Scientific classification

Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Callionymiformes
Family: Callionymidae
Genus: Synchiropus
Species: S. splendidus

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 Synchiropus splendidus, the mandarinfish or mandarin dragonet, is a
small, brightly colored member of the dragonet family, which is popular
in the saltwater aquarium trade. The mandarinfish is native to the
Pacific, ranging approximately from the Ryukyu Islands south to
Australia. It can usually be found in some of the warmer waters.

Taxonomy and etymology

The mandarinfish was first described as Callionymus splendidus in 1927
by Albert William Herre, an American ichthyologist working in the
Philippines. It was later placed in genus Synchiropus. The generic name
Synchiropus is from Ancient Greek syn-, meaning "together", and -
chiropus meaning "hand-foot". The specific epithet splendidus is from
the Latin for 'bright' or 'glittering.'The common name of the
mandarinfish comes from its extremely vivid colouration, evoking the
robes of an Imperial Chinese mandarin.

Other common names include mandarin goby, green mandarin, striped

mandarinfish, striped dragonet, green dragonet and sometimes
psychedelic mandarinfish.The similarly named mandarin fish (Siniperca
chuatsi), properly known as the Chinese perch, is distantly related.The
mandarinfish belongs to the perciform family Callionymidae, the
dragonets, which counts 10 genera and more than 182 species. Genus
Synchiropus counts 51 species, divided into 10 subgenera. The
mandarinfish is in subgenus Synchiropus (Pterosynchiropus) along with
the S. occidentalis and S. picturatus.

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Scientific classification

22
The Panamanian white-faced capuchin (Cebus imitator), also known as
the Panamanian white-headed capuchin or Central American white-
faced capuchin, is a medium-sized New World monkey of the family
Cebidae, subfamily Cebinae. Native to the forests of Central America,
the white-faced capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role
in dispersing seeds and pollen.Among the best known monkeys, the
Panamanian white-faced capuchin is recognized as the typical
companion to the organ grinder. In recent years the species has
become popular in American media, particularly in the Pirates of the
Caribbean film series. It is a highly intelligent monkey and has been
trained to assist paraplegic persons. It is a medium-sized monkey,
weighing up to 3.9 kg (8 lb 10 oz). It is mostly black, but with a pink face
and white on much of the front part of the body, giving it its common
name. It has a distinctive prehensile tail that is often carried coiled up
and is used to help support the monkey when it is feeding beneath a
branch.

In the wild, the Panamanian white-faced capuchin is versatile, living in

many different types of forest, and eating many different types of food,
including fruit, other plant material, invertebrates, and small
vertebrates. It lives in troops that can exceed 20 animals and include
both males and females. It is noted for its tool use, including rubbing
plants over its body in an apparent use of herbal medicine, and also
using tools as weapons and for getting to food. It is a long-lived
monkey, with a maximum recorded age of over 54 years.Panamanian
white-faced capuchins are highly social, living in groups of 16
individuals on average, about three quarters of which are females.
Groups consists of related females, immigrant males, and offspring. On
average, females birth offspring every 27 months even though they
mate throughout the year. Females tend to stay within their original
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group while males leave their natal group when they are 4 years old
and change groups every 4 years after. Both male and female capuchins
exhibit different dominance behaviors within the group.

Taxonomy
The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is a member of the family
Cebidae, the family of New World monkeys containing capuchin
monkeys and squirrel monkeys. Until the 21st century the Panamanian
white-faced capuchin was considered conspecific with Cebus capucinus,
the Colombian white-faced capuchin, but as a separate subspecies C.
capucinus imitator. Some primatologists continue to consider the
Panamanian and Colombian white-faced capuchins as a single species.
It is a member of the C. capucinus species group within the genus
Cebus which also includes the Colombian white-faced capuchin, white-
fronted capuchin, the weeper capuchin and the Kaapori capuchin. This
genus is also referred to as "gracile" capuchins.

In 2012 a study by Boubli, et al. demonstrated that C. imitator and C.

capucinus split up to 2 million years ago.Boubli's study also indicated
that the Honduran white-faced capuchins, which had previously been
considered a to be a possible separate subspecies, C. capucinus
limitaneus, was not genetically distinct from the Panamanian white-
faced capuchin.

