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IGCSE Physics Edexcel 

6. Magnetism & Electromagnetism

CONTENTS
6.1 Magnetism & Electromagnetism
6.1.1 Magnetism
6.1.2 Magnetic Fields
6.1.3 Permanent & Induced Magnets
6.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields
6.1.5 Electromagnetism
6.1.6 The Motor Effect
6.1.7 Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
6.1.8 Electromagnets
6.1.9 Magnetic Field Patterns
6.1.10 Magnetic Force on a Charge
6.2 Electromagnetic Induction
6.2.1 Electromagnetic Induction
6.2.2 Generators & Dynamos
6.2.3 Transformers
6.2.4 Transformer Equations

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6.1 Magnetism & Electromagnetism YOUR NOTES


6.1.1 Magnetism

The Law of Magnetism

Poles of a Magnet
The ends of a magnet are called poles
Magnets have two poles: a north and a south

Poles of a Magnet
The Law of Magnetism
When two magnets are held close together, there will be an attractive or repulsive force
between the magnets depending on how they are arranged:

Opposite poles attract; like poles repel

The Law of Magnetism states that:
Two like poles (S and S or N and N) repel each other
Two unlike poles (S and N) attract each other
The attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is an example of a non-contact
force

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Magnetic Materials YOUR NOTES

Magnetic materials can be soft or hard 
Magnetically soft materials (e.g. iron):
Are easy to magnetise
Easily lose their magnetism (temporarily magnetised)
Magnetically hard materials (e.g. steel):
Are difficult to magnetise
Do not easily lose their magnetism (permanently magnetised)
Permanent magnets are made out of magnetically hard materials
Electromagnets are made out of magnetically soft materials
This means that electromagnets can be made magnetic or non-magnetic as an when
required

A steel pin will be attracted when an electromagnet switches on but not when it switches
off. It is always attracted to a permanent magnet

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6.1.2 Magnetic Fields YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Field Lines
All magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field
A magnetic field is defined as:
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic
material (such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel)
Magnetic Field Lines
Magnetic field lines are used to represent the strength and direction of a magnetic field
The direction of the magnetic field is shown using arrows
The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the spacing of the magnetic field lines
If the magnetic field lines are close together then the magnetic field will be strong
If the magnetic field lines are far apart then the magnetic field will be weak
There are some rules which must be followed when drawing magnetic field lines. Magnetic
field lines:
Always go from north to south (indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
Must never touch or cross other field lines
Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet
The magnetic field is strongest at the poles
This is where the magnetic field lines are closest together
The magnetic field becomes weaker as the distance from the magnet increases
This is because the magnetic field lines are getting further apart

The magnetic field around a bar magnet

Two bar magnets can repel or attract, the field lines will look slightly different for each:

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YOUR NOTES


Magnetic field lines for attracting and repelling bar magnets

Therefore, the magnetic field lines around different configurations of two bar magnets
would look like:

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

Magnetic field lines between two bar magnets

 Exam Tip
If you are asked to draw the magnetic field around a bar magnet remember to
indicate both the direction of the magnetic field and the strength of the magnetic
field.You can do this by:
Adding arrows pointing away from the north pole and towards the south pole
Making sure the magnetic field lines are further apart as the distance from the
magnet increases

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Representing Magnetic Fields YOUR NOTES

Two bar magnets can be used to produce a uniform magnetic field 
Point opposite poles (north and south) of the two magnets a few centimetres apart
A uniform magnetic field will be produced in the gaps between opposite poles
Note: Outside that gap, the field will not be uniform

A uniform field is created when two opposite poles are held close together. Magnetic fields
are always directed from North to South
A uniform magnetic field is one that has the same strength and direction at all points
To show that the magnetic field has the same strength at all points there must be equal
spacing between all magnetic field lines
To show that the magnetic field is acting in the same direction at all points there must
be an arrow on each magnetic field line going from the north pole to the south pole
The magnetic field lines are the same distance apart between the gaps of the poles to
indicate that the field strength is the same at every point between the poles
This field can be determined by using plotting compasses that will point from north
to south or by using iron filings

 Exam Tip
Remember that the direction of the field line at a point is the same as the direction of
the force a north pole would experience at that point

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6.1.3 Permanent & Induced Magnets YOUR NOTES


Permanent & Induced Magnets

Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet; non-magnetic materials are not

