8. Astrophysics

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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics Edexcel 
8. Astrophysics
CONTENTS
8.1 Motion in the Universe
8.1.1 Objects in Space
8.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength
8.1.3 Orbital Motion
8.1.4 Orbital Period
8.2 Stellar Evolution
8.2.1 Classification of Stars
8.2.2 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars
8.2.3 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars
8.2.4 The Brightness of Stars
8.2.5 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams
8.3 Cosmology
8.3.1 The Big Bang Theory
8.3.2 Doppler Shift
8.3.3 Galactic Red-shift
Page 1 of 36
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8.1 Motion in the Universe YOUR NOTES


8.1.1 Objects in Space
Planets, Stars & Galaxies

The Universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies
It is also the name given to the entirety of space
A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars
Stars are astronomical objects such as the Sun
These stars are part of Solar systems
Our Solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy
Each Solar system has a number of planets
Our planet, the Earth, is the third of eight planets in our Solar System
The Sun is at the centre of our Solar System
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YOUR NOTES

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YOUR NOTES

Hierarchy of the solar system
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8.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength YOUR NOTES


Gravitational Field Strength
The strength of gravity on different planets after an object's weight on that planet
Weight is defined as:
The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction
Planets have strong gravitational fields
Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit
Objects are attracted towards the centre of the Earth due to its gravitational field strength
Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g differs
between the surface of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space, including the
Moon because of the planet or moon's mass
The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field strength
A higher gravitational field strength means a larger attractive force towards the centre
of that planet or moon
g varies with the distance from a planet, but on the surface of the planet, it is roughly
the same
However, the value of g varies dramatically for different planets and moons
The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg
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The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the Earth YOUR NOTES
This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than on the 
Earth
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and Saturn) is
more than on the Earth
This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the Earth
Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System

On such planets such as Jupiter, an object’s mass remains the same at all points in space
However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be unable to
fully stand up
A person’s weight on Jupiter would be so large a human would be unable to fully stand up
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 You do not need to remember the value of g on different planets for your exam, the

value of g for Earth will be given in the exam question.
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8.1.3 Orbital Motion YOUR NOTES


Orbital Motion
There are many orbiting objects in our solar system and they each orbit a different type of
planetary body
Orbiting Objects or Bodies in Our Solar System Table
A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body

For example, a planet orbiting a Sun
In order to orbit a body such as a star or a planet, there has to be a force pulling
things towards that body
Gravity provides this force
The gravitational force exerted by the larger body on the orbiting object is always
attractive
Therefore, the gravitational force always acts towards the centre of the larger body
The gravitational force will cause the body to move and maintain in a circular path
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YOUR NOTES

Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth

Gravity causes different astronomical orbits to orbit certain others
In general:
Planets orbit the Sun
Moons orbit planets
Comets orbit the Sun
Artificial satellites to orbit the Earth or any body in the Solar System
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Differences in Orbits YOUR NOTES

Orbits of Planets 
There are several similarities in the way different planets orbit the Sun:
Their orbits are all slightly elliptical (stretched circles) with the Sun at one focus
(approximately the centre of the orbit)
They all orbit in the same plane
They all travel the same direction around the Sun
There are also a few differences:
They orbit at different distances from the Sun (different orbital radius)
They orbit at different speeds
They all take different amounts of time to orbit the Sun
The further away a planet is from the Sun, the slower it travels and therefore the longer it
takes to orbit
The orbits of planets around the Sun

Orbits of Moons
Moons orbit planets in a circular path
Some planets have more than one moon
The closer the moon is to the planet:
The shorter the time it will take to orbit
The greater the speed of the orbit
Comets
The orbits of comets are very different to those of planets:
Their orbits are highly elliptical (very stretched) or hyperbolic
This causes the speed of the comets to change significantly as their distance from the
Sun changes
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Not all comets orbit in the same plane as the planets and some don’t even orbit in the YOUR NOTES
same direction 
As the comet approaches the sun, its speed increases
As it moves further away from the sun, its speed decreases
The elliptical orbit of a comet
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8.1.4 Orbital Period YOUR NOTES


