Excretory System

EXCRETORY
PRODUCTS
AND THEIR
ELIMINATION
INTRODUCTION
● Animals accumulate ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon
dioxide, water and ions like Na+, K+, Cl–, phosphate,
sulphate etc., either by metabolic activities or by other
means like excess ingestion. These substances have to be
removed totally or partially.
● Ammonia, urea and uric acid are the major forms of
nitrogenous waste excreted by the animals.
INTRODUCTION
● Ammonia is the most toxic form and requires large

amount of water for its elimination, whereas uric acid,
being the least toxic, can be removed with a minimum loss
of water.
Characters Type of animals
Ammonotelic Ureotelic Uricotelic
1 Excretory Ammonia Urea Uric acid
. matter
2 Mechanism of By diffusion across Ammonia produced -
. Excretion body surfaces or by metabolism is
through gill surfaces converted into
(in fish) as ammonium urea in the liver and
ion. released into the blood
which is filtered and
excreted out by the
kidneys.
3 Requirement Very large Less than ammonia Least
. of water
4 Toxicity Highest Less than ammonia Least
.
EXCRETORY ORGANS IN ANIMALS
Animals Flatworms Earthworm Most of the Crustaceans All
e.g. Planaria and other Insects e.g. Prawn chordates
rotifers, some Annelids e.g.
Annelids and Cockroach
the
cephalochorda
-te
(Amphioxus)
Excretory Protonephridia Nephridia Malpighian Green Kidneys
organs (Flame cells) tubules glands
Or Antennal
gland
BEGINNER’S BOX - 1
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys,
one pair of ureter, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
Kidney
s
Urete
r
Urinary
bladder Urethr
a
Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures situated
between the levels of last thoracic and third lumbar vertebra
close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity.
T12
(Thoracic
)
CONVE CONCA
X VE
L3
(Lumbar
)
Dorsal surface of the kidney is attached to the dorsal abdominal
wall, so only its ventral surface is covered by peritoneum. This
type of kidney is called retro-peritoneal kidney or extra
peritoneal kidney.
Vertebral column
dorsal (T12-L3)
Abdominal Kidney
wall
Peritoneum on
ventral side of kidney
Peritoneal
cavity
Peritoneum
ventral
● Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7
cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an average weight of 120-
170 g.
● Towards the centre of the inner concave surface of the kidney is a
notch called hilum through which blood vessels(renal artery) and
nerves enter. Whereas ureter and renal vein leave the kidney.
hilu
m renal
artery
renal
10-12 cm
vein
ureter
5-7
cm
● Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the
renal pelvis with projections called calyces.
● The outer layer of kidney is a tough capsule. Inside the
kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner
medulla. The medulla is divided into a few conical masses
(medullary pyramids) (8 to 12 in number) projecting into
the calyces (sing.: calyx). The cortex extends in between the
medullary pyramids as renal columns called Columns of
Bertini.
Columns of
Bertini
Calyces
Renal
pelvis
Cortex
Renal capsule
Medullary pyramids
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
● Kidneys are mesodermal in origin. COMPENSATE
HYPERTROPY If one kidney is removed from the body of
human being than the other one increases in size and try to
perform the function of removed kidney also. It is an example
of regeneration method called compensate hypertropy.
POST RENAL URINARY TRACT
Urine passes from the pelvis into the ureter. Both the ureter
open through separate oblique openings into the urinary
bladder. The oblique openings prevent the backflow of urine.
Renal
pelvis
ureter
urin
e Oblique opening of ureter
(prevent the backflow of
urine)
urinary bladder
Urethr
a
Externally, the bladder is lined by detrusor muscle, it is
involuntary in nature while internally the bladder is lined by
transitional epithelium or urothelium. This epithelium has
great capacity to expand so that large volume of urine can be
stored if required.
Externally, the
bladder is lined by
detrusor muscle
internally the bladder is lined
by transitional epithelium or
urothelium
During act of micturition urine leaves the urinary bladder and enters the membranous
duct called Urethra.
Urethra
In In
males females
•leads to end of the penis in •into the
males vulva
•the urethra has three •Only
parts, membranous
prostatic, membranous & urethra
penile urethra respectively.
Opening of urinary bladder is controlled by sphincters made of
circular muscles. These normally remain contracted and
during micturition these relax to release urine.
(In rabbit a single sphincter is present while in human two
sphincters, inner involuntary & outer voluntary, are present).
Urinary
bladder
Internal
sphincter
External
sphincter
STRUCTURE OF NEPHRON
● Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular
structures called nephrons, which are the structural and
functional units.
● Each nephron has two parts – the Glomerulus and the
Renal tubule.
renal
tubule
Glomerulu
s
GLOMERULUS
● Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the
afferent arteriole – a fine branch of renal artery.
Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by an
efferent arteriole.
● The renal tubule begins with a double walled cup-like
structure called Bowman’s capsule, which encloses
the glomerulus. Glomerulus alongwith Bowman’s
capsule, is called the malpighian body or renal
corpuscle.
proximal convoluted tubule
distal convoluted tubule