The Panamanian white-faced capuchin is the most well-studied

capuchin monkey species. Even though many previous studies were
performed using the scientific name C. capucinus, as of 2014 there had
been no field studies of the Colombian white-faced capuchin, so all
these studies were of the Panamanian white-faced capuchin.
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Scientific classification

25
Kallima inachus, the orange oakleaf, Indian oakleaf or dead leaf, is a
nymphalid butterfly found in Tropical Asia from India to Japan. With
wings closed, it closely resembles a dry leaf with dark veins and is a
commonly cited example of camouflage.

Description

The butterfly wings are shaped like a leaf when in the closed position.
When the wings are closed, only the cryptic underside markings are
visible, which consists of irregular patterns and striations in many
shades of biscuit, buff, browns, yellow, and black. The veins are
darkened and resemble the veins of a leaf. The resemblance to a dried
leaf, a masquerade, is extremely realistic and gives the genus its
common names, the oakleaf or dead leaf.When the wings are open, the
forewing exhibits a black apex, an orange discal band and a deep blue
base. There are two white oculi, one along the margin of the apical
black band, and the other bordering the orange and deep blue areas.
The hindwing is more uniformly blue but diffused with brown patches
along the termen.

Male and female butterflies are similar except that the female is
generally larger and has the apex of the forewing protrude to form a
longer point. Females also tend to be more reddish on the underside
and the yellow mottled markings tend to be paler. The butterfly
exhibits polyphenism, i.e. there are specific dry-season and wet-season
forms which differ in colouration and size; the wet-season form tends
to be smaller.The wingspan of the butterfly ranges from 85 to 110
millimetres (3.3 to 4.3 in).
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Dry-season form
The forewing discoidal cell, interspace 1a, 1 to near apex, basal half of
2, and extreme bases of 3 and 4 rich violet blue, the borders of the
discocellulars and the interspaces of veins 2, 3 and 4 are black, spread
diffusely outwards in interspaces 1a and 1. A very broad oblique discal
orange band from costa to apices of interspaces 1 and 2, this orange
band is sprinkled with bluish black scales; apical third of wing velvety
purpurescent (purple) black; a hyaline (glass-like) transverse spot near
middle of interspace 2, and a subtriangular similar small preapical spot.
Hindwing more uniform violescent blue; the costal margin and apex
very broadly brown, somewhat densely irrorated (sprinkled) with dusky
violescent black scales; dorsal margin brown; a ridge of long brownish
hairs along vein 1 spreading on to the dorsal margin. Forewings and
hindwings crossed by a subterminal dusky zigzag line commencing
about the middle of interspace 3 in the forewing, and most conspicuous
on the hindwing.

Underside very closely resembles a dry leaf; ground colour very

variable, but usually some shade of brown (rusty, greyish, and yellowish
browns being the most common), always with scattered dark dots or
little dark patches having the appearance of fungus-like or lichenous
growths so common on dead leaves in the tropics. When the insect
closes its wings over its back the likeness to a dead leaf is most striking,
and is heightened by a straight transverse, narrow, dark band running
from the apex of the forewing to the tornus of the hindwing, often with
oblique narrower similar bands or lines given off from it, all simulating
very closely the midrib and lateral veins of a leaf. The hindwing in all
specimens has a more or less obsolescent or faint series of postdiscal
ocelli, traces of which are also apparent on the forewing. Antennae

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dark brown; head, thorax, and abdomen dark violescent brown;
beneath, the palpi, thorax and abdomen paler earthy brown.

Wet-season form
Smaller than the dry-season form, but very similar to it. The colours are
richer and darker, and the orange discal band more broadly bordered
with black on the inner side. On the underside some of the specimens
from areas of heavy rainfall have the ground colour very dark
ochraceous brown.

Habits
The orange oakleaf is a powerful flier and usually flies in dense forests
with good rainfall, amongst undergrowth and along stream beds. It is
attracted to tree sap and over-ripe fruit, and is also known to mud-
puddle.

Much pursued by birds, when in danger the orange oakleaf flies

erratically, soon dropping down into the foliage and occupying a
stationary pose with wings closed, so that the birds are very often quite
unable to find them. In such a pose, the butterfly resembles a dried leaf
and is perfectly camouflaged.

The natural enemies of the orange oakleaf include birds, ants, spiders,
wasps (including Trichogramma species), and some bacteria.

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Scientific classification

29
The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), also known simply as the
peregrine,and historically as the duck hawk in North America,is a
cosmopolitan bird of prey (raptor) in the family Falconidae. A large,
crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-grey back, barred white underparts, and
a black head. The peregrine is renowned for its speed. It can reach over
320 km/h (200 mph) during its characteristic hunting stoop (high-speed
dive), making it the fastest member of the animal kingdom. According
to a National Geographic TV program, the highest measured speed of a
peregrine falcon is 389 km/h (242 mph).[9][10] As is typical for bird-
eating (avivore) raptors, peregrine falcons are sexually dimorphic, with
females being considerably larger than males.