Calculating Orbital Period
When planets move around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet, they orbit in circular
motion
This means that in one orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to the circumference of a
circle (the shape of the orbit)
This is equal to 2πr where r is the radius a circle
The relationship between speed, distance and time is:
dis tance
Speed =
time
the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation:
2πr
v=
T
Where:
v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)
r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
T = orbital period in seconds (s)
This orbital period (or time period) is defined as:
The time taken for an object to complete one orbit
The orbital radius r is always taken from the centre of the object being orbited to the object
orbiting
Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The Hubble Space Telescope moves in a circular orbit. Its distance above the
Earth’s surface is 560 km and the radius of the Earth is 6400 km. It completes one
orbit in 96 minutes.
Calculate its orbital speed in m/s.
Step 1: List the known quantities

Radius of the Earth = 6400 km
Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface = 560 km
Time period, T = 96 minutes
Step 2: Write the relevant equation
Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r

The orbital radius is the distance from the centre of the Earth to the telescope
r = Radius of the Earth + Distance of the telescope above the Earth's surface
r = 6400 + 560 = 6960 km
Step 4: Convert any units
The time period needs to be in seconds
1 minute = 60 seconds
96 minutes = 60 × 96 = 5760 s
The radius needs to be in metres
1 km = 1000 m
6960 km = 6 960 000 m
Step 5: Substitute values into the orbital speed equation
 Exam Tip
Remember to always check that the orbital period r given is the distance from
the centre of the Sun (if a planet is orbiting a Sun) or the planet (if a moon is orbiting a
planet) and not just from the surface
Page 13 of 36
8.2 Stellar Evolution YOUR NOTES


8.2.1 Classification of Stars
Classification of Stars
Stars come in a wide range of sizes and colours, from yellow stars to red dwarfs, from blue
giants to red supergiants
These can be classified according to their colour
Warm objects emit infrared and extremely hot objects emit visible light as well
Therefore, the colour they emit depends on how hot they are
A star's colour is related to its surface temperature
A red star is the coolest (at around 3000 K)
A blue star is the hottest (at around 30 000 K)
The colour of a star correlates to its temperature

This is why white dwarfs, for example, are very hot and red giants are red because they are
cool
Astronomical objects cool as they expand and heat up as they contract, such as when a
star reaches the end of its life and becomes a red giant
This means that their colour will also change accordingly with their temperature
 Exam Tip
We often remember red as being hot and blue as cool in everyday life, but remember
this is the other way around when describing the temperature of stars!
Page 14 of 36
8.2.2 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars YOUR NOTES


The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it forms a hot
ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes the
temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its core
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei
Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy which keeps the core hot
Thermal expansion from fusion reactions occur within its core due to fusion and the force
of gravity keeps the star in equilibrium
At this point, the star is born, and it becomes a main-sequence star
During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force which results
from the expanding hot gases inside the star
4. Red Giant
After several billion years the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will begin to
run out
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will become greater than
the outward force due to the pressure dies down
A new series of reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium nuclei will
undergo fusion to form beryllium
As the core shrinks, more reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand
It will become a red giant
It is red because the outer surface starts to cool
5. White Dwarf
The star will eventually become unstable and eject the outer layer of dust and gas
The core which is left behind will collapse completely, due to the pull of gravity, and the
star will become a white dwarf
The white dwarf will be cooling down and as a result, the amount of energy it emits will
decrease
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YOUR NOTES

The lifecycle of a solar mass star
 Exam Tip
Make sure you remember the life cycle for a solar mass star and ensure you can
describe the sequence in a logically structured manner in case a 6 marker comes up
in the exam!Ensure you can remember the end stages for a solar mass star clearly
(red giant, planetary nebula, white dwarf) as this is different for a star that is much
larger than our Sun!
Page 16 of 36
8.2.3 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars YOUR NOTES