Very few metals in the Periodic Table are magnetic. These include:
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Steel is an alloy which contains iron, so it is also magnetic
Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the magnet,
regardless of which pole is held close to it

Magnetic materials attracted to magnets

To test whether a material is a magnet it should be brought close to a known magnet
If it can be repelled by the known magnet then the material itself is a magnet
If it can only be attracted and not repelled then it is a magnetic material
There are two types of magnets
Permanent magnets
Induced magnets
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets are made out of permanent magnetic materials, for example steel
A permanent magnet will produce its own magnetic field
It will not lose its magnetism
Induced Magnets

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When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the material can temporarily be YOUR NOTES
turned into a magnet. 
This is called induced magnetism
When magnetism is induced on a material:
One end of the material will become a north pole
The other end will become a south pole
Magnetic materials will always be attracted to a permanent magnet
This means that the end of the material closest to the magnet will have the opposite
pole to magnets pole closest to the material

Inducing magnetism in a magnetic material

When the magnetic material is removed from the magnetic field it will lose most/all of its
magnetism quickly

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 Worked Example

The diagram below shows a magnet held close to a piece of metal that is
suspended by a light cotton thread. The piece of metal is attracted towards the
magnet.

Which of the following rows in the table gives the correct type of pole at X and the
correct material of the suspended piece of metal?

ANSWER: A
X must be a north pole
The piece of metal is being attracted towards the magnet
The law of magnetism states that opposite poles attract
The material of the suspended piece of metal is nickel
Nickel is a magnetic material (It will experience a force when it is placed in a
magnetic field, in this case it is attracted towards the magnet)
B is incorrect because X cannot also be a south pole (and hence is a north pole)
If the pole at X was a south pole then the piece of metal would be repelled from the
magnet because the law of magnetism states that like poles repel
C and D are incorrect because aluminium is not a magnetic material
A non-magnetic material would be unaffected by the magnetic field produced by
the magnet.

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6.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 12: Investigating Magnetic Fields
Aim of the Experiment
To investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between two bar
magnets
Equipment List

Method
Step 1:
Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper
Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)

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

Step 2:
Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the
compass points away from the dot
Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle

Step 3:
Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot, and repeat the process
above

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

Step 4:
Keep repeating the previous process until there is a chain of dots going from one end
of the magnet to the other
Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – this will be the
magnetic field line

Step 5:
Repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines

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

Step 6:
Repeat the whole process for two bar magnets placed 5 cm apart first facing the same
pole then facing opposite poles
Analysis of Results
The magnetic field pattern for the single bar magnetic should look like this:

The magnetic field pattern for two bar magnets should look like this:

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

Evaluating the Experiment

Make sure the pencil you use is sharp to provide a clear and accurate drawing of the field
lines
Read the marker on the compass from above and not at an angle
Allow the compasses to settle for a couple of seconds before taking the reading

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6.1.5 Electromagnetism YOUR NOTES


Electromagnetism
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the
wire
The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses

Diagram showing the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles
A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire
has no poles
As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets weaker as
the distance from the wire increases
The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field

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

The right-hand thumb rule shows the direction of current flow through a wire and the
direction of the magnetic field around the wire
Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the direction
of the magnetic field

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

Side and top view of the current flowing through a wire and the magnetic field produced
If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength of the
magnetic field
This means the field lines will become closer together
Factors Affecting Field Strength
The strength of the magnetic fields field depends on:
The size of the current
The distance from the long straight conductor (such as a wire)
A larger current will produce a larger magnetic field and vice versa
The greater the distance from the conductor, the weaker the magnetic field and vice versa

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

The greater the current, the stronger the magnetic field. This is shown by more concentrated
field lines

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6.1.6 The Motor Effect YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
The motor effect occurs:
When a wire with current flowing through it is placed in a magnetic field and
experiences a force
This effect is a result of two interacting magnetic fields
One is produced around the wire due to the current flowing through it
The second is the magnetic field into which the wire is placed, for example, between
two magnets
As a result of the interactions of the two magnetic fields, the wire will experience a force

The motor effect is a result of two magnetic fields interacting to produce a force on the wire
Simple Motors
The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor
The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) positioned in a
uniform magnetic field:

