18ENG45 – BUILDING

STRUCTURES IV
VIVIAN LAWRENCE SEQUEIRA
 Structural Steel
• Steel is an Alloy – A combination of Iron and Carbon, in different ratios
• Known since 3000 BC
• Structural steel started to be used for construction around late 18th
century in Europe. Cast Iron was used before this, which was weak in
tension.
• Modern steel was first produced in 1738 in Sheffield, England
• Economical steel was produced in 1856 by Henry Bessemer
• The first steel structure built was The Home Insurance Company
Building (1885)
• India is the 3rd largest producer of steel, after China and Japan
• For every tonne of Portland cement produced, 3 tonnes of wood and
10 tonnes of steel are produced
 Properties of Steel vs Other Materials

Item Mild Steel M20 Concrete Wood

Density (kg/m3) 7850 2400 290-900
Maximum Stress
(MPa)
• Compression 250 20 5.2 – 23
• Tension 250 3.13 2.5 – 13.8
• Shear 144 2.8 0.6 – 2.6
Young’s Modulus 2 x 105 22360 4600 - 18000
(MPa)
Coefficient of linear 12 10-14 4.5
expansion (C x 10-6)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.3 0.2 0.2
ADVANTAGES
• Steel is ductile, which prevents sudden failure. It is also malleable, which
allows it to be moulded into a variety of shapes and sizes.
• Possesses high strength to weight ratio – Even lightweight and small
sections possess high strength, making them very useful in construction of
large structures (3.5 times more efficient than concrete).
• A durable material that can withstand earthquakes and typhoons.
• Steel sections are well suited for off-site, large scale production and rapid
on-site erection.
• Can be fastened together by simple connecting devices like bolts and
welds.
• Existing structures can be easily modified and reinforced.
• Steel structures are lighter than concrete structures, thus having lower
foundation costs resulting in economical structures.
• It is the ultimate recyclable material - steel can be recycled any number of
times.
DISADVANTAGES
• High Maintenance costs – Require periodic painting to prevent
corrosion.
• High Fireproofing costs – Steel is susceptible to loss of strength in
building fires. Insulation of steel members is necessary.
• Susceptible to buckling when the length or slenderness ratio of
columns increases.
• Aggressive environments reduce the fatigue strength of steel, i.e. its
ability to withstand cyclic loading.
• Susceptible to brittle failure in cold weather, particularly when the
temperature dips below 4 to -12 °C
Structural Steel Sections (ISXX – Where XX denotes the type of section)

• I – Sections
• Channel Sections
• Angle Sections
• T – Sections
• Hollow Sections – Circular, Square and Rectangular
• Bars – Square, Circular and Flat
• Sheets and Strips (<6 mm thick)
• Plates and Flats (>6 mm thick)

• These sections can be combined to form built up sections

 Structural Steel Products

1. Flat hot-rolled products – plates, flat bars, sheets and strips

2. Hot-rolled sections – rolled shapes and hollow structural sections
3. Bolts
4. Welding electrodes
5. Cold-rolled shapes
 Hot-Rolled Sections and Products

1. Rolled beams
a. Junior beams (ISJB – Indian Standard Junior Beams)
b. Lightweight beams (ISLB)
c. Medium-weight beams (ISMB)
d. Wide flange beams (ISWB)
e. Heavyweight beams/columns (ISHB)
f. Column sections (ISSC – Indian Standard Column Section)
2. Channels: Junior, light, medium and parallel flange (ISJC, ISLC,
ISMC, ISMCP)
3. Equal angles (ISEA or ISA)
4. Unequal angles (ISA)
5. T Sections (ISJT, ISLT, ISST, ISNT, ISHT)
6. Rolled bars
a. Round (ISRO)
b. Square (ISSQ)
7. Tubular sections (ISLT, ISMT, ISHT)
8. Plates (ISPL)
9. Strips (ISST)
10.Flats (ISFI)
 Beam/Column
Angle Section
Section
Eg: ISA 60 x 60 x 6 – equal angle
Eg: ISMB 400
Legs of 60 mm length and 6 mm
@ 0.616 kN/m
thickness.
Refers to a
ISA 100 x 75 x 6 – unequal angle
beam of 400
Legs of 100 and 75 mm length and
mm depth and
6 mm thickness.
weight of 0.616
kN/m.