The Life Cycle of Larger Stars
A large star is one that is much larger than the Sun
Stars that are larger than the Sun have much shorter lifespans – in the region of
hundreds of millions of years (instead of billions)
The life cycle of a star larger than the Sun starts in the same way as a solar mass star
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it forms a hot
ball of gas, known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will increase
This will result in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes
the temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its core
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei
Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy which keeps the core hot
Thermal expansion from fusion reactions occur within its core and the force of gravity
keeps the star in equilibrium
At this point, the star is born, and it becomes a main-sequence star
During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable
The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force which results
from the expanding hot gases inside the star
4. Red Supergiant
Eventually, the main sequence star will reach a stage when it starts to run out of hydrogen
gas in its core
Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
This causes the core to shrink and heat up
The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity is greater than the
outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases
A new series of fusion reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium nuclei
will undergo fusion to form beryllium
These fusion reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand and it will become a
super red giant
A super red giant is much larger than a red giant
5. Supernova
Once the fusion reactions inside the red supergiant finally finish, the core of the star will
collapse suddenly causing a gigantic explosion
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This is called a supernova YOUR NOTES

At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form 
The outer remnants of the star will be ejected into space during a supernova
6. Neutron Star (or Black Hole)
At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form
In the case of the largest stars, the neutron star that forms at the centre will continue
to collapse under the force of gravity until it forms a black hole
A black hole is an extremely dense point in space that not even light can escape from
Lifecycle of stars much larger than our Sun
 Exam Tip
Make sure you remember the life cycle for a high mass star and ensure you can
describe the sequence in a logically structured manner in case a 6 marker comes up
in the exam!Ensure you can remember the end stages for a high mass star clearly
(red supergiant, supernova, neutron star/black hole) as this is different for a star that
is a similar size to the Sun!
Page 18 of 36
8.2.4 The Brightness of Stars YOUR NOTES


Absolute Magnitude
Astronomers measure the brightness of stars at a standard distance using the absolute
magnitude scale
This is because a really bright star far away will look the same as a dim star nearby, so it is
difficult to measure the brightness directly
This scale runs back to front:
The brighter the star, the smaller the magnitude
The dimmer the star, the larger the magnitude
The brightness of a star depends on two main factors:
How much light the star emits
How far away the star is (more distant stars are usually fainter than nearby stars)
Examples of the apparent magnitude of different bodies in the Solar System

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The absolute magnitude of stars is a measure of how bright they would be if they were all YOUR NOTES
the same distance away from Earth 
More specifically, if it was 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years or 3.04 × 1014 km) away from the
Earth
Page 20 of 36
8.2.5 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams YOUR NOTES


Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams
Stars are classified using the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram
This is a plot of:
The luminosity on the y-axis
This is from dim (at the bottom) to bright (at the top)
The temperature on the x-axis
This is from hot (on the left) to cool (to the right)
This is normally in Kelvin
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

The main features of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram are:
Most stars lie on the Main Sequence. This is the band of stars going from top left to
bottom right
Below the main sequence (and slightly to the left) are the White Dwarfs
Above the main sequence on the right-hand side are the Red Giants
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Above those are the Red Supergiants YOUR NOTES

This means the white dwarfs are dimmer and hotter than the red giants which are brighter 
and cooler
Sometimes, the absolute magnitude is on the y-axis instead
Remember this will still go from dimmest (highest number) at the bottom to brightest
(lowest number) at the top!
 Exam Tip
Make sure you remember the key components of this diagram to be able to draw
this diagram from memory, more specifically which way around the axis go - the x-
axis is the opposite way round to what you might be used to!
Page 22 of 36
8.3 Cosmology YOUR NOTES


8.3.1 The Big Bang Theory
The Big Bang Theory

Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that was
extremely hot and dense
Then there was a giant explosion, which is known as the Big Bang
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to form the
universe today
Each point expands away from the others
This is seen from galaxies moving away from each other, and the further away they are
the faster they move
As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to expand
All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is expanding
An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents space and the
points as galaxies
When the balloon is deflated, all the points are close together and an equal distance apart
As the balloon expands, all the points become further apart by the same amount
This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies
Therefore, the density of galaxies falls as the Universe expands
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YOUR NOTES