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

A simple d.c. motor consisting of two magnets, a coil and a split ring commutator to control
the direction of the current
When the current is flowing in the coil at 90o to the direction of the magnetic field:
The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field produced by the
magnets
This results in a force being exerted on the coil
The direction of the force can be determined using Fleming's left-hand rule
As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the coil, the force produced
from the magnetic field will push one side of the coil up and the other side of the coil
down
This will cause the coil to rotate, and it will continue to rotate until it is in the vertical position
When the coil is in the vertical position there will be a force acting upwards and a force
acting downwards

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

Forces acting on the coil in the vertical position

The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil
This reverses the direction in which the current is flowing
Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in which the forces are
acting
As a result, the coil will continue to rotate

Forces on coil after commutator has reversed the direction of the current
The commutator reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
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This will keep the coil rotating continuously as long as the current is flowing YOUR NOTES
Factors Affecting the D.C Motor 
The speed at which the coil rotates can be increased by:
Increasing the current
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
The direction of rotation of coil in the d.c motor can be changed by:
Reversing the direction of the current
Reversing the direction of the magnetic field by reversing the poles of the magnet
The force supplied by the motor can be increased by:
Increasing the current in the coil
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
Adding more turns to the coil
Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers and headphones convert electrical signals into sound
They work due to the motor effect
They work in the opposite way to microphones
A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a permanent
magnet

Diagram showing a cross-section of a loudspeaker

An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker
This creates a changing magnetic field around the coil
As the current is constantly changing direction, the direction of the magnetic field will be
constantly changing
The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the permanent
magnet
The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil

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The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s left-hand YOUR NOTES
rule 
As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil will
constantly change direction
This makes the coil oscillate
The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate
This makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

 Worked Example
A d.c motor is set up as shown below.

Determine whether the coil will be rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.

Step 1: Draw arrows to show the direction of the magnetic field lines
These will go from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole of the magnet

Step 2: Draw arrows to show the direction the current is flowing in the coils
Current will flow from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal
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

Step 3: Use Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of the force on each side
of the coil
Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the
direction of the Current
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)

Step 4: Use the force arrows to determine the direction of rotation

The coil will be turning clockwise

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

 Exam Tip
The explanation of the loudspeaker is very similar to the explanation of a motor,
however direct current is used in a d.c motor and alternating current is used in a
loudspeaker. You need to learn how both work.When explaining how a loudspeaker
works remember to refer to the alternating current and the changing magnetic field
that it creates.

Factors Affecting Magnetic Force

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields
Stronger magnetic fields produce stronger forces and vice versa
For a current carrying conductor, the size of the force exerted by the magnetic fields can be
increased by:
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire
This will increase the magnetic field around the wire
Using stronger magnets
This will increase the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet
Placing the wire at 90o to the direction of the magnetic field lines between the poles of
the magnet
This will result in the maximum interaction between the two magnetic fields
Note: If the two magnetic fields are parallel there will be no interaction between the two
magnetic fields and therefore no force produced

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6.1.7 Fleming's Left-Hand Rule YOUR NOTES


Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
The direction of the force (aka the thrust) on a current carrying wire depends on the
direction of the current and the direction of the magnetic field
All three will be perpendicular to each other
This means that sometimes the force could be into and out of the page (in 3D)
The direction of the force (or thrust) can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule:

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule can be used to determine directions of the force, magnetic field
and current

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 Worked Example

Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to show that if the current-carrying wire is placed into
the magnetic field between the poles of the magnet, as shown below, there will be a
downwards force acting on the wire.

Step 1: Determine the direction of the magnetic field

Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field.
Step 2: Determine the direction of the current
Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the
direction of the Current
Step 3: Determine the direction of the force
The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
Therefore, this will be the direction in which the wire will move

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember that the magnetic field is always in the direction from North to South and

current is always in the direction of a positive terminal to a negative terminal.Feel
free to use Fleming's left hand rule in your exam, just don't make it too obvious or
distracting for other students!

