Open Education Studies, 2020; 2: 265–276
Research Article
Joseph Kweku Ansah, Frank Quansah*, Regina Mawusi Nugba
‘Mathematics Achievement in Crisis’: Modelling the
Influence of Teacher Knowledge and Experience in
Senior High Schools in Ghana
https://doi.org/10.1515/edu-2020-0129
received August 11, 2020; accepted November 1, 2020.
Abstract: Mathematics achievement in senior high
schools (SHS) in Ghana is not encouraging and this has
become a concern for major stakeholders. Several studies
have been conducted to provide information to understand
the issue of poor mathematics achievement. Of all the
studies, areas regarding the joint influence of experience,
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and subject matter
knowledge (SMK) have been less explored in Ghana. In this
study, the interplay among these variables is examined
in an attempt to explain the variances in students’
mathematics achievement. To achieve this purpose,
210 SHS teachers and 8,400 students in SHS across the
country were surveyed and subsequently administered
tasks on algebra taking into consideration the variables of
interest. The study revealed that teacher knowledge and
teaching experience significantly influenced students’
mathematics achievement. It was discovered that PCK
had a significant indirect effect on students’ mathematics
achievement through teachers’ SMK. The findings also
showed that experience did not significantly moderate
the relationship between teachers’ SMK and students’
mathematics achievement. The study, based on the
outcome, made conclusions and recommendations for
practice. Suggestions for the implementation of future
studies were also highlighted.
Keywords: Pedagogical content knowledge; subject
matter knowledge; senior high school; experience;
mathematics achievement; algebra; mathematics teachers.
*Corresponding author: Frank Quansah, Department of Education
and Psychology, University of Cape Coast, Ghana, E-mail:
fquansah99@gmail.com
Joseph Kweku Ansah, Department of Mathematics, University of Cape
Coast, Ghana
Frank Quansah, Regina Mawusi Nugba, Department of Education
and Psychology, University of Cape Coast, Ghana
Open Access. © 2020 Joseph Kweku Ansah, Frank Quansah, Regina Mawusi Nugba, published by De Gruyter.
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Public License.
1 Introduction
The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 of the United
Nations is geared towards attaining equitable and
inclusive quality education as well as promoting long-
life learning prospects for all. As a key indicator for the
achievement of the Education Agenda 2030 (SGD 4),
teaching quality is largely acknowledged by educational
researchers, practitioners, and policymakers (United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific, 2015). The quality of the teaching process is
a momentous element in the school environment and is
known to significantly influence academic achievement
(Gichuru & Ongus, 2016; Quansah & Ankoma-Sey, 2020).
Fenster (2014) retains that a highly efficacious instructor
guarantees an improvement in learners’ academic learning
in both long-term and short-term. Thus, teacher quality in
any school milieu is the most precarious constituent for
improving student achievement and reducing students’
achievement gaps (Borisade, 2011). This presupposes that
teacher quality has implications on students’ achievement
and/or achievement gaps in mathematics in schools.
All over the world, mathematics is an important subject
taught in schools and this is because of its significance to
other subjects, particularly, in the development of science,
humanities and technology (Ezenweani, 2006). The field
of Mathematics is vital for its application in machine
learning, management, national defence, technology,
finance, industrial processes, among others. In light of
this, students’ mathematics achievement have frequently
been viewed by stakeholders as an indicator of the overall
health of schools and the country’s general intellectual
capability (Kolawole & Oluwatayo, 2005). Undeniably,
teaching quality and other school factors have been
found as the variables contributing to poor mathematics
achievement in schools (Borisade, 2011). The gross
prevalent underachievement in mathematics in public
examinations could, thus, be attributed to teacher quality
and other constraining school variables (Borisade, 2011).
This work is
266 Joseph Kweku Ansah, Frank Quansah, Regina Mawusi Nugba
The West African Examination Council (WAEC),
for several decades, has been the only body in Ghana
for assessing the performance of students after the
completion of Junior High School (JHS) and Senior High
School (SHS). Some concerns have been expressed by a
large number of citizens on SHS students’ failure rate,
particularly in mathematics, reported by WAEC every
year. Due to this, many attempts have been made by
governments in the past to improve the performance of
mathematics in schools. Despite governments’ efforts,
mathematics achievement has not undergone much
change; there are consistently low achievement levels
in mathematics among SHS students (WAEC, 2014, 2015,
2016). It is regrettable, therefore, that in recent times,
many SHS students struggle with mathematics and
perform very poorly in their final examinations in most
jurisdictions (Bosson-Amedenu, 2017; Fletcher, 2018). A
5-year mathematics performance data (2013-2017) of SHS
students, obtained from WAEC (2018), revealed that more
than half of students who sat within the period could
not obtain grade C61 or better in mathematics which is
needed to qualify them for university admissions. The
pass rate was 36.68% in 2013, 32.45% in 2014, 24.09% in
2015, 33.12% in 2016, and in 2017 it was 41.66%. Although
there is no definitive pattern in the performance data, it is
important to emphasize that over 50% of the students who
sat for the examination each year were not eligible to gain
admission to any university in Ghana. This has become a
disquiet for students, parents, and other stakeholders in
education in the country.
Considering the national outcry in Ghana over the
students’ poor mathematics performance in national
assessments, which prevents a bulk of SHS graduates from
pursuing further studies, it is obvious that this problem
is critical, and requires investigation to understand
which variables seem to negatively impact on students’
mathematics achievement and performance. Many
studies have been conducted on the factors influencing
mathematics performance at the SHS level (see Abreh,
Owusu, & Amedahe, 2018; McCarthy, McCarthy, Gyan,
Baah-Korang, 2015; Appiagyei, Joseph & Fentim, 2014;
Enu, Osei, & Nkum, 2015; Fletcher, 2018). These studies
highlight the role variables (such as students’ attitude
1 The grading system and interpretation (by percentage score required
to earn the grade) used by WAEC presented as A1 for excellent, for raw
marks from 75% to 100%; B2 for very good, for raw score from 70% to
74%; B3 for good, for raw score from 65% to 69%; C4 for credit, for raw
score from 60% to 64%; C5 for credit, for raw score from 55% to 59%,
C6 for credit, for raw score from 50% to 54%, D7 for pass, for raw score
from 45% to 49%; E8 for pass, for raw score from 40% to 45%; and F9
for failure, for raw score from failure 0% to 39%.
towards mathematics, interest in the subject, inadequate
teaching and learning materials, insufficient mathematical
practice by students, home factors, and peer factors) play
in students’ mathematics performance. Other studies
have investigated teacher variables and mathematics
achievement of students (also see Akpo, 2012; Anney &
Bulayi, 2020; Dial, 2008; Ewetan & Ewetan, 2015; Gichuru
& Ongus, 2016; Kimani, Kara & Njagi, 2013; Kosgei, Kirwa,
