Case Study

Evaluation of the Indonesian Standard Guidelines for

Long-Span PC Girder Erection
Wiryanto Dewobroto 1 and Khairina A. Canny 2

Abstract: Road infrastructure development in Indonesia has increased the use of long-span prestressed concrete I-section (PCI) girders for
bridge structures. However, these girders have instability issues during construction that resulted in multiple failures between 2017 and
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mid-2018. To address this problem, engineers compiled a standard guideline for erecting long-span PCI girders that includes three recom-
mendations: a lifting point or lifting frame, a dapped-end girder, and artificial stiffeners. In late 2022, despite the initial effectiveness of the
guideline, a video revealed that PCI girders were still vulnerable to failure despite strict adherence to the guidelines. A subsequent study
reviewed the guidelines and revealed that not all the guidance was effective. The study emphasized the importance of standardized bracing at
the supports. Therefore, it is necessary to revise and improve the guidelines to prevent similar failures in the future. DOI: 10.1061/PPSCFX.
SCENG-1424. © 2024 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Practical Applications: The process of erecting long-span prestressed concrete I-section (PCI) girders, which are more than 40 m long, is
risky and can lead to toppling and collapsing. The main cause of this risk is the presence of lateral imperfections, which are limited to length or
span of the girder ðLÞ=500 (maximum) due to construction tolerances and the lateral stiffness being relatively small. Therefore, the process of
erection must be carried out carefully and purposefully. To reduce the risk of accidents, a standard guideline for erection (SGE) was created.
However, although the SGE (2018, 2021) has successfully reduced accidents, failures still happen. There are weaknesses in the SGE that need
to be corrected. There are two critical risk stages during the erection of a PCI girder: the hanging and seated conditions. Using a lifting frame,
according to the SGE (2018, 2021), is correct for the hanging stage. However, the seating procedure in the SGE needs improvement. It is vital
to ensure that the strength of the bracing at the supports is standardized and installed correctly before removing the lifting crane. The reasons
for this recommendation are explained in this paper.
Author keywords: Prestressed concrete I-section (PCI) girder; Guidelines; Erection; Imperfection; Failure; Dapped-end; Lifting frame.

Introduction
During President Jokowi’s era (2014–2024), Indonesia focused
on developing toll road infrastructure, which led to increased
construction projects across the country. Standardized and repeti-
tive structural systems were adopted to meet the demands of
fast and cost-effective bridge construction. As a result, long-span
prestressed concrete I-section (PCI) girders (L > 40 m) became a
popular option despite their instability issues during construc-
tion. Unfortunately, between 2017 and 2018, there were several
failures during the erection of PCI girders (Effendi 2017;
Sepriansyah 2017; Ablehg 2018; Bagus 2018; Haryanto 2018),
which confirmed the challenges they present.
Response to Construction Failures
Anticipating Public Doubts
In 2017, there were multiple erection failures on several toll roads
and bridge projects, such as the Pemalang-Batang Toll Road,
1
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Universitas Pelita Harapan,
Tangerang 15811, Indonesia (corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid
.org/0000-0002-9773-0581. Email: wiryanto.dewobroto@uph.edu
2
Lecturer, Dept. of Smart Construction and Civil Engineering, Calvin
Institute of Technology, Jakarta 10610, Indonesia. Email: khairina.anindya@
calvin.ac.id
Note. This manuscript was submitted on July 4, 2023; approved on
January 19, 2024; published online on June 18, 2024. Discussion period
open until November 18, 2024; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Practice Periodical on
Structural Design and Construction, © ASCE, ISSN 1084-0680.
Bocimi Toll Road, Paspro Toll Road, and Ciputrapinggan Bridge
(SGE 2018). These incidents drew attention to serious concerns in
the erection of long-span PCI girders that required immediate
attention. If not addressed effectively, these issues would cause
public distrust in the government’s ability to execute infrastructure
projects successfully.
Establishment of a Construction Safety Committee
The Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing took steps to
ensure the success of construction projects. The Ministry formed
a special committee of experts to address any construction-related
issues that arise. The government established the Construction
Safety Committee (CSC) on January 24, 2018. The CSC monitors
and evaluates high-risk construction projects, investigates accidents,
and provides recommendations to ensure safe construction practices.
It is an honor that the first author, representing academics, was in-
vited to join this committee.
The CSC collaborates with all parties involved in infrastructure
projects to identify risky tasks and anticipate potential hazards. The
CSC conducts thorough evaluations to ensure safety by rejecting
unsafe construction methods. By implementing this strategy, the
CSC effectively limits unsafe practices and significantly reduces
construction-related incidents.
Standard Guidelines for Erection and
Recommendations for Construction Aids
Indonesian construction engineering professionals and experts are
concerned about frequent failures in PCI girder erection. These