The peregrine's breeding range includes land regions from the Arctic
tundra to the tropics. It can be found nearly everywhere on Earth,
except extreme polar regions, very high mountains, and most tropical
rainforests; the only major ice-free landmass from which it is entirely
absent is New Zealand. This makes it the world's most widespread
raptor and one of the most widely found wild bird species. In fact, the
only land-based bird species found over a larger geographic area owes
its success to human-led introduction; the domestic and feral pigeons
are both domesticate forms of the rock pigeon, which are a major prey
species for Eurasian Peregrine populations. Due to their prevalence
over most other bird species in cities, feral pigeons support many
peregrine populations as a staple food source, especially in urban
settings.

The peregrine is a highly successful example of urban wildlife in much

of its range, taking advantage of tall buildings as nest sites and an
abundance of prey such as pigeons and ducks. Both the English and
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scientific names of this species mean "wandering falcon", referring to
the migratory habits of many northern populations. Experts recognize
17 to 19 subspecies, which vary in appearance and range; disagreement
exists over whether the distinctive Barbary falcon is represented by two
subspecies of Falco peregrinus or is a separate species, F. pelegrinoides.
The two species' divergence is relatively recent, during the time of the
last ice age, therefore the genetic differential between them (and also
the difference in their appearance) is relatively tiny. They are only
about 0.6–0.8% genetically differentiated.

Although its diet consists almost exclusively of medium-sized birds, the

peregrine will sometimes hunt small mammals, small reptiles, or even
insects. Reaching sexual maturity at one year, it mates for life and nests
in a scrape, normally on cliff edges or, in recent times, on tall human-
made structures. The peregrine falcon became an endangered species
in many areas because of the widespread use of certain pesticides,
especially DDT. Since the ban on DDT from the early 1970s, populations
have recovered, supported by large-scale protection of nesting places
and releases to the wild.

The peregrine falcon is a well-respected falconry bird due to its strong

hunting ability, high trainability, versatility, and availability via captive
breeding. It is effective on most game bird species, from small to large.
It has also been used as a religious, royal, or national symbol across
multiple eras and areas of human civilization.

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Scientific classification

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Maratus volans is a species in the jumping spider family (Salticidae),
belonging to the genus Maratus (peacock spiders). These spiders are
native to certain areas in Australia and occupy a wide distribution of
habitats. They have a specialized visual system that allows them to see
the full visible spectrum as well as in the ultraviolet-range; this helps
them detect and pursue prey. Males of this species are characterized by
their colourful abdomen flaps that are used to attract females during
courtship.

Description
Both sexes reach about 5 mm in body length. Females and immatures
of both sexes are brown but have colour patterns by which they can be
distinguished from related species.

Behavior
The red, blue and black males have flap-like extensions of the abdomen
with white hairs that can be folded down. They are used for display
during mating: the male raises his abdomen, then expands and raises
the flaps so that the abdomen forms a white-fringed, circular field of
colour. The species, and indeed the whole genus Maratus, have been
compared to peacocks in this respect. The third pair of legs is also
raised for display, showing a brush of black hairs and white tips. These
legs are also used in a clapping motion to further attract a female's
attention. While approaching the female, the male vibrates his
abdomen while waving raised legs and tail, and dances from side to
side.However, females are more attracted to the visual efforts of the
dance done by the males rather than the vibrational signals.

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Vibrations
An important part of the male peacock spider's courtship is the
vibrations that accompany the fan dance. The exact mechanism of how
these vibrations are produced is not known, but it is known that they
are produced almost solely from rapid movements in their abdomen.
There are three kinds of vibrations: rumble-rumps, crunch rolls, and
grind-revs. Rumble-rumps are continuously emitted during the
courtship, and can even start before the male sees the female. The
name comes from the two distinct sounds, the rumble and the rump.
The crunch rolls and grind-revs are observed right before the pre-
mount display. Males who put forth more effort in both the visual
display and the vibratory signaling had a higher success in mating.
Having a higher measured effort meant putting in more time engaged
in the visual display or vibrating with more vigor. Both of these are
postulated to indicate a healthier and more fit male. However, visual
displays are more strongly linked to mating success than vibratory
signaling.