Odhiambo, & Ayugi, 2013; Yusuf & Dada, 2016). Although
these previous studies focused on teacher variables, much
emphasis was placed on specific teacher variables like
qualification, age, preparedness, gender, communication
skills, classroom management and teaching experience. It
is only recently that Ansah, Mensah, and Wilmot (2020)
examined the role of experience in the relationship
between subject matter knowledge (SMK) and elective
mathematics performance. Ansah et al. did not include
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) despite the role it
plays in mathematics achievement. Thus, no instructor
can teach without PCK and thus, it is only through PCK
that SMK can be utilised in teaching (Lee, Bicer, Kwon,
& Capraro, 2019). This study combines SMK, PCK, and
teaching experience, and examines how they interact to
influence mathematics performance.
Teacher knowledge (SMK and PCK) is a significant
indicator of teacher competence (Ding, He, & Leung,
2014) and serves as the basis for teachers’ classroom
instructional practice (Lee, Capraro, & Capraro, 2018).
Even (1993, p.94) defined SMK as “emphasizing knowledge
and understanding of facts, concepts, and principles and
how they are organized, as well as knowledge about the
discipline”. Shulman (1987), on the other hand, described
PCK as the knowledge which extends SMK and embodies
the aspects of content highly connected to its teachability.
Several scholars have found the role of teachers’ SMK and
PCK in students’ academic achievement to be important
(see Barlow & Cates, 2006; Ding et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2018;
Valanides, 2000). In particular, SMK and PCK have been
found to influence the development of misinterpretations,
misunderstandings, misconceptions, self-esteem, self-
efficacy, self-concepts, attitudes, beliefs, and interest of
students and teachers in mathematics (Barlow & Cates,
2006; Valanides, 2000; Quinn, 1997). Thus, SMK and PCK
together are the starting point for the formation of such
psychological variables which later affects the teaching
and learning of any subject, especially in mathematics
(Rizvi, 2004). Other researchers have also indicated
that SMK and PCK contribute to teachers’ choice and
utilisation of TLMs (Teaching and Learning Materials), and
classroom management practices (Ozden, 2008; Schmidt
et al., 2009). In other words, teachers with rich SMK and
 ‘Mathematics Achievement in Crisis’: Modelling the Influence of Teacher Knowledge and Experience ...
PCK, for example, would be able to improvise in the
absence of adequate TLMs and have an excellent way of
making difficult topics appear easy for all students. From
the foregoing, it is clear that teacher knowledge is critical
to teaching and learning as compared to other factors like
TLMs availability, attitudes, interest, self-efficacy, among
others. This backed our choice of introducing “teacher
knowledge” as a possible contributor to poor achievements
in Mathematics. We were also compelled to include years
of teaching experience because literature has revealed
that experience enhances SMK (Ewetan & Ewetan, 2015).
Thus, teachers with several years of teaching experience
have been found to develop robust SMK (Anney & Bulayi,
2020).
In this study, we modelled teachers’ SMK and PCK
with students’ mathematics achievement and teaching
experience was used as a moderating variable between
SMK and mathematics achievement. In short, this
research examined how teachers’ SMK, PCK and years
of teaching interact to explain the variances in students’
mathematics achievement. In terms of approach, this
study is among the few ones which applied Structural
Equation Modelling (SEM) (e.g., Ansah et al., 2020). The
rest of the paper is organized into seven sections. Following
the introduction are the review of previous studies,
hypotheses development and conceptual framework. The
methods section follows where discussions regarding the
participants, data collection instruments and approaches,
as well as data analysis procedures were highlighted. The
fourth and fifth sections present the results and discussion,
and the conclusions, respectively. The significance of
the study was also discussed. The paper ends with the
recommendations for practice and suggestions for further
studies.
2 Hypotheses Development and
Conceptual Framework
Teachers’ SMK reflects teachers’ mastery over their area of
specialisation (Adediwura & Tayo, 2007). It is indisputable
that teachers should be knowledgeable in their field of
endeavour since they need to impact and train students
(Stevenson, 2020). Thus, if an instructor is not adequately
knowledgeable in his/her subject area, then, any
confidence in teaching efficiency goes right ‘outside-the-
box’. Scholars like Fakeye (2012) have indicated that there
is a significant relationship between what instructors
know and what they teach. Therefore, for any instructor
to effectively teach, the SMK of such an instructor is
267
paramount. Of course, instructors will be handicapped if
they are unacquainted with issues in the content area (Lee
et al., 2018). Supporting this view, Nixon, Toerien, and
Luft (2018) also indicated that no instructor could explain
what they do not know or understand.
Teacher PCK, on the other hand, centres on the style
and approach adopted by the instructor in presenting
their lessons in an exciting manner (Lee et al., 2019). If
instructors can present their lessons to the learner in
an appealing manner, then, they have excellent PCK
(Tsafe, 2013). By this, an instructor with an excellent
PCK in mathematics can simplify complex mathematical
procedures, thereby, allowing all categories of students
to understand what is being taught (Ball, 2003). Other
scholars believe that teachers’ pedagogical skills are
related to students’ performance, although they provided
little evidence to support this claim (see Adedoyin, 2011;
AbdulRaheem & Amali, 2014). It is important to note that
teachers’ PCK, though strongly related to SMK, is not the
same as SMK. Thus, instructors command and utilisation
of appropriate teaching strategies in the classroom show
their level of SMK (Fakeye, 2012). In other words, teachers
need some level of PCK in addition to SMK to effectively
impact students.
Furthermore, years of teaching have been found to
significantly influence learners’ performance at all levels
(see Akpo, 2012; Anney & Bulayi, 2020; Ewetan & Ewetan,
2015; Olaleye, 2011). Instructors who are experienced have
a rich pool of knowledge to draw from and can offer ideas
and insight into instruction and learning (Kosgei et al.,
2013). Olaleye (2011) also revealed that learners taught
by more experienced instructors attain high academic
excellence since most of these instructors have mastery of
the content (i.e. SMK) and have a great deal of classroom
management skills to help all kind of students. Moreover,
experienced instructors are deemed to use the most
suitable instructional methods (i.e. PCK) to teach learners
with different background and abilities (also see Harber et
al., 2012; Lai, 2011; Rivers & Sanders, 2002; Stronge, Ward,
Tucker, & Hindman, 2007). Based on the aforementioned
discourse, the three hypotheses were developed:
HA1: Teacher knowledge (ie. SMK and PCK) and years
of teaching will positively influence students’ mathematics
achievement.
HA2: Teachers’ PCK will positively mediate the
relationship between teachers’ SMK and students’
mathematics achievement.
HA3: Teachers’ years of teaching will positively
moderate the relationship between teachers’ SMK and
students’ mathematics achievement.
HA2: Teachers’ PCK will positively mediate the relationship between teachers’ SMK and students’