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies
Page 24 of 36
Evidence for the Big Bang YOUR NOTES

Since there is more evidence supporting the Big Bang theory than the Steady State theory, 
it is the currently accepted model for the origin of the Universe
The main pieces of evidence for the Big Bang are
Galactic red-shift
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation
Evidence from Galactic Red-Shift
By observing the light spectrums from supernovae in other galaxies there is evidence to
suggest that distant galaxies are receding (moving further apart) even faster than nearby
galaxies
These observations were first made in 1998
The light spectrums show that light from distant galaxies is redshifted, which is evidence
that the universe is expanding
As a result, astronomers have concluded that:
All galaxies are moving away from the Earth
Galaxies are moving away from each other
This is what is expected after an explosion
Matter is first densely packed and as it explodes it, it moves out in all directions
getting further and further from the source of the explosion
Some matter will be lighter and travel at a greater speed, further from the source of
the explosion
Some matter will be heavier and travel at a slower speed, closer to the source of the
explosion
If someone were to travel back in time and compare the separation distance of the
galaxies:
It would be seen that galaxies would become closer and closer together until the
entire universe was a single point
If the galaxies were originally all grouped together at a single point and were then exploded
a similar effect would be observed
The galaxies that are the furthest are moving the fastest - their distance is
proportional to their speed
The galaxies that are closer are moving slower
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YOUR NOTES

Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea the
universe began with a “big bang”
Evidence from CMB Radiation
The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) led to the Big Bang theory
becoming the currently accepted model
The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the early
stages of the Universe
It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name Cosmic
Microwave Background
In 1964, Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the electromagnetic
spectrum coming from all directions and at a generally uniform temperature of 2.73 K
They were unable to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the
atmosphere
Around this time, space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to send
telescopes into orbit above the atmosphere
According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was an extremely hot and dense
environment
As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
The radiation is in the microwave region
This is because over the past 14 billion years or so, the radiation initially from the Big
Bang has become redshifted as the Universe has expanded
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Initially, this would have been high energy radiation, towards the gamma end of the YOUR NOTES
spectrum 
As the Universe expanded, the wavelength of the radiation increased
Over time, it has increased so much that it is now in the microwave region of the
spectrum
The CMB is a result of high energy radiation being redshifted over billions of years
The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted from a
hot body that has cooled down over a very long time
This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State Theory)
cannot explain
The CMB is represented by the following map:
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YOUR NOTES

The CMB map with areas of higher and lower temperature. Places with higher temperature
have a higher concentration of galaxies, Suns and planets
This is the closest image to a map of the Universe
The different colours represent different temperatures
The red / orange / brown regions represent warmer temperature indicating a higher
density of galaxies
The blue regions represents cooler temperature indicating a lower density of galaxies
The temperature of the CMB is mostly uniform, however, there are minuscule temperature
fluctuations (on the order of 0.00001 K)
This implies that all objects in the Universe are more or less uniformly spread out
Page 28 of 36
8.3.2 Doppler Shift YOUR NOTES


The Doppler Effect
Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched out
Therefore, when a wave source moves relative to an observer there will be a change in the
observed frequency and wavelength
Wavefronts are even in a stationary object but are squashed in the direction of the moving
wave source
A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to change:
The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases (λ – Δλ) and the
frequency increases
The wavelength behind the source increases (λ + Δλ) and the frequency decreases
This effect is known as the Doppler effect or Doppler shift
Note: Δλ means 'change in wavelength'
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Calculating Doppler Shift of Light YOUR NOTES

