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FORM

Form is one of the elements of visual art which pertains to the way that a
shape or physical configuration occupies space. For a three-dimensional work
of art like a sculpture or work of architecture, form is the shape, structure, and
arrangement of components like length, width, and depth of a shape.

The two types of forms or shapes in art: geometric forms and organic forms.
Geometric forms refer to precise, regular, angular, geometric shapes that are
mathematically consistent, including spheres, cubes, pyramids, cones, and
cylinders. Organic forms (or biomorphic forms) represent organic, irregular
shapes that often occur in the natural world, which are usually asymmetrical,
free-form, or curved.

Form in Sculpture: Three Dimensional vs. Relief

There are two ways to express form in sculpture: sculpture in the round (or
three-dimensional) and relief. Sculpture in the round is a completely three-
dimensional sculpture, usually carved from a solid block of materials like
stone, clay, or wood. Sculptures done in the round are freestanding and can
be viewed from all sides.

A relief sculpture is carved from flat material to create a scene that looks like a
three-dimensional painting. Relief sculpture can be done in either bas or low
relief, where a sculptor accentuates the details of a two-dimensional plane
with light sculpture, or in alto or high relief, where the subjects protrude from
the two-dimensional surface.

Examples of Form in Art

1. Combined frontal and profile form: The most basic way of rendering the
human figure on a two-dimensional surface is to combine profile and frontal
perspectives of the body.

2. Illusionistic form: During the Italian Renaissance period, painters created

form by using a light source to cast shadows, along with vanishing points that
showed depth.One notable example includes Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last
Supper, which conveys the illusion of three-dimensional forms occupying
deep space.

3. Abstract form: Abstraction is a way that painters play with form by using
geometric shapes to represent biomorphic ones, which occur naturally. Cubist
artist Pablo Picasso Demoiselles d’Avignon experimented with painting the
usually soft, curved female form with angular geometric shapes, underscoring
the elements of organic shapes.

4. Three-dimensional form: Some of the most famous examples of three-

dimensional sculpture are from the Renaissance and include Michelangelo’s
monumental David, and Giambologna’s dramatic sculpture of the Abduction of
a Sabine Woman.

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5. Relief form: A famous example of a relief sculpture is Lorenzo Ghiberti’s

Gates of Paradise from the fifteenth-century Italian Renaissance, which is
carved out of bronze, and inlaid on the door of the St. John Baptistery in
Florence, Italy.

Content, on the other hand, refers to a work's subject matter, i.e., its meaning.

composition means "putting together". Composition is the way in which

different elements of an artwork are combined or arranged. composition is
often used interchangeably with various terms such as design, form, visual
ordering, or formal structure, depending on the context.

The elements of design are:

Line — the visual path that enables the eye to move within the piece
Shape — areas defined by edges within the piece, whether geometric or
organic
Color — hues with their various values and intensities
Texture — surface qualities which translate into tactile illusions
Value — Shading used to emphasize form
Form — 3-D length, width, or depth
Space — the space taken up by (positive) or in between (negative) objects

PRE-HISTORIC CAVE PAINTINGS

The distant past when there was no paper or language or the written word,
and hence no books or written document, is called as the Prehistoric period.

Prehistoric Era art denotes the art (mainly rock paintings) during Paleolithic
Age, Mesolithic Age and Chalcolithic Age.

Paleolithic Age Art

The prehistoric period in the early development of human beings is commonly

known as the ‘Old Stone Age’ or ‘Palaeolithic Age’

(1) Lower Palaeolithic (2.5 million years-100,000 years ago)

(2) Middle Palaeolithic (300,000-30,000 years ago)
(3) Upper Palaeolithic (40,000-10,000 years ago)
We did not get any evidence of paintings from lower or middle paleolithic age
yet. n the Upper Palaeolithic period, we see a proliferation of artistic activities.
Subjects of early works confined to simple human figures, human activities,
geometric designs, and symbols.

Paintings found here can be divided into three categories: Man, Animal, and
Geometric symbols.

Some of the characteristics of these early paintings are:

 Human beings are represented in a stick-like form.

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 A long-snouted animal, a fox, a multi-legged lizard are main animal motifs

in the early paintings (later many animals were drawn).
 Wavy lines, rectangular filled geometric designs and a group of dots also
can be seen.
 Superimposition of paintings – earliest is Black, then red and later White.

Some of the examples of sites early rock paintings are Lakhudiyar in

Uttarakhand, Kupgallu in Telangana, Piklihal and Tekkalkotta in Karnataka,
Bhimbetka and Jogimara in Madhya Pradesh etc.