mathematics achievement.

HA3: Teachers’ years of teaching will positively moderate the relationship between teachers’ SMK
268 Joseph Kweku Ansah, Frank Quansah, Regina Mawusi Nugba
and students’ mathematics achievement.

Pedagogical
were all restricted to one topical area in mathematics (i.e.
Content
Knowledge
Algebra). Algebra highlights mathematical symbols and
its associated rules used to manipulate such symbols
(Silver, 1997). Algebra is the foundation and merging
Subject Mathematics
point in virtually all aspects of mathematics (Olson, 1994).
Matter
Knowledge
Achievement Topics under algebra include, but not limited to, algebraic
expressions, real number system, solving equations,
proportions and proportional reasoning, functions, linear
Teaching inequalities, polynomials, and factoring.
Experience
It must be said that students with a strong foundation
in algebra have higher chances of having a strong
Figure 1: Conceptual framework on the influence of teacher knowledge and experience on
Figure 1: Conceptualstudents’ mathematics
framework on the achievement.
influence of teacher
understanding of further topical areas in mathematics
knowledge and experience on students’ mathematics achievement. (Pascopella, 2000). Essentially, if teachers do not have
RESEARCH METHODS
mastery or even have poor pedagogy of the area, students’
Sample achievement in mathematics will continue to be poor. As

3 Research Methods
The study comprised two categories of individuals: students and mathematics teachers a instarting point, it is imperative to understand teachers’
content knowledge in algebra, how they teach topics in
SHS in Ghana. Specifically, grade 11 students with their respective mathematics teachers were the
this area, their experience in teaching, and how these
focus of3.1 Sample
this study. Grade 11 students were employed because the grade 10 students had variables
not influence students’ achievement in algebra.
extensively studied Algebra (which is the focus for achievement measures) and thus could not be
The study comprised two categories of individuals:
in the position to respond to the tasks. The grade 12 students, on the other hands, were unavailable
students and mathematics teachers in SHS in Ghana. 3.3 Measurement of Variables
Specifically, grade 11 students
8 with their respective
mathematics teachers were the focus of this study. Grade This research comprised three major variables, namely,
11 students were employed because the grade 10 students teacher knowledge (SMK and PCK), teaching experience,
had not extensively studied Algebra (which is the focus and students’ achievement in algebra. The teaching
for achievement measures) and thus could not be in the experience was conceptualized as the number of
position to respond to the tasks. The grade 12 students, years of teaching mathematics in SHS. The rest of the
on the other hands, were unavailable because they were variables were measured using an instrument adapted
writing their final examination. Through the cluster from the Knowledge of Algebra for Teaching (KAT)
sampling technique, 14 single-sex male schools, 14 single- project (2012), Michigan State University. The instrument
sex female schools and 14 mixed schools were selected. contained standardised and psychometrically sound
Five mathematics teachers were further sampled from each items to measure teachers’ SMK and PCK in algebra (See
school making a total of 210 teachers (i.e., 42*5). For each Appendix). The reliability estimate for the instrument was
of the 210 teachers, 40 students of theirs were randomly .79 using the Kuder-Richardson 20 procedure. Ten tasks
sampled. In all, 8,400 students (i.e., 40*210) participated were provided under each construct (i.e. SMK and PCK)
in the study, with a response rate of 97.2% (n=8,169). The and teachers were required to respond to them. The same
male students were 53.1% (n=4,338) and the females were 10 items used to measure teachers’ SMK were used to
46.1% (n=3,831). Out of the 210 mathematics teachers, measure the achievement of students in algebra.
162 (77.1%) were male teachers whereas 48 (22.9%) were In adapting the instrument, most of the contexts
female teachers. and wording of the questions were changed to reflect
Ghanaian contexts as part of the adaptations process.
For instance, the prices of items were changed to reflect
3.2 Choice of Topic Area market values in Ghana as the dollar was replaced with
the cedi equivalent. Also, a few words were changed to
The nature of the study required the choice of the topic area reflect words used in the Ghanaian contexts. A word like
which the teacher knowledge will focus on. This narrowed “pants” for example was replaced by “trousers” as it is
the scope and decreased the influence of any extraneous commonly used in Ghana.
variables which may explain the findings of the study.
Thus, the SMK, PCK and students’ academic achievement
 ‘Mathematics Achievement in Crisis’: Modelling the Influence of Teacher Knowledge and Experience ... 269