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 issues could lead to a loss of public trust in the government’s ability
to effectively manage construction projects. If not dealt with
promptly, these issues could also result in a need to rely on foreign
experts and limit opportunities for local professionals due to politi-
cal factors.
In 2018, the Association of Precast and Prestressed Concrete
Companies (APPCC) and the Association of Precast and Pre-
stressed Concrete Experts (APPCE) in Indonesia released a book
titled, Precast and Prestressed Concrete Beams–PCI Girder
Products. The book offers solutions to the challenges of using
PCI girders. It covers various topics, including applications
and production of PCI girders and erection procedures for PCI
girders. The book has been well-received and is now the standard
guideline for erection (SGE 2018) for contractors and a helpful
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The standard guidelines for erection (SGE 2018, 2021) provide
guidelines for workers to follow when erecting a long-span PCI
girder. One of the changes outlined in the SGE (2018, 2021) when
lifting with a crane is the use of a lifting point (embedded device) or
lifting frame (external device) instead of slings in a single basket
hitch (Fig. 2).
The SGE (2018, 2021) goes beyond prescribing a lifting point or
lifting frame, because it also offers valuable recommendations for
specific design modifications to address the risks associated with
long-span girders (L > 40 m), thereby minimizing the potential for
girder rollover incidents. One such recommendation involves incor-
porating a dapped-end girder type (Mattock and Chan 1979).
The local experts believe that using a dapped-end PCI girder can
help reduce the risk of instability during erection. They believe that

reference for members of the CSC.
In 2019, a new publication called SNI 8730:2019 was released.
This publication provides additional guidelines for occupational
safety and health in the construction and erection of precast
concrete girders for bridges (BSN 2019). In 2021, the Ministry of
Public Works and Housing collaborated with APPCC and APPCE
to release an updated standard guideline for erection (SGE 2021).
These three publications are a valuable guide for producing and
installing precast and prestressed concrete girders for bridges in
Indonesia. Fig. 1 shows the guidebook covers.
the lateral force acting perpendicularly on the top side of a girder is
the cause of instability; consequently, making the distance between
the support and the lateral force relatively short will reduce the risk
of instability. However, there are no standard guidelines or litera-
ture to support this recommendation.
Another new device, artificial stiffeners from steel, has been de-
veloped to make girders more rigid during construction (Fig. 3).
Simple design calculations are used to ensure feasibility (SGE
2021). Calculations are made assuming that artificial stiffeners,
listed in SGE (2018) and SGE (2021), increase the torsional

Fig. 1. Standard guideline for the erection of PC girders for bridges in Indonesia.

Fig. 2. SGE provisions for lifting PCI girders. (Images courtesy of PT LIMOV Power Structure, Banten, Indonesia.)

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 Fig. 3. Application of artificial stiffeners on a PCI girder in Indonesia. (Images courtesy of PT LIMOV Power Structure, Banten, Indonesia.)
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constant or torsional stiffness (J), or it could be the moment of in-
ertia of the PC girder in the weak axis (Iy ). Both parameters (J and
Iy ) are used in Eq. (6) increase the critical moment, causing lateral
torsional buckling, thereby reducing the risk of instability during
erection. It is important to note that these additional components
also add weight during erection, resulting in unexpected results
and increasing the risk of failure.
SGE (2021) is a valuable guide for installing long-span PCI
girders thanks to its three innovative features: a lifting point or
frame, a dapped-end girder, and artificial stiffeners. The SGE
(2018, 2021) has successfully addressed previous concerns
regarding construction failures, including the 2017 incident. As
a result, construction workers can have greater confidence in the
effectiveness of the SGE guidelines in managing risks while install-
ing long-span PCI girders.
The Reliability of the Standard Guideline Is Questionable
When the new guidelines were released, the community of construc-
tion workers initially experienced a sense of relief, believing that the
risk of failures during the installation of long-span PCI girders had
been solved. However, their confidence was shattered in early 2023
with the circulation of a video of an incident in which a long-span
PCI girder failed shortly after being placed on its supports (Fig. 4).
The video of the collapse gained widespread attention due to the
presence of additional compelling evidence. Both the video clip

Fig. 4. Sequence of events from a video showing the erection failure of a PCI girder. (Images courtesy of M. Bimo Septiano.)