In the late historic, early historic and Neolithic period the subjects of paintings
developed and figures like Bulls, Elephants, Sambhars, Gazelles, Sheep,
Horses, styled human beings, tridents and rarely vegetal motifs began to see.

There are two major sites of excellent prehistoric paintings in India:

(1) Bhimbetka Caves, Foothills of Vindhya, Madhya Pradesh.
(2) Jogimara caves, Amarnath, Madhya Pradesh.

BHIMBETKA CAVES

 These rock shelters are located in the Raisen district in the state of
Madhya Pradesh. There are traces of the Stone Age at the site.

 The site also contains seven hills with over 750 rock shelters and caves.
There are beautiful, prehistoric cave paintings among which some are
even 10,000 years old.

 Some common themes of these cave paintings were animals, dancing

and hunting, elephant, deer, peacock, and snake. The paintings here
belong to several different periods like the early historic, the medieval
period, and the Chalcolithic age.

 The most common colors used in these paintings were red and white.

 These rock shelters consist of over 600 caves and even the ceilings of
these caves are decorated. These decorative paintings depict religious
motifs, tree gods, magical sky chariots, humans, war scenes with kings
and soldiers on horses, and people enjoying and living daily life. The
place has a well-known rock caked “Zoo Rock”.

 It has paintings of bison, deer, bear, peacock, snake, and the sun god on
it. Bhimbetka is the oldest known rock art in India. This place was named
“Bhimbetka” after Bhima, a Pandava from Mahabharata.

Jogimara Caves

Jogimara Cave, regarded as a symbol of the legacy of Chhattisgarh

This old cave is decorated with drawings of animals, birds and humans which
date back to around 300 BC.

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The cave also features an inscription written in Brahmi, which is regarded as

the first written message of love to be documented on earth.

There are no religious motifs in the paintings represented in this cave, but
natural aspects are shown.

These caves measure approximately 10x6x6 feet. On them, there are

numerous paintings of animals, people, birds and flowers. Each picture is
painted with a red outline on white plaster.

Mesolithic paintings

 The largest pre-historic paintings discovered in India belongs to this

period
 During this period the themes multiply but the paintings are smaller in size.
Hunting scenes predominate
 The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed
spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows
 In some paintings these primitive men are shown with traps and snares
probably to catch animals.
 The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments also
 In some paintings, men have been adorned with elaborate head-dresses,
and sometimes painted with head masks also
 Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros,
fish, frog, lizard, squirrel and at times birds are also depicted
 Animals were painted in their naturalistic style, while human beings were
depicted in a stylistic manner

Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamagarh in Madhya Pradesh,

SanganaKallu in Karnataka are prominent Mesolithic sites where paintings
are found

Chalcolithic painting

 The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact, and mutual
exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled
agricultural communities of the Malwa plains.
 Many a time Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings bear common motifs.
Ex: Cross-hatched squares, lattices, pottery and metal tools are also
shown.
 To be noted here is that vividness and vitality of the earlier periods
disappear from these paintings.
 The artists belonging to this period used many colours, including various
shades of white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and
black.
 They got red from haematite (known as geru in India). The green came
from a green variety of a stone called chalcedony. White might have been
made out of limestone

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 The primitive artists seem to possess an intrinsic passion for storytelling.

These pictures depict, in a dramatic way, both men and animals engaged
in the struggle for survival

INDUS VALEY PAINTINGS

Indus civilization stretching back deep into the Stone Age (25,000-30,000
years back), when "primitive" tribes painted their stories on rock faces all over
India.

The arts of Indus Valley civilisation, one of the earliest civilisations of the
world, emerged during the second half of the third millennium (Bronze Age).

The forms of art found from various sites of civilisation include sculptures,
seals, pottery, gold ornaments, terracotta figures, etc.

Two major sites of Indus Valley civilization, along the river Indus are: North –
cities of Harappa; South – Mohenjo-Daro.

Stone Statues:

Stone statues found in Indus valley sites are excellent examples of handling
the 3D volume.
Two major stone statues are:

Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King)

 Found in Mohenjo-Daro.
 Bearded man’s figure made of Steatite.
 The figure interpreted as a priest and is draped in a shawl coming under
the right arm and covering the left shoulder.
 Nose is well formed and medium size.
 Short cut moustache and a short beard and whiskers.
 Hair is parted in the middle and a plain woven fillet is passed round the
head.
 An armlet on the right hand and holes around neck suggest necklace.

Male Torso

 Found in Harappa (only major art element found in Harappa).

