a) A • c o s o) l c Carrier

b ) ——— c o s (a),. + to„,)f Upper Sideband

2

c ) ——— c o s (TO,. — O>,„)t Lower Sideband

2

W e c a n r e p r e s e n t t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s b y t h r e e p h a s o r s r o t a t i n g at d i f f e r e n t a n g u l a r
v e l o c i t i e s ( F i g u r e I - 1 A ) . W e a s s u m e t h e c a r r i e r p h a s o r to b e s t a t i o n a r y to o b t a i n t h e
a n g u l a r v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e s i d e b a n d p h a s o r s in r e l a t i o n to t h e c a r r i e r p h a s o r A ( F i g u r e
I-1B).

Lower
Sideband

Figure 1-1.

18
 F i g u r e 1-2 s h o w s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e e n v e l o p e o f a n A M s i g n a l b y p h a s o r s :

Figure 1-2.

I t c a n b e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e p h a s e o f t h e v e c t o r s u m o f t h e s i d e b a n d p h a s o r s is
always c o l l i n e a r with t h e c a r r i e r c o m p o n e n t . It c a n also b e s e e n from E q . ( 1 - 3 ) a n d
F i g u r e 1-1 t h a t t h e m o d u l a t i o n d e g r e e m c a n n o t e x c e e d t h e v a l u e o f u n i t y for l i n e a r
modulation.

Definition of instantaneous frequency:

T h e u s u a l e x p r e s s i o n for a s i n e w a v e o f t h e f r e q u e n c y / , , i s :

f cW = c o s (/> = c o s (a) t + (t> )

(0 c (l (2-1)

W e d e f i n e t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s r a d i a n f r e q u e n c y w,- t o b e t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e a n g l e
as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e :

./.'((, = c o s (/.,,,

= § (2-2)
at

T h i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e u s u a l u s e o f t h e w o r d f r e q u e n c y i f 4> = (o t + 4>„. w c

I f </>(() i n E q . ( 2 - 1 ) is n o w m a d e t o v a r y i n s o m e m a n n e r w i t h a m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l
./Jo, w e c a l l t h e r e s u l t i n g f o r m o f m o d u l a t i o n a n g u l a r m o d u l a t i o n .
P h a s e and F r e q u e n c y modulation are both special cases of angular modulation.

In particular, w h e r e

4> == w t + fa+ K , • / « ,
w c - (2-3)

w e v a r y t h e p h a s e o f t h e c a r r i e r l i n e a r l y w i t h t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l . K is a c o n s t a n t
f

of the system.

• i' :
: ' • ) •):•'• : ' i • ' J.',/'.' ' i:

N o w w e l e t t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s f r e q u e n c y , as d e f i n e d i n E q . ( 2 - 2 ) , v a r y l i n e a r l y w i t h
the modulating signal,

co = (o + k
f c 2 • ./;„

Then

</>«) = J Wjdt

•= o) t+«o + K » - ' ; / d t
b w / (2-4)

19
In t h e p h a s e m o d u l a t i o n e a s e t h e p h a s e o f t h e c a r r i e r v a r i e s w i t h t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g ­
nal a n d in t h e F M c a s e t h e p h a s e o f t h e c a r r i e r v a r i e s w i t h t h e i n t e g r a l o f t h e m o d u ­
l a t i n g s i g n a l . T h e r e is t h u s n o e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p h a s e a n d f r e q u e n c y
m o d u l a t i o n . W e s h a l l u s e t h e t e r m F M g e n e r a l l y to i n c l u d e b o t h m o d u l a t i o n t y p e s .
F o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s w e a s s u m e a s i n u s o i d a l m o d u l a t i o n s i g n a l at t h e f r e q u e n c y

fa) = a • c o s o) t m

The i n s t a n t a n e o u s r a d i a n f r e q u e n c y OJ is (

co, — w,. I- Aw p e a k • c o s oj t m Ato p e a k < < w,. (2-5)

A t o p e a k is a c o n s t a n t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a m p l i t u d e a o f t h e m o d u l a t i n g s i g n a l a n d o n
the properties of the modulating system.
T h e p h a s e (/>< is t h e n g i v e n
0

J p e a k
cj) u) = \oi{dt = wt + ^ °
t s i n (o t + (/>„
m

W e c a n t a k e 4>„ as z e r o b y r e f e r r i n g to an a p p r o p r i a t e p h a s e r e f e r e n c e . T h e f r e q u e n c y
m o d u l a t e d c a r r i e r is t h e n e x p r e s s e d b y

e w = A • c o s (co .i + m • s i n o),„f)
( (2-6)

<»m in,

m is t h e m o d u l a t i o n i n d e x a n d r e p r e s e n t s t h e m a x i m u m p h a s e shift o f t h e c a r r i e r ,
A.f„eak is t h e m a x i m u m f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n o f t h e c a r r i e r .