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Fig. 5. Girder collapse seen from the top of the support pier. (Image
courtesy of J. I. Rastandi.)
(Fig. 4) and additional photos (Fig. 5) confirmed that there was
indeed a problem with installing the PCI girder, leading to the
failure.
The installation of PCI girders follows the latest standard
guidelines, but failures still occur. The SGE (2018, 2021) recom-
mendations were followed, including the use of a dapped-end
girder type and artificial stiffeners, as seen in the photo of the
collapsed PCI girder. An important finding is that failures still
occur when carefully following the SGE (2018, 2021). However,
a lifting point, another recommendation in SGE (2018, 2021),
can ensure that a girder is successfully lifted and placed on its
supports.
The collapse is thought to have been due to eccentricity at the
support, which caused the girder to rotate along the roll axis parallel
to the centroid axis of the girder section; the temporary bracing
installed was of inadequate strength. Furthermore, it is essential
to evaluate SGE (2021) comprehensively to identify deficiencies
and seek improvements. This evaluation is critical in order to pre-
vent similar incidents in the future so that construction safety can be
ensured.
Fig. 6. Two girder modeling conditions for stability analysis: (a) hanging girder; and (b) seated girder. (Reproduced from Mast 1989, 1993, with
permission.)
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Literature Review on Girder Stability during Erection
Background
There is a lack of comprehensive studies on the stability of PCI
girders during erection in Indonesia. Many practitioners assume
that their stability behavior resembles that of steel I-beams, but this
is not necessarily true. PCI girders have a thicker cross section and
higher torsional stiffness than slender steel I-beams. In order to
make the best decisions, it is crucial to understand the stability
behavior of PCI girders based on existing research.
Girder Modeling for Stability Analysis
PCI girders in all work stages can be modeled under two primary
support conditions: (1) hanging; and (2) seated girders (Fig. 6).
The hanging condition is selected when a girder is lifted from the
top using a wire rope sling attached to the web or flange at its ends.
The seated condition is selected when a girder is supported from
underneath; this occurs during transportation, storage, or when the
girder is installed and seated on its supports (Mast 1989, 1993;
Stratford and Burgoyne 1999; Venkata 2019).
In both the hanging and seated cases, stability analysis of a PCI
girder focuses on identifying the balanced position. This position
ensures that the forces acting on the roll axis, an imaginary axis
enabling the girder to rotate as a rigid body, are kept in equilibrium.
By carefully examining and calculating the forces and moments
exerted on the girders, engineers can evaluate their stability and
make well-informed decisions regarding the installation and sup-
port processes.
The Equilibrium of a Hanging Girder
The support is flexible when a girder is suspended from a lifting
point or loop. It is free to roll, because there is no restraint against
girder rotation. In this configuration, a girder can rotate freely due
to the absence of restraints. Stratford and Burgoyne (1999) stated
this is the most dangerous condition or stage. The center of rotation,
which is typically situated on the upper surface of a girder, serves as
a pivotal point where it can rotate as a rigid body. This center point
and the axis passing through it, known as the roll axis, are shown in
Fig. 6(a).
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.
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Fig. 7. Force equilibrium condition in a hanging girder. (Reproduced from Mast 1989, with permission.)
When a PCI girder is in an ideal state, it tends to curve only in
the vertical plane while in a hanging position. In this condition, the
neutral axis of a PCI girder aligns perfectly with the roll axis. On a
practical level, it is essential to acknowledge that no PCI girder is
perfect. During production, tolerances for lateral imperfections or
sweep must be considered. According to production guidelines
provided by APPCC and APPCE, the maximum allowable sweep
tolerance is divide the length of the girder by 500 (L=500). In ad-
dition, there is a possibility of eccentricity at the lifting point. Both