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6.1.8 Electromagnets YOUR NOTES


Electromagnets
When an electric current flows in a wire it creates a magnetic field around the wire
By winding the wire into a coil we can strengthen the magnetic field by concentrating the
field lines
If this wire is wound around a soft magnet, such as an iron, then an electromagnet is made
The electromagnet is magnetic only when current flows through the wire

Electromagnets are made up of a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core

The strength of an electromagnet’s magnetic field may be increased by:
Increasing the current in the coil
Adding more turns to the coil
The magnetic field around an electromagnet has the same shape as the one around a bar
magnet
The field can be reversed by reversing the direction of the current
However, bar magnets are always magnetic, unlike electromagnets

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6.1.9 Magnetic Field Patterns YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Field Patterns
Magnetic field line patterns are all slightly different around:
Straight wires
Flat circular coils
Solenoids
Magnetic Field in a Straight Wire
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the
wire
The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be investigated using plotting
compasses
The magnetic field is made up of concentric circles
A circular field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire
has no poles
As the distance from the wire increases the circles get further apart
This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the wire and gets weaker as
the distance from the wire increases
The right-hand thumb rule can be used to work out the direction of the magnetic field

The direction of the magnetic field around a wire is given by the right-hand thumb rule
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Reversing the direction in which the current flows through the wire will reverse the direction YOUR NOTES
of the magnetic field 
If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be no magnetic field
Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will increase the strength of the
magnetic field
This means the field lines will become closer together
Magnetic Field in a Flat Circular Coil
When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of the coil,
passing through the centre of it

The magnetic field around a flat circular coil

To increase the strength of the magnetic field around the wire it should be coiled to form
a solenoid
The magnetic field around the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet

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YOUR NOTES


Magnetic field around and through a solenoid

Magnetic Field in a Solenoid
The magnetic field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform
Inside a solenoid (an example of an electromagnet) the fields from individual coils
Add together to form a very strong almost uniform field along the centre of the
solenoid
Cancel to give a weaker field outside the solenoid
One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves
like the south pole
To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed from the end
If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction then it is the south pole
If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction then it is the north pole
If the current changes direction then the north and south poles will be reversed
If there is no current flowing through the wire then there will be no magnetic field produced
around or through the solenoid

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

Poles of a Solenoid
The strength of the magnetic field produced around a solenoid can be increased by:
Increasing the size of the current which is flowing through the wire
Increasing the number of coils
Adding an iron core through the centre of the coils
The iron core will become an induced magnet when current is flowing through the coils
The magnetic field produced from the solenoid and the iron core will create a much
stronger magnet overall

 Exam Tip
Remember the term ‘uniform field’ means a field which has the same strength and
direction at all points. This is represented by parallel field lines.When discussing the
strength of an electromagnet, avoid saying “add more coils”:
The coil describes the overall object – the individual loops of wire should be referred
to as turns.
The correct phrase to use is “add more turns to the coil”.

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6.1.10 Magnetic Force on a Charge YOUR NOTES


Magnetic Force on a Charge
When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience a force if the
wire is perpendicular
This is because the magnetic field exerts a force on each individual electron flowing
through the wire
Therefore, when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field, the field can exert a
force on the particle, causing it to deflect
The force is always at 90 degrees to both the direction of travel and the magnetic field
lines
The direction can be worked out by using Fleming's left-hand rule

The electron experiences a force upwards when it travels through the magnetic field
between the two poles
If the particle is travelling perpendicular to the field lines:
It will experience the maximum force
If the particle is travelling parallel to the field lines:
It will experience no force
If the particle is travelling at an angle to the field lines:
It will experience a small force

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Remember that the direction of current flow in Fleming's Left-Hand Rule is from

positive to negative. This means it is in the opposite direction to the direction of
travel of an electron (which is negatively charged)

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6.2 Electromagnetic Induction YOUR NOTES


6.2.1 Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic (EM) induction is used to generate electricity
EM induction is when:
A voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a magnetic field
or when a magnetic field changes through it
This is done by the conductor or coil cutting through the magnetic field lines of the
magnetic field
This is often referred to as the generator effect and is the opposite to the motor effect
In the motor effect, there is already a current in the conductor which experiences a
force
In the generator effect, there is no initial current in the conductor but one is induced
(created) when it moves through a magnetic field
This is done by the conductor or coil cutting through the magnetic field lines of the
magnetic field
Generating Potential Difference
A potential difference will be induced in the conductor if there is relative movement
between the conductor and the magnetic field
Moving the electrical conductor in a fixed magnetic field
When a conductor (such as a wire) is moved through a magnetic field, the wire cuts
through the fields lines
This induces a potential difference in the wire

Moving an electrical conductor in a magnetic field to induce a potential difference