Female choice
For females who do choose to mate with the male, copulation time is
also positively correlated to visual displays and vibratory signaling.
Other aspects that are important include persistence, staying within
proximity of the female and maintaining constant visual contact with
her. If the female is interested she will occasionally respond to the
approaching male by signaling with her third pair of legs. Her legs will
be stretched out as they move, oftentimes one leg more engaged than
the other. In M. volans, they found that the females are only likely to
mate once.

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Female aggression
If the male continues his dance when the female is not interested, she
attempts to attack, kill, and feed on him; she may also do this after
mating (sexual cannibalism).The male may escape by jumping. The
behaviour of the female M. volans suggests why the males have
developed unique sexual dimorphic features and courtship behaviour.If
the female is already mated, then she will appear more aggressive, and
less receptive to other males' displays. This can also occur if the female
simply was not impressed by the male (less vibrations or less leg
waving). She has an anti-receptivity signal that tells males she is not
receptive. This serves a function to both the males and females. The
males will stop wasting their energy on an unwilling female. The male's
display is likely to attract predators, so stopping the performance is
likely to protect both the female and male from potential dangers.

Copulation and pre-mount display

During the courtship display the male will slowly approach the female,
as he lowers his carapace almost to the ground until they are about one
body length apart. If the female does not flee then he will commence
the pre-mount display. The pre-mount display is a highly conserved
behaviour; the Maratus volans will follow a specific sequence: the third
legs are rotated to the front over the first and second legs, while he
retracts his colourful fan flaps. The third legs are lowered and spread
apart as they tremor. The first legs will be held erect in front of the
body almost touching the female. After this, the male will advance
towards the female. Copulation can last a duration of several minutes
to several hours.Throughout the whole courtship event, the male
performs pedipalp flickers either alone or along with the other
courtship displays.

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Scientific classification

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Tapirs are large, herbivorous mammals belonging to the family
Tapiridae. They are similar in shape to a pig, with a short, prehensile
nose trunk. Tapirs inhabit jungle and forest regions of South and
Central America and Southeast Asia. They are one of three extant
branches of Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates), alongside equines and
rhinoceroses. Only a single genus, Tapirus, is currently extant. Tapirs
migrated into South America during the Pleistocene epoch from North
America after the formation of the Isthmus of Panama as part of the
Great American Interchange.Tapirs were formerly present across North
America, but became extinct in the region at the end of the Late
Pleistocene, around 12,000 years ago.

Species
There are four widely recognized extant species of tapir, all in the genus
Tapirus of the family Tapiridae. They are the South American tapir, the
Malayan tapir, Baird's tapir, and the mountain tapir. In 2013, a group of
researchers said they had identified a fifth species of tapir, the
kabomani tapir. However, the existence of the kabomani tapir as a
distinct species has been widely disputed, and recent genetic evidence
further suggests that it actually is part of the species South American
tapir.

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 Extant species
Common name Scientific Distribution
name
Baird's tapir (also Tapirus bairdii (Gill, Mexico, Central
called the Central 1865) America and
American tapir) northwestern South
America
South American tapir Tapirus terrestris Venezuela, Colombia,
(also called the (Linnaeus, 1758) and the Guianas in the
Brazilian tapir or north to Brazil,
lowland tapir) Argentina, and
Paraguay in the south,
to Bolivia, Peru, and
Ecuador in the West.
Mountain tapir (also Tapirus pinchaque Eastern and Central
called the woolly tapir) (Roulin, 1829) Cordilleras mountains
in Colombia, Ecuador,
and the far north of
Peru.
Malayan tapir (also Tapirus indicus Indonesia, Malaysia,
called the Asian tapir, (Desmarest, 1819) Myanmar, and Thailand
Oriental tapir or Indian
tapir)

The four species are all classified on the IUCN Red List as Endangered or
Vulnerable. The tapirs have a number of extinct relatives in the
superfamily Tapiroidea. The closest extant relatives of the tapirs are the
other odd-toed ungulates, which include horses, wild asses, zebras and
rhinoceroses.

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During the Late Pleistocene, several other species inhabited North
America, including Tapirus veroensis, native to the southern and
eastern United States (with its northernmost records being New York
State), and Tapirus merriami and Tapirus californicus, native to Western
North America. These became extinct during the Quaternary extinction
event around 12,000 years ago, along with most of the other large
mammals of the Americas, co-inciding with the first arrival of humans
to the continent. Tapirus augustus (formerly placed in Megatapirus),
native to Southeast and East Asia, substantially larger than the Malayan
tapir, also became extinct at some point during the Late Pleistocene.

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