sweep and eccentricity contribute to a shift in the centroid of the
cross section, causing it to deviate from perfect alignment with the
roll axis, as shown in Fig. 7.
Even a minor deviation (represented by the angle θ) from the roll
axis tends to give rise to a lateral force component (W sin θ) acting
on the weak axis of the girder. Due to its relatively lower stiffness,
the girder undergoes deformation. This deformation causes the
angle with the roll axis to increase until equilibrium is established
progressively.
Factor of Safety of a Hanging Girder against Instability
According to Mast (1989), the factor of safety (FS) of a hanging
girder with regard to rolling stability is directly proportional to the
distance (yr ) between the centroid of its cross section and the roll
axis, as shown in Fig. 7. The FS is inversely proportional to the
magnitude of the distance between the centroid of the girder cross
section at the support point and that in the middle of the curved
span resulting from deformation along the weak axis. These rela-
tionships can be expressed using the following equations:
yr
FS ¼ ð1Þ
z̄0
1 wl4
z̄0 ¼ ð2Þ
120 EI y
where yr = height of the roll axis above the center of gravity of the
beam; z̄0 = theoretical lateral deflection of the center of gravity of
the beam, computed with the full dead weight applied laterally;
E = elastic modulus of the concrete material; Iy = moment of inertia
of the beam in the weak axis; w = component of girder weight
causing lateral deformation, w ¼ W sin θ; and l = distance from
the lifting point of the hanging girder.
The aforementioned equations are considered fundamental and
do not incorporate the effects of imperfections. However, they play
a crucial role in providing information about the key parameters
that determine the stability of a hanging girder when it is in a lifted
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state. By analyzing these parameters, engineers can gain a deeper
understanding of the factors that influence the stability of a girder
during the lifting process.
Mast (1989) proposed various methods for enhancing the
stability of a girder in the lifted (hanging) condition, as shown in
Eqs. (1) and (2). These methods encompass the following strategies:
1. The most effective method is shortening the lifting point dis-
tance. This strategy can be applied by ensuring appropriate
stress distribution on the upper side of a PCI girder.
2. Additional devices can shift the roll axis upward, further
improving stability.
3. Increasing the compressive strength of the concrete can
pffiffiffiffiffienhance
parameter E (elastic modulus), where Ec ¼ 4,700 fc , which
indicates normal concrete [ACI 318M (ACI 2008)].
4. Modifying the girder section to increase the stiffness along the
weak axis (Iy ) is another effective method. For a PCI girder, the
influence of the stiffness of the lower flange component along
the weak axis is as effective as the influence of the stiffness of
the upper flange. Increasing the size of the lower flange com-
ponent is particularly advantageous, because it shifts the cent-
roid of the girder lower, simultaneously increasing both Iy and
yr . Moreover, the presence of prestressing forces in the lower
flange component ensures crack prevention.
The Equilibrium of a Seated Girder
Fig. 8 illustrates slender beams balanced on elastic supports.
The magnitude of the moment arm, represented as ca , is deter-
mined by the self-weight of a girder, which generates moments
about its roll axis (Mast 1993); it is obtained using the following
equation:
ca ¼ z̄ cos θ þ ei cos θ þ y sin θ ð3Þ
where θ = roll angle of the major axis of the girder with respect to
vertical; z̄ = lateral deflection of the center of gravity of the curved
arc of the deflected girder; ei = initial eccentricity of the center of
gravity of the girder; and y = height of center of gravity of girder
above roll axis.
In order to ensure stability, it is essential to ascertain that the roll
axis of a girder, as shown in Fig. 8, is positioned beneath its center
of gravity. Stability is achieved by ensuring that a girder supports
resist the rolling moment, denoted by the parameter K θ. When
considering M r , the moment about the roll axis due to the elastic
support, the magnitude of the moment arm for resisting the rolling
moment, represented as cr , must be determined. This rolling
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.