Descending
loop of henle
Henle’s loop
Ascending
loop of henle
collecting duct
The tubule continues further to form a highly coiled
network – proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). A
hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the next part of the
tubule which has a descending and an ascending limb.
The ascending limb continues as another highly coiled
tubular region called distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
The DCTs of many nephrons open into a straight tube
called collecting duct, many of which converge and open
into the renal pelvis through medullary pyramids in the
calyces.
Renal Cortex & Medulla
The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the

nephron are situated in the cortical region of the kidney
whereas the loop of Henle dips into the medulla.
Renal cortex contain malpighian corpuscle, PCT and
DCT.
Renal medulla contain loop of Henle, most part of
collecting duct and ducts of Bellini.
Renal Cortex & Medulla
malpighian PC DC
Renal corpuscle T T
cortex
Renal medulla loop of

Henle
collecting duct
TYPES OF NEPHRON
TYPES OF NEPHRON
According to their position, nephrons are of two types.
Cortical Nephrons Juxtamedullary Nephrons
Constitute
1 about 85% of total. (75 About 15% of total. (15 – 25%)
–. 85%)
Malpighian
2 corpuscles are located Malpighian corpuscles are located
close
. to the kidney surface. at the junction of cortex and
medulla.
Their
3 loop of Henle are mostly The loop of Henle of these
confined
. to cortex and a very small nephrons are long, dipping deep
part of it runs in the medulla. down into the medulla.
MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION
Venous
Urine formation involves Peritubular return
three main processes namely capillary
Glomerular filtration
Reabsorption
Tubular secretion Efferent
Arteriole Interstitial
Glo fluid
mer
fi ur
ular
lt in
r
capil e
Afferent at 1. Reabsorpti1. Tubular
lary
Arteriole e on secretion
1. Glomerul
ar
The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood,

which is carried out by the glomerulus and is called
Glomerular filtration.
On an average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the

kidneys per minute which constitute roughly 1/5th of the
blood pumped out by each ventricle of the heart in a
minute.
Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume X

Heart rate
= 70 X 72
= 5L
1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the

kidneys per minute
i.e.
roughly 1/5th of the blood pumped out by
each ventricle of the heart in a minute (
Cardiac Output).
● The glomerular capillary blood pressure causes filtration of
blood through 3 layers, i.e., the endothelium of glomerular
blood vessels, the epithelium of Bowman’s capsule and a
basement membrane between these two layers.
● The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule called podocytes are

arranged in an intricate manner so as to leave some minute
spaces called filtration slits or slit pores.
● Blood is filtered so finely through these membranes, that

almost all the constituents of the plasma except the proteins
pass onto the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. Therefore, it Is
considered as a process of ultra filtration.
The effective filtration pressure that causes ultra filtration is determined by three
pressures
1. Glomerular hydrostatic pressure
2. Capsular hydrostatic pressure
3. Blood colloidal osmotic pressure
4. Glomerular hydrostatic pressure(GHP) – is the blood pressure in the

glomerular capillaries, arise due to the diameter difference between afferent and
efferent arteriole. it is the main driving force to cause filtration.(it is 60-75mm of
Hg)
5. Blood Colloid osmotic pressure(BCOP) – it is the osmotic pressure created in

the blood of glomerular capillaries due to the plasma proteins ( Mainly Albumin ).
it resist the filtration of fluid from the capillaries. (it is 30 to 32 mm of Hg).
6. Capsular hydrostatic pressure(CHP)- it is the pressure caused by the fluid