 Made of Red Sandstone.
 There are socket holes in the neck and shoulders for the attachment of
head and arms.
 Legs are broken.
 The shoulders are well baked and the abdomen slightly prominent.
 One of the well carved and finished work.

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Bronze Casting:

 Human as well as animal figures are present in the Bronze casting.

 Amongst animal figures the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and
sweeping horns and the goat are artistic merits.

Dancing Girl

 Found from Mohenjo-Daro.

 Made up of Bronze.
 One of the best-known artifacts from Indus valley.
 Approximately 4-inch high figure of a dancing girl.
 This exquisite casting depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in the bun and
bangles cover her left arm.
 Cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck.
 Her right hand is on her hip and her left hand is clasped in a traditional
Indian dance gesture.
 She has large eyes and flat nose.

Bull from Mohenjo-Daro

Bronze figure of the bull found in Mohenjo-Daro.

The massiveness of the bull and the fury of the charge are eloquently
expressed.
The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the right.
There is a cord around the neck.

Terracotta:
 Terracotta figures are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
 In terracotta, we find a few figurines of bearded males with coiled hairs
 A terracotta mask of a horned deity has also been found.

 Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, bird and animals, gamesmen, and
discs were also rendered in terracotta.

Mother Goddess
 Mainly found in Mohenjo-Daro.
 These figures are usually crude standing figures.
 Adorned with necklaces hanging over the prominent breast and wearing a
loin cloth and a grid.
 The fan-shaped headdress with a cup like projection on each side is a
distinct decorative feature of the mother goddess.
 The pellet eyes and beaked nose of the figure are very crude (constructed
in a rudimentary way).
 Mouth is indicated by a narrow opening.

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Seals:

 Thousands of seals were discovered from the sites, usually made of

steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta,
with beautiful figures of animals such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger,
elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc.
 The purpose was mainly commercial.
 They were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners,
perhaps as modern identity cards.
 Standard Harappan seal was 2 x 2 square inches.
 Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be
deciphered.
 Some seals were also been found in Gold and Ivory.

Seals of Pashupati Mahadeva

 Found in Mohenjo-Daro.
 The seal depicts a human figure seated cross legged.
 An elephant and a tiger are depicted to the right side of the figure, while
on the left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen.
 Two antelopes (deer) are shown below the seat (nearby his feet).
 The figure has a three horned head.

HARAPPAN ROCK ART

 Humped bull with lyre-shaped horns led by an axe-wielding man. Nearby

a man is struck down by another man with an axe.
 Depictions of bulls with decorated horns constitute a prominent feature of
Chalcolithic rock art.The humped bull obviously held a pivotal position in
religious symbolism. It is likely that the bull symbolized a deity, which is at
times expressed in a symbolic dualism between a hero and a bull.
 The ithyphallic Hero surrounded by - or confronting - animals. Satkunda,
Chalcolithic, Height of the person 25 cm.
 Deity of the 'Pashupatinath-type' with a wide out-loading horn-crown from
which emanate plant-sprouts.
 A pair of yoked humped cattle.

MINIATURE PAINTINGS

 Pala Painting is an example of Bengal painting are the twelve extant

miniatures delineated on the palm-leaves of a manuscript of the Buddhist
text, Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita, dated in the sixth regnal year of the
Pala king mahipala i (c 983 AD).

 Since they were painted in a period when the kings of the Pala dynasty
were ruling the region, they are also known as Pala-miniatures.

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 Technically, these miniatures are so well done that it is impossible to

believe that they are the earliest expression of the art in Bengal.They
represent a mature style that could only have evolved through generations.

 There is, however, a story in the Vitashokavadana section of the Buddhist

text, Divyavadana, indicating that painting was practised in Bengal as
early as the third century BC.

 The Pala period (750 A.D. to the middle of the 12th century) witnessed the
last great phase of Buddhism and of the Buddhist art in India.

 The Pala painting is characterised by sinuous line and subdued tones of

colour. It is a naturalistic style which resembles the ideal forms of
contemporary bronze and stone sculpture, and reflects some feeling of
the classical art of Ajanta.

 The Buddhist monasteries (mahaviharas) of Nalanda,

Odantapuri,Vikramsila and Somarupa were great centres of Buddhist
learning and art. A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to
the Buddhist themes were written and illustrated with the images of
Buddhist deities at these centres which also had workshops for the
casting of bronze images.

 A fine example of the typical Buddhist palm-leaf manuscript illustrated in

the Pala style exists in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, England.