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Fig. 8. Force equilibrium condition in a seated girder. (Reproduced
from Mast 1993, with permission.)
moment is caused by W, the self-weight of the girder (Mast 1993),
and is obtained using the following equation:
Kθ
cr ¼ ðθ − αÞ ¼ rðθ − αÞ ð4Þ
W
where K θ = stiffness, or rotational spring constant of the elastic
support, and is obtained by applying a known rolling moment
and measuring the resulting rotation angle (K θ = the applied rolling
moment divided by the resulting rotation angle); α = slope angle of
the bearing support; and r K θ =W, called the stability radius, is the
height from the center point of the girder due to its self-weight,
which tends to achieve a balanced condition with the stiffness
of the support.
The self-weight of the girder creates a moment arm, ca , that in-
duces a rolling moment about the roll axis. The stability of a girder
against the rolling moment is determined by the factor of safety,
which depends on the stability radius calculated using the follow-
ing equation (Mast 1993):
cr rðθ − αÞ K θ ðθ − αÞ
FS ¼ ¼ ¼ ð5Þ
ca z̄θ þ ei þ yθ Wðz̄θ þ ei þ yθÞ
Eq. (5) indicates that a girder’s stability in the seated girder con-
dition is directly influenced by the rotational stiffness of the elastic
support, represented as K θ . Consequently, the factor of safety
against the rolling moment increases if the support has a higher
rotational stiffness. Therefore, stiffer rotational support provides
a greater factor of safety against rolling moments.
Theory of Lateral Torsional Buckling in Slender Beams
The classical study of lateral buckling in beams assumes that the
supports are restrained against rotation. Buckling occurs when
the midspan section of the top beam deforms laterally due to
compressive stress, resulting in a twisting deformation of the
cross section. This type of buckling is known as lateral torsional
buckling (LTB).
LTB is a phenomenon that results in the outward curvature of
the top side of a beam. This buckling condition has significant im-
plications for the stability analysis of a slender steel I-beam, which
possesses relatively low torsional (J) and flexural stiffness in the
weak axis (Iy ). Understanding and accounting for LTB are crucial
in ensuring the overall stability and performance of steel I-beams in
various structural applications.
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The critical moment causing LTB can be predicted using the
following formula:
π pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
M cr ¼ EI y GJ ð6Þ
L
where E = elastic modulus of the material; I y = moment of inertia of
the beam in the weak axis; G = shear modulus of elasticity of the
material; J = torsional constant or torsional stiffness of the section;
and L = span of an unbraced section of the beam.
A steel I-beam’s torsional constant or torsional stiffness, J,
depends on the flange’s thickness and web. Compared to a steel
I-beam, a PCI girder typically has thicker dimensions. The in-
creased thickness of a PCI girder leads to significantly higher
torsional stiffness, often 100 to 1,000 times greater than that of
a steel I-beam. Due to these fundamental differences in torsional
stiffness, classical LTB theory, which primarily applies to steel
I-beam, has limited applicability to PCI girders. In analyzing and
designing a PCI girder, it is essential to consider other appropriate
theories and design approaches specific to concrete structures.
Lateral Torsional Resistance of PCI Girders
In the seated girder condition, two factors introduce risks to the
behavior of PCI girders. The first factor is the presence of lateral
imperfections or sweeps in the beam. The second factor is the sup-
port rotates, such as eccentricity and soft rubber bearing pads,
which contribute to the deformation of the girder. Consequently,
the cross section of a PCI girder undergoes deformation at the mid-
span, similar to the behavior observed in slender beam sections
of LTB.
When a slender steel I-beam experiences LTB, failure is usually
initiated from the midspan unbraced section of the I-beam. This
section undergoes lateral distortion, indicating its susceptibility
to LTB. Consequently, engineers try to determine adequate dimen-
sions for the section and location of the bracing when designing the
steel I-beam.
In a steel I-beam, the distorted section is commonly observed at
the midspan, while the support section remains unaffected and does
not experience rotation. This indicates that the influence of LTB has
not reached the support section, because the damage occurred in the
cross section beforehand. In order to address this structural configu-
ration and prevent collapse due to LTB, it is advisable to install
bracing along the span of a steel I-beam in addition to the bracing
at the supports. This comprehensive bracing system helps enhance
the overall stability of a steel I-beam and mitigate the risk of LTB
failure.
Due to imperfections and support rotation, a PCI girder may
display deformations that resemble those seen in LTB, as shown
in Fig. 6. However, it is important to note that local distortion
behavior, such as that seen in a steel I-beam, usually does not occur.
This distinction can be attributed to the significantly higher flexural
stiffness (Iy ) and torsional stiffness (J) exhibited by PCI cross sec-
tions compared to steel I-beam sections. The flexural and torsional
stiffnesses of a PCI girder are approximately a hundred times
greater, rendering them considerably more rigid. As a result, when
subjected to slight support rotation, a PCI girder can withstand the
deformations associated with rotating support conditions. These
conclusions have been validated through empirical tests, providing
substantial evidence for the remarkable stiffness and performance
of PCI girders in such conditions (Mast 1993, 1994).
In tests conducted by Mast (1993, 1994), a PCI girder with a
45.6-m (146-ft) span was installed on special supports, adhering
to the bracing criteria. It is important to note that the lower support
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.
 can tilt. The girder was tested and was proven to withstand support
rotation along the axis up to an angle of 32 degrees from the vertical
line without experiencing failure. However, this is possible when
the reference is at an angle of 0 degrees relative to the vertical line
under the nonrotated condition. A PCI girder will fail when the
support rotation along the axis reaches 90 degrees from the vertical
line.
The capability of a PCI girder cross section to rotate along the
axis up to 32 degrees shows its considerable strength and stiffness
against torsion and flexure along the weak axis, surpassing that
of a steel I-beam. The stability of a girder against the occurrence
of support rotation along the axis up to 32 degrees only relies on the
resistance torsional moment of the support. Additional bracing
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Effect of a Lifting Frame on Hanging Girder
Stability
The stability of a girder can be improved by a device that can
shift the roll axis upward (Imper and Laszlo 1987; Mast
1989). In the US, this technique is already a standard part of erec-
tion procedures and involves using a lifting loop as a unique lift-
ing point. By implementing this method, the roll axis can be
shifted above the neutral axis or centroid of the girder, as illus-
trated in Fig. 9.
A lifting frame is a useful and innovative method for enhancing
stability during the hanging girder stage, as shown in Figs. 2
and 10. Although it differs slightly from the lifting loop shown in
Fig. 9, its purpose is the same—shifting the roll axis upward. This

