LESSON 1: TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING
electrons in total)
I. WHY DO ATOMS/ ELEMENTS COMBINE?
1. Stability: Atoms seek stable electron
configurations, often achieved by filling or
emptying their outermost energy levels
through bonding.
2. Electrostatic Attraction: Oppositely
charged particles attract each other, leading
to the sharing or transfer of electrons
between atoms to achieve stability.
3. Energy Minimization: Bond formation
releases energy, making compounds more
stable than individual atoms, thus driving
chemical reactions.
4. Increase in Entropy: Some combinations
increase disorder within the system, favoring
higher entropy states, which drives the
formation of compounds.
II. TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING
1. IONIC BOND (Electrovalent Bond) - the
electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged particles. A metal cation and
nonmetal anion
EXERCISE:
- Potassium and Iodine
- Aluminum and Phosphorus
2. COVALENT BOND (Molecular Bond) - A
shared pair of electrons between atoms
BONDING PAIRS:
● Consists of 1 shared pair of electron (2
electrons in total)
● Consists of 2 shared pair of electrons (4
electrons in total)
● Consists of 3 shared pair of electrons (6
● LONE PAIRS: Nonbonding pairs - valence
electrons that are not involved in covalent
bond formation Lone pairs
A. NONPOLAR BOND
- An equal sharing of electrons by similar
atoms
EXERCISE:
- O2
- N2
B. POLAR BOND
- An unequal sharing of electrons by different
nonmetals
EXERCISE:
- HCl
- CCl4
LESSON 2: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
I. WHAT WILL HAPPEN IF YOU MIX WATER AND
SALT TOGETHER? THE SALT WILL BE DISSOLVED
IN WATER. W H Y?
- When salt is mixed with water, it dissolves to
form a saltwater solution. This occurs
because water molecules, which are polar,
surround the ions in the salt crystal, breaking
apart the ionic bonds holding the salt
together. The partially negative oxygen
atoms in water are attracted to the positively
 charged sodium ions, while the partially
positive hydrogen atoms are attracted to the
negatively charged chloride ions. This
attraction allows the salt ions to become
dispersed throughout the water, forming a
homogeneous solution.
II. DEFINITION
1. Intramolecular forces - are the forces
within a molecule or ionic compound I
2. Intermolecular Forces - are the forces
between molecules or ions and molecules
I. REACTION RATES
III. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
- Johannes Diderik van der Waals
- Hydrogen Bond Ion, Dipole Dipole, Dipole,
London Forces, Ion-Ion.
II. FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES
- DIPOLE - A pair of equal and opposite
electric charges or magnetic poles of
opposite sign separated by a small distance.
- POLAR - A structure having an uneven
distribution of electron density.
TYPES OF IMF:
1. LONDON FORCES - present in all
molecules. It is the only force present in
nonpolar molecules. Weakest
intermolecular force.
Noble gasses are stable and do not have
electrostatic forces of attraction or repulsion between
them. London dispersion forces exist between them.
2. DIPOLE - DIPOLE - occurs between two
polar compounds. [a molecule (or part of a
molecule) with a positive end and a negative
end]
3. HYDROGEN BOND - A special type of
dipole-dipole interaction between the
hydrogen atom in a polar bond.
4. ION - DIPOLE - occurs between ionic
compound and polar compound. It is an
attractive force that is commonly found in
solutions, especially ionic compounds
dissolved in polar liquids.
5. ION - ION - occurs between two ionic
compounds
LESSON 3: FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION
RATES
- Shows the speed at which the products are
formed or the reactants consumed. The
speed with which a reaction takes place
1. TEMPERATURE - increasing the
temperature will speed up the rate of
reaction
2. CONCENTRATION - the higher the
concentration of the reactants, the faster the
rate of reaction.
3. SURFACE AREA - the smaller the size of a
solid particle, the greater its surface area
that the reaction can take place, therefore
increasing the rate of reaction.
4. NATURE OF REACTANTS - rate of reaction
of substances differ from each other
because they have different activity rates.
5. PRESENCE OF CATALYST - A catalyst is a
substance that speeds up a chemical
reaction .A catalyst increases the rate of
reaction by lowering the activation energy
• Enzymes - HELPER
• Inhibitors - BLOCKER
 2. Percent by Volume (% v) - The ratio of the
LESSON 4: SOLUTIONS volume of solute and volume of solution
multiplied by 100.
I. SOLUTIONS
- Homogeneous mixtures of two or more
substances

II. COMPONENTS OF SOLUTIONS

1. Solute - substance being dissolved.
2. Solvent - substance that does the dissolving
process.

III. CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

- The amount of solute present in a specified
weight or volume of solvent or solution. 3. Molarity (M) - Is the number of moles of
solute dissolved for every liter of solution.
A. Diluted - a solution that contains a relatively small
amount of dissolved solute.
B. Concentrated - a solution that contains a relatively
large amount of dissolved solute.

IV. QUANTITATIVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING

CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
- Percent by mass
- Percent by volume
- Molarity
- Molality 4. Molality (m) - Is the number of moles of
- Mole Fraction solute dissolved for every kilogram of
solvent.
1. Percent by Mass (% m) - The ratio of the
mass of solute and mass of solution
multiplied by 100.