 The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist
monasteries at the hands of Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th
century. Some of the monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal, which
helped in reinforcing the existing art traditions there.

MUGAL MINIATURE

 The Mughal dynasty ruled over large parts of India for almost two
centuries. They were huge patrons of art and architecture in India.

 The second Mughal emperor Humayun got with him two artists from
Persia – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad. During the first two Mughal
emperors the floral and faunal study was the topic of Mughal miniature
paintings.

 During the reign of Akbar, he developed a tasvirkhana and got many

artists trained. He got translated many local folk and mythological stories
into Persian-style paintings. For example, the Mahabharata was
translated into Persian and it was known as the Razmnama. The paintings
during this period were inclined towards naturalism and realism.

 The golden period came during the reign of Jahangir. He developed

distinctive styles of painting such as allegorical paintings and portraiture.

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The brushwork during this period became finer and more detailed.
According to various chroniclers, Jahangir could identify the artist from the
stroke of his brush.

Characteristics

 As the name suggests, Mughal miniatures were smaller in size, yet minute,
intricate and detailed.

 These miniature paintings were part of a larger group of manuscripts. The

art of manuscript writing included calligraphers, painters, gilders, and
binders.

 The paintings were a result of years of amalgamation of various

indigenous themes and styles with Persian and later European themes
and styles. At its peak, it was a balanced blend of indigenous Indian,
Islamic and European arts.

 There is a use of water-based opaque colors on handmade paper in all

the Mughal miniature paintings.

 The color pallete was bright and brilliant. The colours were obtained from
natural sources such as vermillion from cinnabar, ultramarine from lapis
lazuli, yellow from orpiment, white from shells, and black from charcoal.
Pure gold and silver powder were used for the paintings.

RAJASTANI MINIATURE PAINTINGS

Rajasthan is one of the pioneers of miniature paintings in India. This Indian

folk art form evolved here in Marwar-Mewar region as textual illustrations to
the Jain text Kalpa-Sutras around the early 15th century.

 This first Indian folk art style began to take form in the Bhagava paintings
of Palam (carried out around 1555) and has been widely used in the art
styles of Rajasthan.

 Rajasthani Miniature Painting style incorporates indigenous art forms as

well as Western influences.

 Rajasthani school of painting was first seen during the end of the 16th
century for Mewar. Many various painting styles developed in Rajasthan
over time, though the most famous ones are Kota, Bundi, Bikaner,
Kishangarh and Mewar.

 Rajasthani Miniature art was influenced by the Mughal style but it had its
own personality and perspective. This part of the difference came from
Rajasthani artists’ more lyrical approach, as well as their pleasure from
pure lines and colors.

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 Rajasthani Miniature Painting mainly used primary colors (such as red,

blue, and yellow) along with green, brown, and white. Gold and silver
were also used in some paintings.

 Two main factors contributed to the development of Rajasthani paintings:

first, the patronage of rich Rajputana communities and second, the revival
of Vaishnavism and the growth of bhakti cults.

 There were a variety of themes in Rajasthani Miniature Paintings,

including seasons (Bhahmasa), Ragamala (Rag-Raginis) music, hunting,
religious themes from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and love scenes
of Radha and Krishna.

PAHARI

 Pahari denotes ‘hilly or mountainous’ in origin.

 Emerged as centres of painting from seventeenth to nineteenth century
 The central theme of Pahari painting is depiction of eternal love of Hindu
deities Radha and Krishna.
 A distinct lyricism, spontaneous rhythm, softness, minute intricate details
of composition, and intense perception and portrayal of human emotions
and physical features distinguish the Pahari miniatures from the other
miniature schools like Deccan, Mughal and Rajasthani-Rajput.

DECCAN

 Deccan painting or Deccani painting is the form of Indian miniature

painting produced in the Deccan region of Central India, in the various
Muslim capitals of the Deccan sultanates that emerged from the break-up
of the Bahmani Sultanate by 1520.

 Deccan painting exceeds in "the brilliance of their colour, the

sophistication and artistry of their composition, and a general air of
decadent luxury

 Deccani painting was less interested in realism than the Mughals, instead
pursuing "a more inward journey, with mystic and fantastic overtones

 Other differences include painting faces, not very expertly modelled, in

three-quarter view, rather than mostly in profile in the Mughal style, and
"tall women with small heads" wearing saris.

 There are many royal portraits, and although they lack the precise
likenesses of their Mughal equivalents, they often convey a vivid
impression of their rather bulky subjects.

 Buildings are depicted as "totally flat screen-like panels"

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