along the girder span is not necessary. This behavior is notably
distinct from that of a steel I-beam.
Evaluation of the Effectiveness of the Standard
Guideline
Introduction
In late 2022, there was a PCI girder erection failure when the SGE
was being followed. This raised concerns about the reliability of the
standard. To solve this issue, we review and evaluate three recom-
mended improvements in the SGE (2018, 2021): the lifting point or
frame, dapped-end girders, and artificial stiffeners.
approach is backed by research conducted by Imper and Laszlo
(1987), Mast (1989), and PCI (2016). The differences between
the two figures (Figs. 9 and 10) mainly focus on improving ease
of installation and field speed, which are crucial for driving inno-
vation, improving safety, and increasing work efficiency.
In Indonesia, the lifting frame (Fig. 10) is a unique device that
has become popular in infrastructure projects, especially during
PCI girder erection. It is designed for use when lifting a PCI girder
with a crane. It has been proven to increase stability, making it a
valuable solution for safe and efficient PCI girder installation in
various construction projects in Indonesia.
Once a PCI girder is placed on its supports and the lifting frame
is detached from the lifting wire rope slings, the lifting frame no
longer contributes to its stability.

Fig. 9. Unique device to shift the roll axis of a girder upward in the US. (Reproduced from Imper and Laszlo 1987; PCI 2016, with permission.)

Fig. 10. Unique device to shift the roll axis of a girder upward in Indonesia. (Images courtesy of PT LIMOV Power Structure, Banten, Indonesia.)