Channel
Section Tee section
Eg: ISMC 200 @ Eg: ISNT 100 @ 0.147
0.221 kN/m kN/m
Depth of the section is
100 mm

Plates (t > 5 mm), flats (t < 5 mm)

Square bar Round bar
and strips (t > 5 mm, b < 2250 mm)
Referred to in terms Referred to in terms
are referred to in terms of width x
of sides of diameter
thickness
Properties of Steel
• Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus) – 2 x 105 MPa
• Poisson’s Ratio – 0.3 to 0.5
• Density – 7850 kg/m3
• Melting Point – 1530 °C
• Coefficient of Thermal Expansion - 12 x 10-6 / °C
 Uses of Steel
Type of Steel Carbon Content Uses
Mild Steel Up to 0.10% Steel sections used in
buildings, bridges, etc.
Medium-Carbon Steel Up to 0.25% Boiler plates, structural steel,
etc.
Up to 0.45% Rails, tyres, etc.
Up to 0.60% Hammers, large stamping and
pressing dies, etc.
High-Carbon Steel or Hard Up to 0.75% Sledgehammers, springs,
Steel stamping dies, etc.
Up to 0.90% Miner’s drills, smith’s tools,
stone mason’s tools, etc.
Up to 1.00% Chisels, hammers, saws, wood
working tools, etc.
Up to 1.10% Axes, cutlery, drills, knives,
punches, etc.
Increasing carbon content increases the hardness, yield and
tensile strength of steel, but it reduces ductility and toughness.
Types of Steel (Based on Chemical Composition)
1. Carbon Steel: Dull and matte in appearance; vulnerable to corrosion.
• May also contain other alloying elements such as Manganese, Silicon and
Copper. It is of three main types:
• Low carbon steel (Mild Steel) is the most common and typically contains
less than .30% of carbon.
• Medium carbon steel contains up to .60% of carbon as well as manganese
and is much stronger than low carbon steel.
• High carbon steel contains up to 1.5% carbon steel and is the strongest of
the categories and can often be hard to work with.
2. Alloy Steel: Alloy steels are a mixture of several metals, including nickel,
copper, and aluminium.
• Alloy steels tend to be cheaper and are used in mechanical work, car parts,
pipelines, and motors.
• The strength and property of alloy steels depends on the concentration of
elements they contain.
3. Stainless Steel: Shiny and corrosion resistant. It has a low carbon content.
• Used in many products, including home appliances, medical instruments
and cooking utensils.
• Stainless steel contains the alloy chromium (>11%) and can also include
nickel or molybdenum.
• Stainless steel is strong and can withstand high temperatures. There are
more than 100 grades of stainless steel, making it an extremely versatile
and customizable material.
4. Tool Steel: Hard and heat and scrape-resistant.
• Named tool steels because they are often used to make metal tools, such
as stamping, cutting, and mold-making tools.
• They are also commonly used to make hammers and knives.
• There are several different grades of tool steel that can be used for distinct
applications.
 Types of Steel and Relevant IS
Standards
Type of Steel Relevant IS Standard
Structural steel 2062, 1977, 3502, 5517, 8500
Steels for rivets 1148, 1149, 7557, 1929, 2155, 2998
Steel for tubes and pipes 1239, 1914, 806, 1161, 10748, 4923
Steel for sheets and strips 277, 1079, 12367, 513, 12313, 14246
Steel for rerolling 2830, 2831
Steel for reinforced concrete 432, 1786, 2090
Steel for bolts, nuts and washers 1363, 1364, 1367, 3640, 3757, 6623, 6639,
730, 4000, 5624, 6649, 8412, 10238, 12427
Welding 814, 1395, 816, 819, 1024, 1261, 1323
Steel for filer rods/wires, electrodes 1278, 1387, 7280, 6419, 6560, 2879, 4972
Steel casting 1030, 2708, 2644, 276
 List of Indian Standard Codes for Steel Construction
• IS: 800 : 2007 – Code of Practice for general construction in Steel
• IS: 802 Part 2 : 1978 – Code of Practice for use of Structural Steel in Overhead
Transmission Towers-Fabrication, Galvanizing, Inspection and Packing
• IS: 806 : 1968 – Code of Practice for USE OF Steel Tubes in General Building
Construction
• IS: 808 : 1989 – Dimensions for Hot Rolled Steel Beam, Column, Channel and
Angle Sections
• IS:1182 : 1983 – Recommended practice for radiographic examination of fusion
welded butt joints in steel plates
• IS:1363 Part 1 & 3 : 2002 – Black Hexagonal Headed Bolts, Screws, Nuts &
Locknuts of Product Grade C- Hexagon Head Bolts (M5-M64)
• IS:1367 Part 1 To 3 & 5 To 7 : 2002 – Technical Supply Conditions for Threaded
Steel Fasteners
• IS:1852 : 1985 – Rolling and Cutting Tolerances for Hot Rolled Steel Products
• IS:2062 : 1999 – Steel For General Structural Purposes- Specification
• IS:3502 : 1994 – Specification For Steel Chequered Plates
• IS:3658 : 1999 – Code of Practice for Liquid Penetrant Flaw Detection
• IS:3757 : 1985 High Strength Friction Grip Structural Bolts
• IS:1182 : 1983 – Recommended practice for radiographic examination of
fusion welded butt joints in steel plates
• IS:1363 Part 1 & 3 : 2002 – Black Hexagonal Headed Bolts, Screws, Nuts &
Locknuts of Product Grade C- Hexagon Head Bolts (M5-M64)
• IS:1367 Part 1 To 3 & 5 To 7 : 2002 – Technical Supply Conditions for
Threaded Steel Fasteners
• IS:1852 : 1985 – Rolling and Cutting Tolerances for Hot Rolled Steel
Products
• IS:2062 : 1999 – Steel For General Structural Purposes- Specification
• IS:3502 : 1994 – Specification For Steel Chequered Plates
• IS:3658 : 1999 – Code of Practice for Liquid Penetrant Flaw Detection
• IS:3757 : 1985 High Strength Friction Grip Structural Bolts
• The complete list of all Indian Standards pertaining to Steel Construction
can be found on Page 132 of the National Building Code of India, 2016.
 Manufacturing of Steel