Moving the magnetic field relative to a fixed conductor
As the magnet moved through the coil, the field lines cut through the turns on the coil
This induces a potential difference in the coil

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YOUR NOTES


When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing a potential
difference
A sensitive voltmeter can be used to measure the size of the induced potential difference
If the conductor is part of a complete circuit then a current is induced in the conductor
Factors Affecting the Induced Potential Difference
The size of the induced potential difference is determined by:
The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
The number of turns on the coils of wire
The size of the coils
The strength of the magnetic field
The direction of the induced potential difference is determined by:
The orientation of the poles of the magnet
1. The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:
Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut
This will increase the induced potential difference
2. The number of turns on the coils in the wire:
Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the potential
difference induced
This is because each coil will cut through the magnetic field lines and the total potential
difference induced will be the result of all of the coils cutting the magnetic field lines
3. The size of the coils:

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Increasing the area of the coils will increase the potential difference induced YOUR NOTES
This is because there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines 
4. The strength of the magnetic field:
Increasing the strength of the magnetic field will increase the potential difference
induced
5. The orientation of the poles of the magnet:
Reversing the direction in which the wire, coil or magnet is moved

 Exam Tip
When discussing factors affecting the induced potential difference:
Make sure you state:
“Add more turns to the coil” instead of “Add more coils”
This is because these statements do not mean the same thing
Likewise, when referring to the magnet, use the phrase:
“A stronger magnet instead of “A bigger magnet”
This is because larger magnets are not necessarily stronger

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6.2.2 Generators & Dynamos YOUR NOTES


Generators & Dynamos
The generator effect can be used to:
Generate a.c in an generator
Generate d.c in a dynamo
Alternator
A simple alternator is a type of generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy in the form of alternating current

An alternator is a rotating coil in a magnetic field with commutator rings

A rectangular coil that is forced to spin in a uniform magnetic field
The coil is connected to a centre-reading meter by metal brushes that press on two metal
slip rings (or commutator rings)
The slip rings and brushes provide a continuous connection between the coil and the
meter
When the coil turns in one direction:
The pointer defects first one way, then the opposite way, and then back again
This is because the coil cuts through the magnetic field lines and a potential
difference, and therefore current, is induced in the coil
The pointer deflects in both directions because the current in the circuit repeatedly
changes direction as the coil spins
This is because the induced potential difference in the coil repeatedly changes its
direction
This continues on as long as the coil keeps turning in the same direction

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The induced potential difference and the current alternate because they repeatedly YOUR NOTES
change direction 

A.c output from an alternator - the current is both in the positive and negative region of the
graph
Dynamos
A dynamo is a direct-current generator
A simple dynamo is the same as an alternator except that the dynamo has a split-ring
commutator instead of two separate slip rings

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YOUR NOTES


A dynamo is a rotating coil in a magnetic field connected to a split ring commutator

As the coil rotates, it cuts through the field lines
This induces a potential difference between the end of the coil
The split ring commutator changes the connections between the coil and the brushes
every half turn in order to keep the current leaving the dynamo in the same direction
This happens each time the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines
Therefore, the induced potential difference does not reverse its direction as it does in the
alternator
Instead, it varies from zero to a maximum value twice each cycle of rotation, and never
changes polarity (positive to negative)
This means the current is always positive (or always negative)

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YOUR NOTES


D.C output from a dynamo - the current is only in the positive region of the graph
Bicycle Dynamo
A bicycle dynamo is used to supply electricity to bicycle lights whilst in motion
It consists of a rotating magnet placed inside (or next to) a coil
The magnet is rotated by its connection to the bicycle inside the coil
This is sometimes called the friction wheel and the axle / spindle
The magnetic field lines cut through the sides of the coil
This induces a potential difference in the coil
Since the magnetic field is constantly changing direction as it rotates, so does the output
potential difference
This means the output current is also changing direction
Therefore, a bicycle dynamo, unlike a normal dynamo, produces alternating current (a.c)

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YOUR NOTES


A bicycle dynamo consists of a magnet rotating in a coil due to the motion of the wheels

 Exam Tip
Motors and generators look very similar (as do microphones and loudspeakers), but
they do very different things.When tackling a question on either of them, make sure
you are writing about the right one!You might be expected to give the above
explanations - make sure that you understand their subtle differences!