(filtrate) that reaches into Bowman’s Capsule which resist filtration.(it is about
Net Filtration Pressure

NFP=GHP-[BCOP+CHP]
= (75or60)-[32+18]
= 10 to 25 mm of Hg Glomerular
hydrostatic
pressure
60-75mm of Hg Blood colloidal
osmotic pressure
30-32mm of Hg
Capsular hydrostatic
pressure 10-18 mm of Hg
The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute is
called glomerular filtration rate (GFR). GFR in a healthy
individual is approximately 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres per day
!
2. Tubular Reabsorption
A comparison of the volume of the filtrate formed per day
(180 litres per day) with that of the urine released (1.5
litres), suggest that nearly 99 per cent of the filtrate has
to be reabsorbed by the renal tubules. This process is
called reabsorption.
The tubular epithelial cells in different segments of nephron
perform this either by active or passive mechanisms. For
example, substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+, etc.,
in the filtrate are reabsorbed actively whereas the
nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by passive transport.
Reabsorption of water also occurs passively in the initial
segments of the nephron.
3. Tubular
Secretion
During urine formation, the tubular cells secrete substances
like H+, K+ and ammonia into the filtrate. Tubular
secretion is also an important step in urine formation as it
helps in the maintenance of ionic and acid base balance of
body fluids.
FUNCTION OF THE TUBULES
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
(PCT)
simple cuboidal brush

border epithelium
Maximum reabsorption
Maintain the pH and

ionic balance
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): PCT is lined by
simple cuboidal brush border epithelium which
increases the surface area for reabsorption. Nearly all of
the essential nutrients, and 70-80 per cent of electrolytes
and water are reabsorbed by this segment. PCT also helps
to maintain the pH and ionic balance of the body fluids
by selective secretion of hydrogen ions, ammonia and
potassium ions into the filtrate and by absorption of
HCO3– from it.
Descending
limb Ascending limb
of loop of of loop of Henle
Henle
Thick part – Simple Cuboidal
Thin part – Simple Squamous
Thin part – Simple Squamous
permeable to water but almost impermeable to water but

impermeable to electrolytes allows transport of electrolytes
actively or passively
Henle’s Loop: Reabsorption is minimum in its
ascending limb. However, this region plays a significant
role in the maintenance of high osmolarity of
medullary interstitial fluid.
The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable to
water but almost impermeable to electrolytes. This
concentrates the filtrate as it moves down. The ascending
limb is impermeable to water but allows transport of
electrolytes actively or passively. Therefore, as the
concentrated filtrate pass upward, it gets diluted due to
the passage of electrolytes to the medullary fluid.
Distal Convoluted Tubule

(DCT)
Simple Cuboidal
Epithelium
Conditional reabsorption of
Na+ and water takes place
in this segment
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Conditional
reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place in this
segment. DCT is also capable of reabsorption of HCO3–
and selective secretion of hydrogen and potassium ions
and NH3 to maintain the pH and sodium-potassium
balance in blood.
Collecting
Duct
Ciliated Cuboidal
Epithelium
Concentration of urine
allows passage of small
amounts of urea into the
medullary interstitium
to keep up the osmolarity
Collecting Duct: This long duct extends from the cortex
of the kidney to the inner parts of the medulla. Large
amounts of water could be reabsorbed from this
region to produce a concentrated urine.
This segment allows passage of small amounts of urea