3.4 Instrument Administration Procedures

After obtaining ethical clearance from the University of

Cape Coast review board, contacts were made with the
regional offices of Ghana Education Service (GES), heads
and/or the assistant heads of the senior high schools.
Earlier contacts were also made with the mathematics
teachers in the selected schools. At the meetings with the
teachers/headteachers and reps from GES, the purpose of
the study and the voluntary nature of participation were
discussed; allowing them to decide, without any form
of coercion, whether to participate or not to participate
in the study. We had interaction with the students and
Figure 2: Modelling teacher knowledge and experience on students’
assured them of confidentiality and anonymity as well as
mathematics achievement.
seeking their consent.
The tasks were administered before the start of the
normal school hours so as not to disrupt classes and also
complex and more accurate analysis of data by considering
for the participants to attempt the tasks with a sound
the distinct aspect of examined real and abstract
mind. In each of the participating schools, students were
theoretical concepts (Karimi & Meyer, 2014). Also, SEM can
assembled in the assembly hall where they were given
estimate for measurement errors through the utilisation of
60 minutes to complete the tasks under the supervision
several indicator latent factors, and the testing of complex
of a trained research assistant. While students were
mediational mechanisms through the decomposition
responding to the tasks, the selected teachers were
of effects (Tarka, 2018). It has been established that any
also assembled and carried out their tasks with a time
linear model (e.g., regression) appears to perform worse
limit of 120 minutes. Because the instrument contained
relative to SEM, not only due to the exclusion of correction
tasks of ability, there was strict supervision just as in
in the measurement errors but also because it is possible
an examination situation. The data were taken with ten
to ignore the indirect effects. Finally, SEM permits model
research assistants who were trained before the data
fitting and theory development (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon,
collection. The data collection lasted for 39 weeks.
2012).

3.5 Data Analysis

Data were gleaned from 210 mathematics teachers and
8,169 students. For each of the teachers, the average
achievement score for their students was computed and
used as the overall achievement for the class the teacher
handles. Thus, 210 average achievement scores were
generated and matched with the data from the teachers
for the analysis. A SEM approach was used to analyse
the data using SPSS (version 25) via Analysis of Moment
Structures (AMOS version 21) (Alavifar et al., 2012). The
bootstrapping approach, specifically 5,000 bootstrap
samples, was used as the parameter estimations procedure
(Hayes, 2018), using a confidence interval of 95%. To
interpret whether the result was significant or not using
the confidence interval, the lower and upper limit values
should not include zero (Hayes, 2018).
The use of SEM is advantageous over other approaches
and statistical models like multivariate regression for
several reasons. First, SEM allows for multidimensional,
4 Results
H01: Teacher knowledge (ie. SMK and PCK) and years
of teaching will not influence students’ mathematics
achievement.
As shown in Figure 2, SMK (with mean of 5.74
and variance of 3.41) predicted students’ mathematics
achievement by .21, PCK (with mean of 4.74 and variance
of 4.42) predicted mathematics achievement by .19,
Experience (with mean of 6.09. and variance of 4.09)
predicted mathematics achievement by .18; all with error
variance of .30 and intercept of 2.88. The covariance
between SMK and PCK was .98, SMK and Experience was
.73, and PCK and Experience was .46.
As shown in Table 1, teachers’ SMK significantly and
positively predicted students’ mathematics achievement,
b=.205, BootCI(.156, .252). Also, teachers’ PCK positively
influenced students’ mathematics achievement, b=.194,
BootCI(.154, .230). Further, the analysis revealed that
270 Joseph Kweku Ansah, Frank Quansah, Regina Mawusi Nugba

Table 1: Prediction of Teacher Knowledge on Students’ Mathematics Achievement.

Parameter Estimate Boot SE Std. Beta Critical Ratio BootLCI BootUCI

Achievement <--- SMK .205 .024 .399 9.567 .156 .252

Achievement <--- PCK .194 .020 .428 10.401 .154 .230

Achievement <--- Experience .181 .020 .384 9.463 .140 .219

Intercept 2.875 .163 -- 17.677 2.875 23.308

Bootstrap R 2
.670 -- -- -- .568 .757

Table 2: Direct, Total, and Indirect Effects of SMK on Mathematics

Achievement.

Effect BootSE BootLLCI BootULCI

Direct effect of SMK on .287 . 029 .180 .296

Achievement:

Total effect of SMK on .300 .037 .222 .370

Achievement

Indirect effect of SMK on .059 .017 .026 .094

Achievement

Effect sizes of the total

& indirect effects
Figure 3: The Mediating Role of PCK in the Relationship between
Total .582 .056 .460 .679
SMK and Students’ Mathematics Achievement.
SMK -> PCK -> .114 .031 .052 .172
Achievement