• Three main processes:

• Open-hearth process (slow and uneconomical – replaced by new techniques)
• Basic Oxygen Steel Making Process (BOS)
• Electric Arc Method (stainless steel)
• A batch process to reduce carbon, sulphur and phosphorus levels and
add manganese, chromium, nickel or vanadium when needed.
• Most structural steel is produced by BOS process in integrated steel
plants.
 Manufacturing of Steel
• Major raw materials:
• Iron ore lumps
• Scrap steel (up to 30%)
• Pellets
• Coke
• Fluxes – Limestone and Dolomite
• Structural steel composition:
• Carbon 0.10-0.25%
• Manganese 0.04-0.12%
• Sulphur 0.025-0.05%
• Phosphorus 0.025-0.050%
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otVFDo9YSM8&ab_channel=NeilyMakes
 Melting
• Raw materials are charged in a blast
furnace.
• Hot air melts iron and fluxes at 1600° C.
Manufacturing
of Steel • Molten metal cools and solidifies to Pig
Iron, which is further refined to make steel.
• Excess carbon and impurities floated as
slag.
 Manufacturing of
Steel
Refining
• Molten metal is taken to a steel melting shop to
further reduce impurities in a basic-oxygen
furnace or open hearth furnace.
• Deoxidizers (silicon and/or aluminium) are
added to control dissolved oxygen.
• 50-250 tonnes of steel are produced every 1-8
hours.
• Structural steel is produced from killed steel
(<30 ppm oxygen) or semi-killed steel (30-150
ppm oxygen).
 Casting (Continuous Casting or Concast
method)
• Liquid steel is taken out as a continuous
ribbon and cut into semi finished products
Manufacturing
when cooled – billets, blooms and slabs.
of Steel
• Older plants first solidify steel in ingots (5-
40 tonnes) and then roll them into semi-
finished products – higher energy
consumption.
 Ingots Billets (side <6”)

Blooms (side >6”) Slabs

 Manufacturing of Steel
Hot rolling
• Semi-finished products are heated at 1200° C and
rolled into finished products – plates, structural
sections, bars and strips.
• Different rolling mills for different products.
• Heated semi-finished products are squeezed
between a pair of rotating cylinders (rollers) multiple
times to reduce their thickness.
• The rolling process reduces the cross section,
elongates it and shapes steel into the required
shape.
 Cold Rolled Steel

• Made from light-gauge steel strips 2-4 mm thick.

• Hot rolled steel that is further processed in cold reduction mills or
press-brakes, where the material is cooled, annealed and shaped (at
room temperature).
• Cold rolled steel has a superior surface finish, and is superior in
tolerance, concentricity, and straightness when compared to hot rolled
steel.
Cold Rolled Steel
• Pressed-steel sections are largely used for
flooring, roofing and wall panels, metal
trims – skirting and subframes.

Channel Hat Section Hollow

Sigma Angle Channel

Cold Formed Steel Sections
 Iron and Steel Industries in India

• Major producers of Iron Ore – National Mineral Development

Corporation (NMDC), Kudremukh Iron Ore Co. (KIOCL), Sesa Goa
(Sesa).
• Pig Iron – KIOCL, Sesa Goa, Usha Ispat.
• Largest primary steel manufacturers - Steel Authority of India (SAIL),
Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited (RINL), Tata Steel, Jindal Vijayanagar
(JVSL).
• Largest secondary steel manufacturers – Essar steel, Ispat Industries,
Llyods steel.