into the medullary interstitium to keep up the
osmolarity. It also plays a role in the maintenance of pH
and ionic balance of blood by the selective secretion of
H+ and K+ ions.
Descending Proximal Convoluted
limb Tubule (PCT)
simple cuboidal brush
ofThick
looppart
of –Henle
Simple Cuboidal
border epithelium
Thin part – Simple Squamous Maximum reabsorption
permeable to water but almost
Maintain the pH and
impermeable to electrolytes
ionic balance
Distal Convoluted Tubule
Ascending limb Simple Cuboidal
(DCT)
of loop of Henle Epithelium
Conditional reabsorption of Na+
Thin part – Simple Squamous and water takes place in this
impermeable to water but segment
allows transport of Collecting
electrolytes actively or Ciliated Cuboidal
Duct
passively Concentration of urine
Epithelium
allows passage of small amounts of
urea into the medullary interstitium
to keep up the osmolarity
MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE
FILTRATE
● Mammals have the ability to produce a concentrated urine.
The Henle’s loop and vasa recta play a significant role in
this.
● The flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle’s loop is in
opposite directions and thus forms a counter current. The
flow of blood through the two limbs of vasa recta is also in a
counter current pattern.
● The proximity between the Henle’s loop and vasa recta, as
well as the counter current in them help in maintaining an
increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary interstitium,
i.e. from 300 mOsmolL–1 in the cortex to about 1200
mOsmolL–1 in the inner medulla.
FILTRATE
Cortex
Ascending Ascending
Vasa Recta LOH
Descending
Descending
Vasa Recta
LOH
Medulla
FILTRATE
● FILTRATE
This gradient is mainly caused by NaCl and urea.
● NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is exchanged

with the descending limb of vasa recta. NaCl is returned to the interstitium by the
ascending portion of vasa recta.
● Similarly, small amounts of urea enter the thin segment of the ascending limb of
Henle’s loop which is transported back to the interstitium by the collecting
tubule. The above described transport of substances facilitated by the special
arrangement of Henle’s loop and vasa recta is called the counter current
mechanism.
● This mechanism helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary

interstitium. presence of such interstitial gradient helps in an easy passage of water
from the collecting tubule thereby concentrating the filtrate (urine). Human kidneys
can produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial filtrate formed.
JUXTAGLOMERULAR
APPARATUS
JUXTAGLOMERULAR
APPARATUS
JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS=JUXTAGLOMERULAR CELLS +
MACULA
DENSA
+LACIS/POLKISEN/MESANGIAL CELL.
MACULA DENSA : The cells of DCT epithelium in contact with the

arteriolar wall
are denser then other epithelial cells. These are
collectively
called macula densa.
JUXTAGLOMERULAR CELLS : The smooth muscle cells of the wall of

