REPRODUCTION

This is the process by which living organisms produce offspring (young ones of the same kind)
Different types of reproduction.
There are two types of reproduction, namely sexual and asexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
This is a type of reproduction where one parent produces one or more genetically identical
offspring by mitosis without involving the fusion of gametes.

Comparison between sexual and asexual reproduction

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Two parents are involved Single parent is involved
Male and female gametes are produced during No gamete is produced
gametogenesis
Diploid zygote is formed after fertilization No zygote formation
Meiosis is essential for gamete formation Mitosis is essential for spore formation
There is variations in offsprings Offsprings are identical to parents
It is slow in propagation It is rapid in favourable conditions
Population numbers increase slowly Population numbers increase rapidly

Advantages of asexual reproduction include:

• A mate is not required for offspring to be produced
• Large numbers of offspring can be produced in a
short time
• Desirable features of parents are passed on to the
offspring unchanged.
• It makes it possible to grow new plants of certain
species even when seeds fail.
• It can take place even in harsh environmental
conditions e.g. fungi such as Mucor switch to
asexual reproduction when environmental conditions
are harsh.
• No pollination and dispersal agents required for plants
• Examples of plants produced using asexual reproduction are sugar cane (using stem
cuttings), bananas (using suckers) and pineapples.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction include:
• Undesirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged
• Lack of genetic variation makes it difficult to adapt to a variety of habitats.
• It often leads to overcrowding and competition for resources
NB:Examples o f asexual reproduction include binary fission, multiple fission,
budding,
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS.
(i) Binary Fission
This is a type of asexual reproduction where one parent cell divides into two daughter cells.
The stages involved in binary fission are:
• The parent cell first grows bigger by increasing the amount of cytoplasm
• The DNA replicates and the nucleus undergoes mitosis, resulting in the formation of
two daughter nuclei
• The cell membrane constricts thereby dividing the cytoplasm in two so that each
nucleus is surrounded by its own cytoplasm
• The two daughter cells separate.
This type of reproduction occurs in bacteria and Amoeba.

Binary Fission in Amoeba

(ii) Budding
This is a type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell or body of an organism develops an
outgrowth called a bud which increases in size and eventually detaches from the parent to
become an independent organism. Examples of organisms that carry out budding are yeast and
hydra. A group of undetached buds is called a colony.
(iii) Budding in bacteria
Some bacteria reproduce by budding. In this process, a small bud forms at one end of the
mother cell. As growth proceeds, the size of the mother cell remains constant, but the bud
enlarges. When the bud is about the same size as the mother cell, it separates.

(iv) Fragmentation
This is a type of asexual reproduction where pieces cut from an organism develop into
independent organisms e.g. in Spirogyra, some flat worms and sponges.

SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FUNGUS.

(a)Spore formation (asexual reproduction in fungi e.g.mucor or Rhizopus)

This is a type of asexual reproduction where an organism forms spores. Spores are microscopic
round structures produced asexually in very large numbers and are capable of germinating
when conditions are favourable. They are normally produced when conditions are not
favourable for sexual reproduction and are dispersed by wind. Examples of organisms that
produce spores are the fungi Mucor and Rhizopus.
(b) Sexual reproduction in fungi e.g. Mucor
Mucor can reproduce sexually through the process of conjugation. This happens when two
separate hyphae growing alongside each other produce short branches. The branches of the two
hyphae, come into contact with each other, their tips then swell. The walls at the point of
contact dissolve and the cytoplasm and the nucleus in the swollen part are mixed. This results
in fertilization. The two swollen parts fuse to form one part called a zygospore. The zygospore
develops a tough outer wall, it then breaks off from the two hyphae. This is followed by
germination to produce new hyphae that continues to grow into a new Mucor. A zygospore is a
diploid reproductive stage in the life cycle of fungi.

or

Note: Mucor and Rhizopus carry out asexual reproduction when environmental conditions
 are harsh e.g. when the temperature is extremely low or high and when there is insufficient
moisture.
IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI AND BACTERIA.
(a)IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI
(i) Industrial use
• Fungi are used in industries in the production of alcohol through the fermentation of
sugars
• Fungi such as yeast are used in bread making
• Some fungi are used in the production of acids, for example citric
• Some fungi are used in the synthesis of enzymes like amylase and protease.
(ii)Decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling
• Fungi ,together with bacteria ,are decomposers that cause the decay of dead, organic
matter, releasing inorganic nutrients into the soil
• They enable elements such as carbon and nitrogen to be recycled
(iii)Source of food
• Some fungi such as mushrooms are a source of food. They have high protein content as
well as vitamin B
• Fungi are also widely used in the production of many foods.
(iv) Medicines
• Many fungi produce antibiotic substances which are used to control diseases.e.g.
penicillin which is an antibiotic drug is derived from a common fungus called
penicilium
(v) Biocontrol
• Fungi are useful for controlling insect or pests of crops. The spores of fungi are sprayed
on the crop pests. The fungal spores attach to the surface of the insect and infect it by
penetrating through the insect cuticle. Once inside, it grows and produces toxins that kill
the insect. After the insect has died, the fungus grows out and begins to produce spores.
The spores produced do not affect people or other animals
NOTE: Fungi cause diseases such as ringworm whose symptoms include:
• A ring of red blisters on the skin of the body, arms, legs, neck and face
• The sore may itch and burn.
Treatment / control of ringworm
• Do not share any personal items such as towels
• Use of anti fungal cream for the prescribed length of time
(b) IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA
(i) Decomposers
• Bacteria, together with fungi ,are decomposers that cause the decay of dead, organic
matter, releasing inorganic nutrients into the soil
• They enable elements such as carbon and nitrogen to be recycled
(ii)Digestion
 • Some bacteria for example E.coli that live in the digestive tract of herbivores produce an
enzyme known as cellulase, which digests cellulose to glucose
(iii) Nitrogen Fixation
• Some bacteria such as Azotobacter that live in the soil are nitrogen fixing bacteria. They
convert free nitrogen in the air into nitrates which are useful to plants
(iv) Yoghurt formation
• Bacteria are also used to produce flavours in sour milk during fermentation. Yoghurt is a
milk product obtained through bacterial fermentation of milk. Fresh milk is fermented
using lactic bacteria. The bacteria convert the lactose (milk sugar) to lactic acid which
thickens the milk. Flavours are added to give it a characteristic taste