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6.2.3 Transformers YOUR NOTES


Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease the potential
difference of an alternating current
This is achieved using the generator effect
Structure of a Transformer
A basic transformer consists of:
A primary coil
A secondary coil
An iron core
Iron is used because it is easily magnetised

Structure of a transformer
How a Transformer Works
An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil
The current is continually changing direction
This means it will produce a changing magnetic field around the primary coil
The iron core is easily magnetised, so the changing magnetic field passes through it
As a result, there is now a changing magnetic field inside the secondary coil
This changing field cuts through the secondary coil and induces a potential
difference
As the magnetic field is continually changing the potential difference induced will be
alternating
The alternating potential difference will have the same frequency as the alternating
current supplied to the primary coil
If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating current to flow

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Step-up & Step-down Transformers YOUR NOTES

A transformer can change the size of an alternating voltage 
They also have a number of other roles, such as:
To increase the potential difference of electricity before it is transmitted across the
national grid
To lower the high voltage electricity used in power lines to the lower voltages used in
houses
Used in adapters to lower mains voltage to the lower voltages used by many electronic
devices
A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source.
A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power source.
A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary
coil
Transformers in Electricity Transmission
When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the wires heats them,
resulting in energy loss
The electrical energy is transferred at high voltages from power stations
It is then transferred at lower voltages in each locality for domestic uses
The voltage must be stepped up by a step-up transformer
These are placed after the power station
For the domestic use of electricity, the voltage must be much lower
This is done by stepping down by the voltage using a step-down transformer
These are placed before buildings

Electricity is transmitted at high voltage, reducing the current and hence power loss in the
cables using transformers

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6.2.4 Transformer Equations YOUR NOTES


The Transformer Equation
The output potential difference (voltage) of a transformer depends on:
The number of turns on the primary and secondary coils
The input potential difference (voltage)
It can be calculated using the equation:

This equation can be written using symbols as follows:

Where
Vp = potential difference (voltage) across the primary coil in volts (V)
Vs = potential difference (voltage) across the secondary coil in volts (V)
np = number of turns on primary coil
ns = number of turns on secondary coil
The equation above can be flipped upside down to give:

The equations above show that:

The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of a
transformer is equal to the ratio of the number of turns on each coil
Step-up Transformer
A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source
A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil (Ns >
Np)
Step-down Transformer
A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power source
A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
(Ns < Np)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A transformer has 20 turns on the primary coil and 800 turns on the secondary coil.
The input potential difference across the primary coil is 500 V.
a) Calculate the output potential difference
b) State what type of transformer it is

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 When you are using the transformer equation make sure you have used the same

letter (p or s) in the numerators (top line) of the fraction and the same letter (p or s) in
the denominators (bottom line) of the fraction.There will be less rearranging to do in
a calculation if the variable which you are trying to find is on the numerator (top line)
of the fraction.The individual loops of wire going around each side of the transformer
should be referred to as turns and not coils.

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The Ideal Transformer Equation YOUR NOTES

An ideal transformer would be 100% efficient 
Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to the law of
conservation of energy, they cannot increase the power output
If a transformer is 100% efficient:
Input power = Output power
The equation to calculate electrical power is:
P=V×I
Where:
P = power in Watts (W)
V = potential difference in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A)
Therefore, if a transformer is 100% efficient then:
Vp × Ip = Vs × Is
Where:
Vp = potential difference across primary coil in volts (V)
Ip = current through primary coil in Amps (A)
Vs = potential difference across secondary coil in volts (V)
Is = current through secondary coil in Amps (A)
The equation above could also be written as:
Ps = Vp × Ip
Where:
Ps = output power (power produced in secondary coil) in Watts (W)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A transformer in a travel adapter steps up a 115 V ac mains electricity supply to the
230 V needed for a hair dryer. A current of 5 A flows through the hairdryer.Assuming
that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the current drawn from the mains
supply.
Step 1: List the known quantities
Voltage in primary coil, Vp = 115 V
Voltage in secondary coil, Vs = 230 V
Current in secondary coil, Is = 5 A
Step 2: Write the equation linking the known values to the current drawn
from the supply, Ip
Vp × Ip = Vs × Is
Step 3: Substitute in the known values
115 × Ip = 230 × 5
Step 4: Rearrange the equation to find Ip

Step 5: Calculate a value for Ip and include the correct unit

Ip = 10 A

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