both
arterioles in contact with DCT epithelium are
swollen and contain dark granules of inactive renin. These
are called juxtaglomerular cells.
REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION
1) ADH
Mechanism
Osmoreceptors in the body are activated by changes in blood
volume, body fluid volume and ionic concentration. An
excessive loss of fluid from the body can activate these receptors
which stimulate the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) or vasopressin from the neurohypophysis.
ADH facilitates water reabsorption from latter parts of the tubule,
thereby preventing diuresis. An increase in body fluid volume
can switch off the osmoreceptors and suppress the ADH
release to complete the feedback. ADH can also affect the kidney
function by its constrictory effects on blood vessels. This causes
an increase in blood pressure. An increase in blood pressure can
increase the glomerular blood flow and thereby the GFR.
Drop in live
blood r
pressure
Angiotensinoge
JG cell release n
Angiotensin lung
Angiotensin- s
renin l Converting
Enzyme
Angiotensin- (ACE)
ll
Hypothalamus Cardio Adrenal
Vascular Cortex
SystemAldosterone
(Mineralocorticoid kidne
Vasoconstrictio
n
) y
Thirst and Salt and water
drinking Elevate retention
blood
pressure
1) Renin Angiotensinogen Aldosterone
System
The JGA plays a complex regulatory role. A fall in glomerular
blood flow/glomerular blood pressure/GFR can activate the JG
cells to release renin which converts angiotensinogen in blood to
angiotensin I and further to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II, being
a powerful vasoconstrictor, increases the glomerular blood
pressure and thereby GFR.
Angiotensin II also activates the adrenal cortex to release
Aldosterone. Aldosterone causes reabsorption of Na+ and water
from the distal parts of the tubule. This also leads to an increase in
blood pressure and GFR. This complex mechanism is generally
known as the Renin-Angiotensin mechanism.
1) ANF
Mechanism
An increase in blood flow to the atria of the heart can cause the
release of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF). ANF can cause
vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels) and thereby decrease the
blood pressure. ANF mechanism, therefore, acts as a check on
the renin-angiotensin mechanism.
Venous Return Blood
vessel
1. Vasodilation
o Decreased blood pressure
Atrial Atrial Natriuretic
Stretch Factor
Rt (ANF)
Atrium
Natriuria ( increase salt excretion hence water
excretion)
Blood Volume
Venous Return
Blood pressure
AUTO REGULATION OF KIDNEY FUNCTION
1) Myogenic Mechanism
An increase in blood pressure will tend to stretch the
afferent arteriole, which would be expected to increase the
blood flow to the glomerulus. The wall of the afferent
arteriole, however, responds to stretch by contraction, this
reduces the diameter of the arteriole, and therefore causes
increase in the resistance to flow. This myogenic mechanism,
thus, reduces variations in flow to the glomerulus in case of
fluctuations in blood pressure.
MICTURITION
Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary
bladder where it is stored till a voluntary signal is given by the
central nervous system (CNS). This signal is initiated by the
stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with urine. In
response, the stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder send
signals to the CNS. The CNS passes on motor messages to
initiate the contraction of smooth muscles of the bladder and
simultaneous relaxation of the urethral sphincter causing the
release of urine. The process of release of urine is called
micturition and the neural mechanisms causing it is called the
micturition reflex.
MICTURITION
MICTURITION
COMPOSITION OF URINE
95% = Water
2% = Salts
2.7% = Urea
Rest 0.3% = Other materials like the Drugs, Hippuric acid, Uric
acid, Vitamin-C, Dyes etc.
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
1. Urea formation takes place in liver.
2. Urea elimination = Kidney.
3. Blood vessel with maximum urea is Hepatic vein.
4. Blood vessel with minimum urea is renal vein.
5. Amount of urea in urine depend upon protein diet.
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
1. Pale yellow colour of urine is due to the Urochrome pigment. It
is formed in the blood due to the reduction of Haemoglobin. So in
the body of a healthy animal urochrome is found in a very less
amount.
2. pH of urine = 6.
3. The specific gravity of urine is 1.01 to 1.05.
4. Ions excreted out through urine are mainly monovalent ions
e.g. Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, H3O+ etc.
5. Ions removed out through faecal matter are mainly divalent
and trivalent ions e.g. Ca2+, Mg2+, CO3-2, PO4-3.
6. Substances which are completely reabsorbed are called high
threshold substances e.g. Glucose and Amino acid.
7. Substances which are not reabsorbed at all are called
athreshold substances e.g. Inulin, Sulphates, Para Amino
Hippuric Acid (PAHA).
GOLDEN KEY POINTS
1. Substances which are reabsorbed the body are demand of
variable threshold substances e.g. Electrolytes and water.
2. Substances which are less reabsorbed are called low threshold
substances e.g. Urea.
1. A healthy human excrete (on an average) 25 gm urea/day.
2. Workers in deep mine usually suffer from dehydration because
water is lost along with salt in the form of sweat.
3. Diuretic substances: Substances which increases the urine
formation are called diuretic substance e.g. tea, coffee and alcohol.
4. If glucose remain unreabsorbed from PCT than comes out through
urine. This condition is called glycosuria. Where as this disease is
called diabetes mellitus.
5. Disease caused due to deficiency of ADH or vasopressin is called
diabetes insipidus. It is characterized by more dilute urine.
ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE
Polyuria - Excessive urination.
Proteinuria - Presence of proteins in urine.
Albuminuri - Presence of albumin in urine, usually occurs in
a nephritis (inflammation of glomeruli), when the
size of the filtering slits enlarges and basement
membrane looses its negative charge.
Ketonuria - Presence of abnormally high ketone bodies in
urine.
Haemoglobi - Presence of haemoglobin in urine.
nuria
Haematuria - Presence of Blood/RBC in urine.
Pyuria - Presence of WBC in urine.
ROLE OF OTHER ORGANS IN EXCRETION
Other than the kidneys, lungs, liver and skin also help in the elimination of
excretory wastes.
Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2 (approximately 200ml/minute) and also
significant quantities of water every day.
Liver, the largest gland in our body, secretes bile-containing substances like
bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded steroid hormones, vitamins and
drugs. Most of these substances ultimately pass out alongwith digestive wastes.
The sweat and sebaceous glands in the skin can eliminate certain substances
through their secretions. Sweat produced by the sweat glands is a watery fluid
containing NaCl, small amounts of urea, lactic acid, etc. Though the primary
function of sweat is to facilitate a cooling effect on the body surface, it also helps
in the removal of some of the wastes mentioned above. Sebaceous glands
eliminate certain substances like sterols, hydrocarbons and waxes through
sebum. This secretion provides a protective oily covering for the skin.
HEMODIALYSIS
HEMODIALYSIS
Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a