Mediator: PCK

years of teaching mathematics (experience) positively

influenced students’ mathematics achievement, b=.181,
BootCI(.140, .219). Comparatively, teachers’ PCK was found
as the strongest predictor (standardized estimate=.428),
followed by teachers’ SMK (standardized estimate=.399)
and the least predictor was experience (standardized
estimate=.384). Overall, teachers’ SMK, PCK and
experience explained 67% of the variances in students’
mathematics achievement (R2=.670).
H02: Teachers’ PCK will not mediate the relationship Figure 4: Moderating Effect of Experience in the Relationship
between teachers’ SMK and students’ mathematics between Teachers’ SMK and Students’ Mathematics Achievement.
achievement.
The path diagram displayed (Figure 3) reveals that
SMK (with mean of 5.74 and variance of 3.41) predicted “teachers’ PCK will not mediate the relationship between
PCK by .29 (error of 4.41 and intercept of 3.09). Also, PCK teachers’ SMK and students’ mathematics achievement”
and SMK predicted mathematics achievement by .20.and was rejected.
.24 respectively; all with error variance of .43 and intercept H03: Teachers’ years of teaching will not moderate
of 3.72 the relationship between teachers’ SMK and students’
The results, as shown in Table 2, revealed that PCK had mathematics achievement.
a significant indirect effect of teachers’ SMK on students’ As shown in Figure 4, Experience (with mean of 6.09.
mathematics achievement, b=.059, BootCI(.026, .094) and variance of 4.09) predicted students’ mathematics
with an effect size of .114. Thus, the null hypothesis that achievement by .18, SMK (with mean of 5.74 and variance
 ‘Mathematics Achievement in Crisis’: Modelling the Influence of Teacher Knowledge and Experience ...
Table 3: Moderating Role of Experience in the Relationship between Students’ Mathematics Achievement.
Parameter Estimate
Achievement <--- Experience .181
Achievement <--- SMK .247
Achievement <--- SMK*EXP .002
Intercept 3.478
Moderator: SMK*EXP
of 3.41) predicted mathematics achievement by .25,
Interaction term (moderator, SMK*EXP) (with mean of
35.65. and variance of 283.78) predicted mathematics
achievement by .00; all with error variance of .45 and
intercept of 3.48. The covariance between Experience
and SMK was .73, SMK and Moderator was 22.67 and,
Experience and Moderator was 226.33.
As presented in Table 3, years of teaching experience
did not significantly moderate the relationship between
teachers’ SMK and students’ mathematics achievement,
b=.002, BootCI(-.026, .037). Based on this result, we failed
to reject the null hypothesis which states that “teachers’
years of teaching will not moderate the relationship
between teachers’ SMK and students’ mathematics
achievement”.
5 Discussion
The findings from our study revealed a significant
influence of teachers’ SMK, PCK and experience on
students’ mathematics achievement. Further analysis
revealed that teachers’ PCK significantly mediates the
relationship between teachers’ SMK and students’
mathematics achievement. Of course, one cannot give
what he/she does not have. That is to say, that teachers
with limited content mastery and pedagogical content
knowledge will produce students with limited mastery
of what has been taught. It must be said that SMK is not
enough for a teacher to greatly impact students with
regards to mathematical abilities. Accordingly, teachers
with the same level of SMK but with different levels of PCK
will have a differential impact on their respective students’
mathematics achievement. With the same level of SMK,
the teacher with higher PCK will produce students with
higher mathematical ability as compared to a teacher with
lower PCK. These findings from this study corroborate
the observations of Adediwura and Tayo (2007) who
found out that there is some relationship between what
271
Boot SE Std. Beta Critical Ratio BootLCI BootUCI
.068 .385 2.671 -.042 .346
.069 .479 3.592 .012 .408
.012 .038 -.026 .037 .037
.387 -- 8.984 2.534 4.952
instructors knew and what they teach. Consistent with the
findings, other scholars like Fakeye (2012) have discovered
that instructors command and utilisation of appropriate
teaching strategies in the classroom show their level of
SMK and this reflects in the achievement of students.
The findings of this study further showed that
experience did not significantly moderate the relationship
between teachers’ SMK and students’ mathematics
achievement. In other words, teachers’ years of teaching
failed to adapt the relationship between teachers’ SMK
and students’ mathematics achievement. This suggests
that with similar levels of SMK, teachers’ with more years
of experience and those with fewer years of experience
will have a similar impact on students’ mathematics
achievement. Arguably, a teacher with strong content
mastery does not need much experience to train students
to be effective in mathematical computations. The
understanding is that many years of experience may not
have a significant improvement in the mastery the teacher
has. Therefore, teachers after attaining some level of SMK
do not require more years of teaching to be able to produce
students with higher mathematical ability. In contrast to
the findings of this study is the observations of Ansah et
al. (2020), who indicated that years of teaching experience
strengthens the link between teachers’ SMK and students’
mathematics achievement. Other studies like that of
Olaleye (2011), who highlighted the essence of experience
being a moderating variable, had contradictory findings
relative to this study.
6 Conclusions
The outcome of this study has highlighted the essence
of teachers knowledge, particularly PCK, and years of
teaching experience in solving the crisis in mathematics
achievement of students. Teachers are the major agent
in the school setting and are required to gain adequate
pedagogical knowledge on how to assist learners with
272 Joseph Kweku Ansah, Frank Quansah, Regina Mawusi Nugba
different abilities to gain mastery in mathematics.
This outcome of the study provides a platform for the
development and deployment of quality teachers having
the pre-requisite PCK to assist students to acquire complex
mathematical skills.
This study focused on only a specific topic area in
mathematics, which is algebra. Therefore, variables in
this study except for experience were tied to algebra.
Consequently, teachers’ PCK and SMK, as well as students’
achievement were all centred on algebra. Although
algebra is fundamental in almost all mathematical areas,
the results should be understood and interpreted in the
context of algebra. This is because the number of tasks
administered to measure SMK and PCK is inadequate to
conceptualise teachers’ SMK and PCK in every aspect of
mathematics. This is not to say, that the findings of this
study do not apply to other topical areas in mathematics,
however, such generalization should be done with
caution.
7 Significance of the Study
The findings of this research provide empirical and
comprehensive knowledge to relevant stakeholders on
how teacher knowledge (i.e. SMK and PCK) significantly
and directly determine students understanding in
mathematics. This study provides a valuable tool of
reference to teachers to undertake a self-evaluation in
terms of their effectiveness and efficiency in teaching. This
serves as a prompt to mathematics teachers on the need
to improve their pedagogy and knowledge on the subject;
by way of seminar and workshops or obtaining additional
academic qualification(s) to positively impact their
respective students. This shows the necessity of constantly
improving the academic capabilities of the teacher as this
will, in turn, impact the social and scientific base of the
nation. The findings, most importantly, provide higher
education administrators with relevant information to
rethink and/or improve on the training of pre-service
teachers on the education programme in the country.
8 Recommendations for Practice
and Future Direction
The study recommends that all stakeholders; Ministry
of Education, Ghana Education Service, education
planners, and teacher unions should periodically provide
windows of opportunities like actualisation workshops
on new pedagogical approaches covering specific topics
in mathematics. Seminars and in-service training should
also be organised for mathematics teachers to help them
adopt appropriate pedagogical skills in teaching the
subject. The results also have implications for the pre-
service teacher education programme. The management
of such institutions should incorporate the element of
PCK as a core aspect of the training of pre-service teachers.
For future implementation, further studies need to be
conducted to cover other topics in mathematics excluding
algebra.
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 ‘Mathematics Achievement in Crisis’: Modelling the Influence of Teacher Knowledge and Experience ... 275