NOTE: Harmful bacteria cause diseases such as dysentery, tetanus, gonorrhoea among others.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

This term refers to asexual reproduction in flowering plants where new plants are grown from
vegetative parts of a plant such as roots, stems and leaves, without involving
seeds. Vegetative propagation can be either natural or artificial.

(a)METHODS OF NATURAL PROPAGATION

A lot of flowering plants can naturally propagate themselves vegetatively using underground
structures called perennating organs which enable plants to survive from year to year. The
features possessed by perennating organs include buds, adventitious roots and stored food.
Each bud can grow to form a single shoot. Buds that are located at the end of the stem are
called apical buds while those located on the sides of the stems are called lateral or axillary
buds. The buds are protected by structures called scale leaves. Adventitious roots are either
present on the perennating organ or they quickly develop when conditions are favourable.
Examples of perennating organs are root tubers, stem tubers, corms, suckers, bulbs and
rhizomes.

ROOT TUBER: This is an underground root swollen with stored food . They have eye
buds which grow into new shoots. e.g. sweet potatoes and carrots.
STEM TUBER: This is an underground stem that has become swollen because of stored
food and contains eye buds that are able to grow into new shoots e.g. Irish potatoes.

CORM: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem with apical and axillary buds
that can grow into new shoots e.g. Elephant grass and Crocus sp.

BULB: T h i s i s underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g. garlic and onion
(Allium sp). The fleshy leaves contain food in them.
RHIZOME: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger. A rhizome has
adventitious roots and buds that can develop into new shoots at the nodes.

SUCKERS: These are underground lateral branches of stems having terminal buds and
adventitious roots e.g. bananas.

RUNNERS: These are horizontal stems growing above the ground and have adventitious roots
and axillary buds at the nodes. Axillary buds grow into new shoots e.g. lawn grass and
strawberry,
(b)METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Examples of artificial vegetative propagation are discussed below:

STEM CUTTINGS: These are stems cut just below the node and planted to produce new
plants. Adventitious roots develop from the node and the buds on the stem develop into shoots,
giving rise to new plants. This method is enhanced by applying rooting powder to stimulate
development of adventitious roots. Leaves are also removed from the stem to reduce the rate of
transpiration. If there is a cut end exposed to the air, it is coated with paint or another substance
to reduce water loss. Sugar cane and cassava can be propagated this way.

GRAFTING: This involves bringing together a stock and a scion coming from two closely
related plants i.e. plants of the same species or genus. The stock is the part whose aerial (upper)
parts have been cut off and it provides an already established root system that is responsible for
absorbing water and mineral salts. The scion is the aerial part that bears buds which later form the
shoot. This is the part that has the desired stem, leaves, flowers or fruits. The stock and scion are
cut with complementary shapes that fit into each other before being tied together. The method
works well if the stock and scion have identical diameters. Roses can be propagated using this
method.

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 BUDDING: This is a type of vegetative propagation where a bud is used as scion and the
bark of an entire plant used as a stock. The part of the bark of a plant with a bud is cut out
of the stem of one plant in such a way that it has some cambium and transferred onto a slit
made on the bark of the stem of another plant of the same species. The tissue of the bud joins
with the tissue of the stock. The two parts are tied together and sealed with wax, leaving the
bud exposed. The wax prevents excessive transpiration. The bud develops into a new shoot
that is different from the shoot of the stock. Examples of crop plants in which budding is
commonly used include apple, avocado, citrus fruits, peach etc
There are different methods of budding e.g. T-budding, patch budding and top budding.

LAYERING: The steps involved in layering are:

• Removing a ring of bark from a low-lying branch of plant to expose the cambium
• Covering the wounded part of the branch with moist soil to stimulate the
development of adventitious roots.
• Separating the branch from the parent plant once it has developed new roots and shoots.
Bougainvillaea and strawberry plants can be propagated using this method.

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ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
(i) Cheap
(ii) Genetic stability is maintained
(iii) Many offsprings are produced within a short time
(iv) No pollination agents are required

DISADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

(i) Undesirable features are passed on to offsprings
(ii) There is no genetic variation
(iii) Leads to overcrowding

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