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 Effect of Dapped-End Girder on the Stability of a
Seated Girder
The rotational stiffness of the support influences the stability of the
seated girder condition precisely when its axis direction of rotation
is aligned parallel to the neutral axis of a PC girder. The material
used for the bearing pad plays a critical role in determining this
stiffness. When the material is too soft, it can increase the rolling
moment at the support (Mast 1993).
Rolling moments at the support emerge due to lateral imperfec-
tions (such as sweep) and support eccentricity. Their magnitudes
tends to vary from one project to another, depending on the quality
of work in the field and something that triggers it.
The distance between the midspan center of gravity of a girder
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and the roll axis directly influences the magnitude of the rolling
moment. Opting for a dapped-end support configuration allows
for a reduction of this distance, leading to improved stability. How-
ever, even with a dapped-end PCI girder, some degree of rotation
along the roll axis can still occur in the seated condition.
Previous studies on dapped-end PC girders have predominantly
concentrated on strength design (Mattock and Chan 1979; Klein
et al. 2017; Yuen 2020). There is currently a lack of research on the
stability of dapped-end PC girders in the seated condition. In order
to gain insight into the impact of using dapped-end girders on
girder stability, a parametric study involving nonlinear structural
analysis was conducted with FEM using the ABAQUS/EXPLICIT
(2012). In this study, we employed nonlinear geometric analysis
to address contact problems. Three different parameters were
considered for each girder model, allowing for a comprehensive
comparison, as follows:
1. Full-end girder with a hard bearing pad (H60, E ¼ 4.55 MPa)
as baseline,
Fig. 11. Specifications of the reference PCI girder for FEM modeling: (a) side elevation of PC girder span 50.8; (b) cross section of PC girder; and
(c) Abaqus modeling input.
© ASCE
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr., 2024, 29(4): 05024006
2. Dapped-end girder with a hard bearing pad (H60, E ¼
4.55 MPa), and
3. Full-end girder with a soft bearing pad (H45, E ¼ 1.8 MPa).
As part of the study, three FEM models were constructed, each
with the same span length. These models aided in calculating the
magnitude of the torsional or rolling moment reaction at the sup-
port. Furthermore, the analysis was conducted for various span
lengths (25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 m) to examine the effects across
different spans.
In order to maintain consistency and simplify the analysis, all
models were based on the same girder cross section, that is, the
one used for the longest span, 50 m. The data provided corre-
spond to the PCI girder utilized in the Cibitung-Cilincing toll
road project, which had a length and depth of 50.8 and 2.3 m,
respectively. The details shown in Fig. 11 serve as a reference
for the analysis.
The PCI girder for the FEM analysis was modeled using two
elements, namely the rubber bearing pad (solid C3D8I) and girder
(solid C3D8R). Both had a mesh size of 0.1 m. The contact be-
tween these two elements was simulated as hard contact along
the normal axis, with an allowable separation afterward. In addi-
tion, friction was considered along the tangential axis between
the rubber and concrete interface (with the coefficient of friction,
μ, set to 0.6). This modeling approach accounted for the interaction
between the girder and the rubber bearing pad, addressing potential
instability issues. The entire model assumed elastic behavior,
because failure only occurs during erection, when the acting load
is solely the self-weight of the structure. Therefore, the PC girder
was modeled as solid concrete only, without considering the pres-
ence of steel reinforcements or prestressing strands. The Abaqus
model for the PCI girder is shown in Fig. 12.
05024006-8 Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.
 Fig. 12. Detailed FEM model for PCI girder: (a) full-end PCI girder; (b) dapped-end PCI girder; and (c) detail of the end section.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Wiryanto Dewobroto on 06/18/24. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 13. Lateral imperfection in the form of a sweep equal to L=500 in FEM modeling.
In Abaqus, it is possible to define and incorporate lateral imper-
fections or sweep, which serve as triggers for torsional moments
reaction at the support. Imperfection in the geometry were modeled
as lateral deviations of the girder along the span. There was a maxi-
mum value of 1=500 deviation at the midspan of the girder, as
shown in Fig. 13.
The FEM analysis was designed to be able to accommodate
large deformations and the occurrence of contact interactions be-
tween the girder and the rubber bearing pad. In addition, the explicit
dynamic calculation method was selected in Abaqus. This method
was deemed the most suitable for the analysis. During the initial
stage of the analysis, a thorough check was performed to ensure
that the contact interaction could be appropriately simulated on
the rubber bearing pad.
Fig. 14 shows that the contact between the girder and the rubber
bearing pad was predominantly compression, without any tensile
conditions observed. It was anticipated that as the girder tilted, sep-
aration or some form of detachment would tend to occur between
its contact surfaces and the bearing pad. In order to monitor the
Fig. 14. Contact modeling at the support.
© ASCE 05024006-9
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr., 2024, 29(4): 05024006
magnitude of the torsional moment reaction and its potential impact
on girder stability, torsional restraints parallel to the axial axis of the
PCI girder were applied to the girder supports attached to the rubber
bearing pad. The larger the torsional or rolling moment reaction,
the greater the risk of girder instability.
FEM models generated in Abaqus are usually nonlinear. Many
of the problems to which Abaqus is applied are history-dependent,
so solutions must be developed in a series of small increments.
The time incrementation scheme in ABAQUS/EXPLICIT (2012)
is fully automatic and requires no user intervention. The final con-
figuration of the analysis can be observed by examining the mag-
nitude of the deformation of the girder, as shown in Fig. 15.
Meanwhile, to evaluate their effects, analysis was conducted on
three distinct parameters for various girder spans (25, 30, 35, 40,
45, and 50 m). By examining the analysis results under different
span conditions and parameters, the influence of these variables
on the magnitude of the torsional or rolling moment reaction at
the support was observed. A comparison curve was generated,
as shown in Fig. 16.
The FEM analysis conducted with Abaqus provided supporting
evidence for the hypothesis that a dapped-end girder has the poten-
tial to reduce the torsional or rolling moment reaction at the sup-
port. It is important to note that the stiffness of the rubber bearing
pad can significantly influence the final results, because this param-
eter contributes to an increase in the torsional or rolling moment
reaction. Therefore, even with a dapped-end girder (as shown in
Fig. 4), there is still a possibility of experiencing a rotation about
the roll axis due to a rolling moment when a girder is installed or
seated on the support without any additional temporary bracing.
Rotation at the support triggers PCI girder instability, causing
failure.
Effect of Artificial Stiffener on Seated Girder Stability
The design calculation for artificial stiffeners (web and flange) is
published in the appendix of SGE (2021). The artificial stiffener is
expected to increase the torsional constant (J), thereby increasing
girder performance. Interestingly, parameter Iy, which represents
the stiffness of the PCI girder about the weak axis, is not considered
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Wiryanto Dewobroto on 06/18/24. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 15. Maximum lateral deformation of a girder with full-end support.