Appendix 6. Given the table to the right, determine f(g(3))

A. 4A. 4 x f(x) g(x)
APPENDIX B. -1B. -1 -2 0 5
Subject Mater Knowledge Of Teacher & C. 1C. 1 -1 6 3
Students
er Knowledge Of Teacher & Students D. 5
D. 5 0 4 2
APPENDIX 1 -1 1
1. At a storewide sale,
cost ¢80 each and a pair of trousers cost ¢120 each. If S is the shirts cost ¢80 each and a pair of 2 3 -1
trousers cost ¢120 each.
Subject MaterIfof SAPPENDIX
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what is the slope f(x)
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ing for the expression
2. If D.f(x)
D. 80S
The
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ax120P?
cost 3
+ofofbxSS shirts
shirts
+ cx +and PP trousers
d, what trousers
is the slope of the line tangent to this curve at x = 2?
(x) ax3 + bxof
The= number 2
cx A.
+shirts +8ad, +8a
what + 4b + 2c ofand
A. and 4b +is 2c
trousers the slope
bought the line tangent to this curve at x = 2? 8. Mr. Ansah and Mr. Boateng work together. Mr. Ansah’s
8a 4b +of2c80 shirtsB.and8a
The+ cost 120 + 4b22+ 2c + d
3 trousers
2. If
2. If f(x)
f(x)8a
B. == axax
+ 34b ++++bx
bx2c+++cx cx
d + d, what is the slope of the line tangent to this salary
curveisatGH¢200.00
x = 2? a year and he has an annual
8a
The+ cost d C.
4b +of2cP+shirts and S12a trousers 4b + c + d, what is the slope of the line tangent to this curve at x = 2?
A.C.8a8aand12a 4b+trousers
++ 4b ++4b 2c+ c increment of GH¢20.00. Mr. Boateng is paid at first
The +cost
12a + cS A.
4b of shirts D. P12a
2c
+ 4b + c + d
ve12abelow in
+ 4b + c + d square
B.
B. D.8a
8a 12a
++units
4b
4b + ++4b 2c
2c + ++c +
d
d d at the rate of GH¢80.00 a year and has an increment
ax3area
)d=the 2 3.C.Find
+ C.
+ bxunder cxthe 12a
+12a
d,curvethe
++ 4b
what 4b area
is +
+
thecc under
slope the
of
below in square units the curve
line below
tangent toin square
this curve units
at x = 2? of GH¢8.00 every half-year. At the end of how many
y 3. Find the area under the curve below in square units
a + 4b + 2c D. 12a + 4b
D. 12a + 4b y+ c + d + c + d y years will Mr. Boateng receive more salary than Mr.
5
a𝐴𝐴.+54b + 2c3. + d Find 𝐴𝐴. the6area
area under under the the curve
curve below
below in in square
square units
units Ansah?
6 3. Find the
2a + 2 4b + c f(x) = -x2 + f(x) 5x -= 4-x2 + 5x - 4 A.
f(x) 6=years
2
𝐵𝐵. 𝐵𝐵. yy -x2 + 5x - 4
2a + 3 4b + c + d 5
4 𝐴𝐴. 56 43
𝐴𝐴. B. 5 years
he area under the curve
𝐶𝐶. 6 below in square units
5 𝐶𝐶.
22 5
x x
x C. 6.522years
a 𝐵𝐵. a b f(x) == -x
-x ++ 5x
5x -- 44
𝐷𝐷.
9
𝐵𝐵. 3 9 y b a b f(x)
D. 5.5 years
5 3
2 𝐷𝐷.
4
𝐶𝐶. 4 2
6
2 𝐶𝐶. 2 x x
55 f(x) = -x + 5x - 4
3 9 a
a bb
𝐷𝐷. 9 9. Solve the inequality: x2 +x – 20 > 0 in two essentially
4. 𝐷𝐷.How
4
w many real solutions 22 does many real solutions
the equation √𝑥𝑥 − 2 =does
√1 −the equation
𝑥𝑥x have?
5
4. How different ways.
√𝑥𝑥many − 2 real solutions doesbthe equation √𝑥𝑥 − 2 = √1 − 𝑥𝑥 have?
a
oes
A.
9 none
2
the equation = √1 − 𝑥𝑥 have?
have?
B. one A.
A. none none
C. two 10. Let A(x1, y1) be a point under a reflection in the line y
4. HowB.
4. How B.many
many one
one real solutions
real solutions doesdoes thethe equation
equation √𝑥𝑥 √𝑥𝑥 −− 22 == √1
√1 − have?
− 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 have?
D. infinitely many C. two = mx + c and let A1 (a, b) be the image of the point A.
many real solutionsA. does
A. C.none
none twoequation √𝑥𝑥 − 2 = √1 − 𝑥𝑥 have?
the
the figure below, ABC is a right-angled triangle. ABDE is a square of area 200 square Show that:
none B.D.D.one infinitely
infinitely manymany
hes and BCGF isB.a square
one of area 100 square inches. What is the length, in inches of (a) ofmbarea
+ a 200
= x1 square
+ my1
one 5. C.
In the
C. twofigure below, ABC is a right-angled triangle. ABDE is a square
two
C?
stwo
a right-angled triangle.
inches
D. In and
infinitely ABDE
BCGF
many is is
a a square
square of of
area area
100 200 square
square inches. What is (b)
the b – ma
length, in– 2c = mx
inches of1 – y1
10√2 many 5.D.
infinitely
infinitely
the figure many
E below, ABC is a right-angled triangle.
re of area
5. 100
5. In square
AC?
In the
the figure inches.
figureisbelow,
below, What
ABC
ABC is the length,
is aa right-angled
is right-angled
D in inches of
triangle.and
triangle. ABDE
ABDE is aa square
is square of of area
area 200
200 square
square
300 below,
figure ABC ABDE a square
is a right-angled of area
triangle. ABDE 200issquare
a squareinches
of area 200 BCGF
square
10√3
s and BCGF isinches
A.
inches
a square
10√2
and
is and BCGF
BCGF
aofsquare
area is a square
issquare
100of a square
area of area
100ofsquare
inches.
E100
area 100
What square
thesquare
isinches. inches.
inches.
length,What What
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is the
in inches of is the length, in inches
isDthe length, in inches of of
B. 300
AC? length, in inches of AC? Pedagogical Content Knowledge Of Teacher
15 E AC? D
10√2 A.C.10√2
A.
A. 1010√3 E
10√2 EE D
B F DD
1. Which of the following (taken by itself)
300 B.
B. D.
B. 300300
300 15 A
10√3 would give substantial help to a student
C. 10
C. 10√3
C. 10√3
15 27 B whoF wants to expand (x + y + z)2?
D.
D. 15
D. 15 A
i. See what happens in an example, such as
BF C F G
A B (3 + 4 + 5)2
A A
27 BB FF
A ii. Use (x + y + z)2 [(x + y) + z}2 and the expansion of
27 C (a G+ b)2
27 27
27
C G iii. Use the geometric model shown below:
C G CC GG
 276 Joseph Kweku Ansah, Frank Quansah, Regina Mawusi Nugba