NARROWBAND F M

T o s i m p l i f y t h e a n a l y s i s o f F M , w e first a s s u m e t h a t m < < — ( u s u a l l y m <0.2):

We have

eU) = A • c o s (o> t + m • s i n u> t)

c m

= A [ c o s (D t • c o s ( m • s i n u>,„t) — s i n u>,.t • s i n ( m • s i n oj,„i)]

c

r v
tor m<<—
2

c o s (m • s i n <o t) — 1 m and s i n (in • s i n a> t) — m • s i n oj,„r

m

thus

e i) — A ( c o s o) t — m • s i n o> t • s i n o) t)
( c m c (2-8)

Written in the s i d e b a n d form:

. m •A . m •A . . ,_,
(':,, = A c o s o) t c — c o s ( w — o) )t H c c o s (a),. + ct) )t
m m (2-y)
2 2

T h i s r e s e m b l e s t h e A M c a s e in E q . (1-4), b u t w i t h t h e difference that in n a r r o w b a n d

F M t h e p h a s e o f t h e l o w e r s i d e b a n d is r e v e r s e d . T h u s , t h e r e s u l t a n t s i d e b a n d v e c t o r
s u m is a l w a y s i n p h a s e q u a d r a t u r e w i t h t h e c a r r i e r .

20
 m-A
2 m-A . ITITA

2 2

m-A
\2

Narrowband FM AM

Figure 1-3.

T h e F M c a s e thus gives rise to p h a s e variations with very small a m p l i t u d e c h a n g e

(m<<—), while the A M case gives amplitude variations with no phase deviation.

F i g u r e 1-4 s h o w s t h e s p e c t r a o f a n A M a n d a n a r r o w b a n d F M s i g n a l . H o w e v e r ,
o n a s p e c t r u m a n a l y z e r t h e F M s i d e b a n d s a p p e a r as i n A M b e c a u s e t h e a n a l y z e r d o e s
not retain phase information.

r „ , = A cos id)..I + in s i n ui t) m m not small

= A [ c o s co t • c o s (TO • s i n a> t) — s i n (o t • s i n ( m • s i n &),„£)]

c m c

Using the Fourier series expansions:

c o s ( m • s i n w t) m =/„(TO) + 2J (m) 2 • c o s 2a> t + 2J (m)

m 4 c o s 4a> t + . . .
m (2-10)

s i n (TO • s i n co„,t) = 2 J , ( ? n ) s i n a>„,t + 2 / ( m ) s i n 3a> t + . . .

3 m (2-11)

t h
w h e r e ]„ (TO) is t h e n - o r d e r B e s s e l f u n c t i o n o f t h e first k i n d , w e g e t

=
%) Jo(in) c o s o) t — J i ( m ) [ c o s (co — a) )t — c o s (w +
c c m c co )t]
m

! JJin) | c o s (<•«,. 2o),,.)/ I- c o s (<••>,.-- 2w„,)/1

m
~]z{ ) [COS ( w c — S o i n J l — COS (to c + 3&),„)t]
1

+ (2-12)

AM Narrowband FM

Figure 1-4.

21
W e t h u s h a v e a t i m e f u n c t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f a c a r r i e r a n d an i n f i n i t e n u m b e r o f s i d e ­
b a n d s , w h o s e a m p l i t u d e s a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o , / „ ( w ) . I t c a n b e s e e n that:

a ) t h e v e c t o r s u m s o f t h e o d d o r d e r s i d e b a n d p a i r s a r e a l w a y s in q u a d r a t u r e
with the carrier c o m p o n e n t .
b ) the v e c t o r s u m s o f t h e e v e n o r d e r s i d e b a n d pairs a r c a l w a y s c o l l i n e a r with
the carrier c o m p o n e n t .

Jo

3 u )
"c- m
+ t J + 2 + 3
«c " c m "c "m "c "m

Figure 1-5. Composition of an FM wave into s i d e b a n d s .

Locus of R

Radian

For m = 1
J 0 • 0.77R
J ! - 0.44R
Radian J 2 = 0.11R
J 3 = 0.02R

Figure I-6. Phasor diagrams of an FM signal with a modulation index m = 1. Different

diagrams corresponding to different points in the cycle of t h e sinusoidal modulating
wave.

22
 HEWLETT PACKARD

PRINTED IN U.S.A.
5952-1051