Doppler shift can be calculated using the equation: 
Where:
λ = observed wavelength of the source in metres (m)
λ0 = reference wavelength in metres (m)
Δλ = change in wavelength in metres (m)
v = velocity of a galaxy in metres per seconds (m/s)
c = the speed of light in metres per second (m/s)
This means that the change in wavelength, Δλ:
Δλ = λ – λ0
This equation can be used to calculate the velocity of a galaxy if its wavelength can be
measured and compared to a reference wavelength
Since the fractions have the same units on the numerator (top number) and denominator
(bottom number), the Doppler shift has no units
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Light emitted from a star has a wavelength of 435 × 10-9 m. A distance galaxy emits
the same light but has a wavelength of 485 × 10-9 m.Calculate the speed at which
the galaxy is moving relative to Earth.The speed of light = 3 × 108 m/s.
 Exam Tip
This equation will be provided for you in the exam, but make sure you understand
how to use it, in particular, make sure you know the difference between shifted λ and
unshifted λ0 wavelength terms and get lots of practice using it!
Page 31 of 36
8.3.3 Galactic Red-shift YOUR NOTES


Galactic Red-shift
The Doppler effect affects all types of waves, including light
Light emitted from stars and galaxies will be at a certain wavelength in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the spectrum
If an object moves towards an observer the wavelength of light decreases
This is known as blueshift as the light moves towards the blue end of the spectrum
Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blue shifted and light from a star
moving away from an observer will be red shifted
An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency and vice versa
Page 32 of 36
YOUR NOTES

The observer in front observes a blue shift, the observer behind observes a redshift
Page 33 of 36
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 You need to know that in the visible light spectrum red light has the longest

wavelength and the smallest frequency compared to blue light which has a
shorter wavelength and higher frequency
To help you to remember what happens to the wavelength and the frequency of an
object as it moves further away, it is useful to think about how the sound of a
motorbike would change as it travels away from you. As the motorbike travels away
from you the pitch of the sound will become lower. This means the frequency of the
sound is decreasing. If the frequency has decreased, the wavelength must also
have increased.
Page 34 of 36
The Expanding Universe YOUR NOTES

Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of the 
universe
The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the Sun, and
the light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy
Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy
Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:
Red-shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer to the
red end of the spectrum
This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so the
wavelength increases (or frequency decreases)
This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
Light spectrums produced from distant galaxies are red-shifted more than nearby
galaxies
This shows that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the redshift
This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from the
Earth
These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support the Big
Bang Theory
Page 35 of 36
YOUR NOTES

Graph showing the greater the distance to a galaxy, the greater the redshift
Page 36 of 36

8. Astrophysics

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8.1 Motion in the Universe YOUR NOTES

Planets, Stars & Galaxies

Hierarchy of the solar system

8.1.2 Gravitational Field Strength YOUR NOTES

Value for g on the different objects in the Solar System

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

8.1.3 Orbital Motion YOUR NOTES

A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body

Gravitational attraction causes the Moon to orbit around the Earth

Differences in Orbits YOUR NOTES

The orbits of planets around the Sun

The elliptical orbit of a comet

8.1.4 Orbital Period YOUR NOTES

Orbital radius and orbital speed of a planet moving around a Sun

Step 1: List the known quantities

Step 3: Calculate the orbital radius, r

8.2 Stellar Evolution YOUR NOTES

The colour of a star correlates to its temperature

8.2.2 The Life Cycle of Solar Mass Stars YOUR NOTES

The lifecycle of a solar mass star

8.2.3 The Life Cycle of Larger Stars YOUR NOTES

This is called a supernova YOUR NOTES

Lifecycle of stars much larger than our Sun

8.2.4 The Brightness of Stars YOUR NOTES

Examples of the apparent magnitude of different bodies in the Solar System

8.2.5 Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams YOUR NOTES

The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Above those are the Red Supergiants YOUR NOTES

8.3 Cosmology YOUR NOTES

The Big Bang Theory

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

Evidence for the Big Bang YOUR NOTES

8.3.2 Doppler Shift YOUR NOTES

Calculating Doppler Shift of Light YOUR NOTES

8.3.3 Galactic Red-shift YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

The Expanding Universe YOUR NOTES

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