x y Z 6. In a first year elective mathematics class, which of the

X x2
xy xz following is NOT an appropriate way to introduce the
y Y Z xy y2 yz 6. Inconcept
a first year elective
of slope of mathematics
a line? class, which of the following is NOT
xy Z xz xz yz z2 introduce the concept of slope of a line?
A. Toss a ball in the air and use a motion detector to
y2 yz A. Tossits
graph a ball in the air and use a motion detector to graph its trajec
trajectory
yz A. iii
z2 only 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
B. B. Apply
Apply the
theformula
formulaslope
slope 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 to several
severalpoints
pointsininthe plane
B. i and ii only
the plane
C. Discuss the meaning of m in the graphs of several equations of t
C. ii and iii only
C. y =Discuss
mx + bthe meaning of m in the graphs of several
D. i, ii and iii
equations
D. Talk about of the
the form
rate ofy change
= mx + of b a graph of a line on an interval
D. Talk about the rate
7. Consider the statement below: of change of a graph of a line
2. Which of the following can be represented by areas of
on an interval.
For all a, b s, if ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0
rectangles?
be represented by areas For which of the following sets is the above statement true?
i. ofTherectangles?
equivalence of fractions and percentages, e.g.
3 7. i.Consider Thethe set statement
of real number below:
ons and percentages, e.g. == 60% 60%
5 ii.For allThe a, bsets,ofifcomplex ab = 0, then numbers either a = 0 or b = 0
erty of multiplicationii.overThe distributive
addition. property
For all real of multiplication
numbers a, b over
For which
iii. The set of theof 2following
x 2 matrices setswith is the realabove number statemententries
c) = ab + ac addition. For all real numbers a, b and c we have
A.true?
i only 6. In6.aInfirst yearyear
a first elective elective mathematics
mathematics class, which
class, which of the followi
of the foll
square of a binomial (a +ab)(b2 =+ ac)2 + ab ++ac
= 2ab b2 B.i. ii only
The set of real introduce numbers
introduce the theconcept
concept of slope of slope of aofline? a line?
iii. The expansion of the square of a binomial (a + b)2 A. numbers
Toss
A. Toss a ball a ballin the in the air andair and use use a motion a motion detector
detector to gra
to
C.ii.iii The
onlyset of complex
= a2 + 2ab + b2 6. In 6.first
6. aIn aInfirst
ayear
first
year year
elective elective
elective mathematicsmathematics
mathematics
B. ApplyB. Apply
class,
the the
class,class,
which
formula
which
formula
which
of the
slope
of
of the the
following
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
slope
following
following
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
to several
is NOT
is NOT
to several
is an
NOT
points
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appropr
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pointsin the
in tp
D.iii.iintroduce
The
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the
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A. ii only
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
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Toss A.
Toss
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the
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andDiscuss
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anduse andthe
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ameaning
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to
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trajectory
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B. i and ii only 8. Which of theB.following ysituations
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=slope
mx can
b +𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 beseveral
bto𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 modelled using an exponential
B. ii only B. ApplyB. Apply
Applythe the the
formula formula
formula slope to
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points
points in in
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C. ii and iii only i. The height C. C.
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of
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D.meaning
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m
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𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
ofabout
of Talk about
in the
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itofrate
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equations
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7.
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Consider
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D. i andD.iiD. only For all
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year
7. Consider
7. Consider
7. Consider thethe the statement
statement
statement For
below: which
For
below:
below: which of the of the following following setssets is the above
is the abovestatement
statemet
er n. 3. The statement ‘For all whole numbers, if to the product A. i only ForFor all all
a, i.ba, bifi.
s,abifs,ab
if 0,
ab
=The= then
0, 0,of theneither either =aor0=bor
a0number 0=or
b0=b 0= 0
8. Which For all a, b s,
of the following situations can be modelledThe
= set
then set real
eitherof number
real
a =
1 of two consecutive whole numbers we add the larger B. ii only ForFor For
which which
whichofii. of the
the of the
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ii. The following
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The sets
set sets
iscomplex
the
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the
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statement
statement
numbersnumbers true? true?true?
using
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TheThesetThe
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set of
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ofnumber
real
numbernumber
number, the result is equal to the square of the larger iii. iii. TheThe set of set2ofx 2 xmatrices 2 matrices withwith realreal number number entries
entries
i. iiThe
D. ii. ii. height
and ii.iiiThe The
set
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complex
A. ball
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numbers after it is thrown
numbers
numbers