PCI girder is seated indicates that an artificial stiffener is not

working.

Causes of Failure and the Role of Standard Guidelines

Fig. 16. Curve diagram of span versus torsional moment at the support.
in the design calculation, although the references used were also
from Mast (1989); see Eqs. (1) and (2).
This calculation design suggests that artificial stiffeners may be
intended for something other than the hanging girder stage. It
means for the seated girder condition. However, failure when a
As shown in Fig. 17, the PCI girder installation failed after the
hanging girder stage was complete and the seated girder stage
had been entered. This means that the lifting point or lifting frame
aids had proven worthwhile, but the artificial stiffeners were not
beneficial.
The FEM analysis showed that a dapped-end girder can effec-
tively reduce the rolling moment at the support, but its success de-
pends on the stiffness of the bearing pad. It may not be wise to rely
entirely on dapped-end girders, because other factors can affect its
performance. In the seated condition, rolling or torsional moments
tend to occur due to lateral imperfections (sweep) and variations of
the support circumstances. The magnitude of the rolling moments
varies between projects and is influenced by the quality of on-site
work. In order to ensure construction safety, sufficient temporary
bracing at the support is required to effectively prevent rolling
failure.
Therefore, in the seated girder condition, failure only occurs
when the existing temporary bracing at the support is not strong
enough to withstand the rolling moment. The collapse of a girder,
as shown in Fig. 17 through a series of detailed videos, can be
attributed to a significant rotation along the axis at the support,
exceeding the maximum limit of 32 degrees.

Fig. 17. Recorded images moments before the collapse. (Images courtesy of M. Bimo Septiano.)

© ASCE 05024006-10 Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.

Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr., 2024, 29(4): 05024006

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Wiryanto Dewobroto on 06/18/24. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 18. Recommended bracing configuration according to SGE (2021).
Collapse occurs when a girder undergoes a significant rotation
along the axis (>32 degrees) that prevents it from being supported
by its weight along the weak axis. Excessive rotation due to insuf-
ficient bracing at the support is the main cause of failure.
When the bracing at the support in the seated girder condition
does not function properly, this can lead to significant rotation
along the axis. The requirements for installing bracing at the sup-
ports have been explicitly specified in SGE (2021), as shown in
Fig. 18, which depicts various types of bracing.
The existing standard guideline for erection (SGE 2021) does
not offer detailed provisions for installing bracing components.
Consequently, variations in how the guidelines are interpreted
and implemented on each project may lead to inadequate bracing
performance and strength. In order to address this issue and ensure
reliable prevention of rolling, it is imperative to conduct a critical
study aimed at standardizing bracing practices for the support
immediately after the completion of the girder lifting phase.
Conclusion
After the failure of a PCI girder erection in late 2022, an evaluation
study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of SGE (2021).
The study found that (1) the lifting point or lifting frame system
is suitable for hanging girders; (2) dapped-end girders do not guar-
antee stability when seated on a rubber bearing pad at the support;
and (3) unfortunately, artificial stiffeners do not function properly.
Therefore, immediate bracing installation at the support is neces-
sary to withstand the rolling moment. The current versions of SGE
(2018, 2021) mention bracing, but a detailed procedure is needed to
ensure the strength of the bracing to withstand the rolling moment.
Overall, this evaluation significantly improved the guidelines for
PCI girder installation and provided valuable insights for enhancing
current practices.
Data Availability Statement
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study
appear in the published article.
Acknowledgments
The first author of this paper would like to express gratitude to sev-
eral individuals for their valuable contributions. These individuals
© ASCE 05024006-11
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr., 2024, 29(4): 05024006
include Mr. Indera Sadikin, Director of Perseroan Terbatas (PT)
Limov Power Structure; Dr. Ing. Josia I. Rastandi, Structures and
Materials Laboratory, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, Universitas Indonesia, and Director of PT Risen En-
gineering Consultant; and Mr. Junison and Mr. M. Bimo Septiano
from PT PP (Persero) Tbk. Their valuable data on the PC girder
collapse has been thoroughly examined and processed to make this
paper possible. The first author would also like to express gratitude
to Mr. Kimron Manik, Director of Construction Sustainability and
Secretary of the CSC for his invitation to participate in the CSC’s
meetings. The existence of meetings related to construction issues
in projects under the Ministry of Public Works and Public Housing
is beneficial in gathering ideas for writing papers like this one.
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