condition called uremia, which is highly harmful and may lead to kidney
failure. In such patients, urea can be removed by a process called
hemodialysis. Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into a
dialysing unit after adding an anticoagulant like heparin. The unit
contains a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by a fluid (dialysing fluid)
having the same composition as that of plasma except the nitrogenous
wastes. The porous cellophane membrance of the tube allows the passage
of molecules based on concentration gradient.
As nitrogenous wastes are absent in the dialysing fluid, these substances
freely move out, thereby clearing the blood. The cleared blood is pumped
back to the body through a vein after adding anti-heparin to it. This
method is a boon for thousands of uremic patients all over the world.
DISEASES RELATED WITH
KIDNEY
1) Renal failure: It is a syndrome characterised by renal
dysfunction, oliguria, anuria, sudden rise in metabolic waste
products like urea & creatinine in blood (Uremia). It is either
of acute (sudden onset) or chronic (slow onset) nature.
1) Diabetic Nephropathy: It is a complication due to diabetes

mellitus where the kidney progressively gets damaged leading
to death ultimately due to renal failure.
KIDNEY
3) Glomerulonephritis: It is a disease where due to infection or
injury in the basement membrane, the inflammation of
glomerulus of kidney, progressively leads to renal failure and
death.
KIDNEY
1) Urolithiasis (Renal Calculi): Stone or insoluble mass of
crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within the kidney.
(While gall bladder stones are made of cholesterol)

Excretory System

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Excretory System

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EXCRETORY

● Ammonia is the most toxic form and requires large

proximal convoluted tubule

distal convoluted tubule

The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT of the

Renal medulla loop of

The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood,

On an average, 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the

Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume X

1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the

● The epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule called podocytes are

● Blood is filtered so finely through these membranes, that

4. Glomerular hydrostatic pressure(GHP) – is the blood pressure in the

5. Blood Colloid osmotic pressure(BCOP) – it is the osmotic pressure created in

6. Capsular hydrostatic pressure(CHP)- it is the pressure caused by the fluid

Net Filtration Pressure

simple cuboidal brush

Maintain the pH and

permeable to water but almost impermeable to water but

Distal Convoluted Tubule

This segment allows passage of small amounts of urea

● NaCl is transported by the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is exchanged

● This mechanism helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary

MACULA DENSA : The cells of DCT epithelium in contact with the

JUXTAGLOMERULAR CELLS : The smooth muscle cells of the wall of

Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a

1) Diabetic Nephropathy: It is a complication due to diabetes

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