i only
number’ can be expressed symbolically as: for all iii.
iii. iii. the TheThe The
set set set of
of 2ofx22xmatrices2 x 2 matrices
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realreal real
number number
number entries
entries
entries
into 1 air 5 B. 1+2 ii only
B. ii only
3 5+10 15 3
whole number n. 9. NoticeA.that A. A.
i only =i onlyand
i only = and = = . Is it true in general th
s one, says a student, A.
therefore 0 ii. B. The amount
2 10 of
C. money iii only
C.
2 iii only
2 A in a jar after w2 weeks, if
10 10
n2 + 1 =0n (n
= 1’.
– 1) + n + 1 𝑎𝑎
if C. =
B.
𝑐𝑐ii B.ii
only
, C.then
ii
onlyonly
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐+𝑑𝑑
each C.
iii week
iii
only iii only$d=
only D.are i and
D. putifor
and all
ii in
only
iithe realjar
only numbers a, b, c, d, ≠ 0? Justify you
bout this? B. (n + 1) = n + 2n + 1
2 2 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑
D. D. iii and
i and ii only
ii only
1 iii. D.The i and
value only
v8. of8. aWhich
Which car after
of the tfollowing
following
of the yearssituations ifsituations
it depreciates
cancan be modelled
be modelled using an ex
using a
C. n2 = n (n – 1) + n 10. A8. student asked his teacher, “Is the square root ofisfunction?
16 four
nclude zero d% per year
8.
Which 8.
Which Which
of theof of
the the i. following
following
following i. The situations
height
The height
situations
situations canh of
can
be can
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balla modelled
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using using
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an an it
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into
function? the
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D. (n + 1) n = n2 + n The teacher
i. i. The i. Theanswered,
The
height height
heighthii.ofh aof “You
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seconds
amount
amount right”.
t seconds
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thrown
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ainjar into
athe the
after
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w air
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use it has multiple possible answers and not 1, A. ii.i only ii. The The amount of money
ii. The
Explain amountamount
whether of
of money
iii. iii. money
you
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A
agree
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value a A
in vin
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disagree
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t if if
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it $d are$d
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depreciates putare
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it depreciates put
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after t years
t years
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year year year
4. Every number to the power zero is one, says a student, [Write your solution] A.i only only
nent C. iii A. only
A. A.i only
i only i only
B. B. ii only
ii only
therefore 00 = 1’. B. B. B. ii only
ii only
ii only
conclusion to the statement “If a student D. iiC.and C. iii only
iii only C. C.iii only
iii only
Which of the following is true about this? C. iii
iii only only
hen the student is a good musician”? D. D. D. iiiiiand
ii and
ii and iii D.
iii only
only ii and
onlyD. iii only
ii and iii only
A. 00 = 0 and not equal to 1 1+21+213 315 5+10 1+2
55+10 1533
151+2 3 5+105+1015 15 3 3
9. Notice 9.that and
= 9.= and
Notice
=9.and andthat
Notice = =that and
==and =and = = =
and and
== Is10true
and ittrue
true
=general = that,
= general.that,
= Isthat,
. itIstrue in
it tru
1 15 5 3
high school band members
1 5 1+2 3 5+10 15 3
Notice
9. Notice
9. Notice thatthat that and and = 10 =. Is . itIs.true
itIs itin in in
general
B. The theorem does not include zero 2 210 210 10 2 2 22 22 22 10 10
10 10 102 10 2 2 22 2
10 10 10 10 2 2
ol band member in general that,
=, then
if if=𝑏𝑏if=, 𝑏𝑏then if
, then=
𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐+𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏
if
𝑐𝑐+𝑑𝑑
= =
if=for,=for then
𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐+𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐
then
all ,
for
all
𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏𝑐𝑐+𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐+𝑑𝑑
then
realall
real =
real
numbers = for
numbers
numbers a, a,
b, for
all
for
a,
b,
c, real
all
b,
c,
d, ≠ c,all
d, 0?d,
≠ 0?≠real
numbers
real numbers
0? a,
Justify
Justify
Justify your b,a,
your c,b,
your d,c,
answer
answer ≠ 0?
d,
answer ≠
C. 00 is indeterminate because it has multiple 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
usicians numbersA10.A
a, b,
Astudent c, asked
student d,asked
≠his0? Justify
his teacher, your answer
“Isthe
possible answers and not 1, the agreed upon 10.10. student asked his
10. 10.
A student teacher,
teacher,
asked
A student “Is “Is
his his
asked the
teacher, thesquare
square
“Is “Is
teacher, the the square
square rootroot
rootroot
square of rootof
of 16of16 16four
four four
andand andnegat
negative ne
embers are good musicians TheTheThe teacher
teacher
teacher answered,
answered,
answered, “You
“You
TheThe
teacher“You
areare are right”.“You
right”.
right”.
answered,
teacher answered, “You
are are
right”.
right”.
answer Explain whether you agree or disagree with the teacher
10. A student Explain
Explain asked
whether
whether youyou
Explainhis
agree
agree teacher,
or disagree
or disagree
Explainwhether
whether
with
with
you thethe
agree
you “Is
teacher
teacher
or
agree thewithwith
disagree
or disagree the the
teacher
teac
D. Zero cannot be an exponent [Write[Write
[Write your
your your solution]
solution]
solution]
29 square root of 16[Writefour and
youryour
[Write negative
solution]
solution]
30 four?”
The teacher answered, “You are right”.
5. Which of the following is a valid conclusion to the
Explain whether you agree or disagree with the
statement “If a student is a high school band member,
teacher.
then the student is a good musician”?
[Write your solution]
A. All good musicians are high school band members
B. A student is a high school band member
C. All students are good musicians 30 30 30

D. All high school band members are good musicians 30 30