Define second generation of computer

second-generation computer - Computer Definition. A computer made of discrete

transistors and other electronic components. In the early 1960s, the IBM 1401 and Honeywell
400 were examples. See computer generations, IBM 1401 and Honeywell.

Q2 Define CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor)

CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) is
the semiconductor technology used in the transistors that are manufactured into
most of today's computer microchips. Semiconductors are made of silicon and
germanium, materials which "sort of" conduct electricity, but not enthusiastically.
Areas of these materials that are "doped" by adding impurities become full-scale
conductors of either extra electrons with a negative charge (N-type transistors) or of
positive charge carriers (P-type transistors). In CMOS technology, both kinds of
transistors are used in a complementary way to form a current gate that forms an
effective means of electrical control. CMOS transistors use almost no power when
not needed. As the current direction changes more rapidly, however, the transistors
become hot. This characteristic tends to limit the speed at which microprocessors
can operate.

Q Define static RAM

SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its
memory as long as power is being supplied. Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which
stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to
be periodically refreshed. Static RAM provides faster access to data and is more
expensive than DRAM. SRAM is used for a computer's cache memory and as part
of the random access memory digital-to-analog converter on a video card
Q define flip flop

An animated interactive SR latch (R1, R2 = 1 kΩ R3, R4 = 10 kΩ).

In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store
state information. A flip-flop is a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state
by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic
storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental building blocks of digital
electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other types of systems.
Flip-flops and latches are used as data storage elements. A flip-flop is a device which stores a
single bit (binary digit) of data; one of its two states represents a "one" and the other represents a
"zero". Such data storage can be used for storage of state, and such a circuit is described
as sequential logic i

Q define SSI

LSI defines the technology used to build powerful microchips or integrated circuits (IC) in a very
small form factor. It succeeded small-scale integration (SSI) and medium-scale integration
(MSI), which included tens to hundreds of transistors per microchip. LSI consists of thousands
of transistors that are closely embedded and integrated with a very small microchip.
One of the first components built on LSI technology was 1-K bit RAM, which contained 4,000
transistors. Later components and microprocessors held up to 10,000 embedded transistors.
Q Enlist the feature of inkjet printer

An inkjet printer is a computer peripheral that produces hard copy by spraying ink
onto paper. A typical inkjet printer can produce copy with a resolution of at least 300
dots per inch ( dpi ). Some inkjet printers can make full color hard copies at 600 dpi
or more. Many models include other devices such as a scanner , photocopier , and
dedicated fax machine along with the printer in a single box. In the inkjet printing
mechanism, the print head has several tiny nozzles, also called jets. As the paper
moves past the print head, the nozzles spray ink onto it, forming the characters and
images. An inkjet printer can produce from 100 to several hundred pages

Q what is an assembler

An assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code. It takes the
basic commands and operations from assembly code and converts them into binary code that
can be recognized by a specific type of processor.
Assemblers are similar to compilers in that they produce executable code. However,
assemblers are more simplistic since they only convert low-level code (assembly language)
to machine code. Since each assembly language is designed for a specific processor,
assembling a program is performed using a simple one-to-one mapping from assembly code
to machine code. Compilers, on the other hand, must convert generic high-level source
code into machine code for a specific processor.
Q Define Modem
A modem is a network device that both modulates and demodulates analog carrier signals
(called sine waves) for encoding and decoding digital information for processing. Modems
accomplish both of these tasks simultaneously and, for this reason, the term modem is a
combination of "modulate" and "demodulate."
The most common use for modems is for both sending and receiving of the digital information
between personal computers. This information used to be transmitted over telephone lines
using V.92, the last dial-up standard, to an analog modem that would convert the signal back to
a digital format for a computer to read.
Now, access to the Internet more commonly takes place using high-speed broadband modem
Q Draw the block diagram of 8088

Q Define Flow Chart

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the

process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the
process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the
process flow direction.
Common Flowchart Symbols
Different flow chart symbols have different meanings. The most common flow chart
symbols are:

 Terminator: An oval flow chart shape indicating the start or end of the process.
 Process: A rectangular flow chart shape indicating a normal process flow step.
 Decision: A diamond flow chart shape indication a branch in the process flow.
 Connector: A small, labeled, circular flow chart shape used to indicate a jump in
the process flow. (Shown as the circle with the letter "A", below.)
 Data: A parallelogram that indicates data input or output (I/O) for a process.
 Document: Used to indicate a document or report (see image in sample flow chart
below)

 A simple flow chart showing the symbols described above can be seen below:

Q define Assembly language

An assembly language is a low-level programming language for microprocessors and other

programmable devices. It is not just a single language, but rather a group of languages. An
assembly language implements a symbolic representation of the machine code needed to
program a given CPU architecture.
Assembly language is also known as assembly code. The term is often also used synonymously
with 2GL.
An assembly language is the most basic programming language available for any processor.
With assembly language, a programmer works only with operations that are implemented
directly on the physical CPU.
Assembly languages generally lack high-level conveniences such as variables and functions,
and they are not portable between various families of processors. They have the same
structures and set of commands as machine language, but allow a programmer to use names
instead of numbers. This language is still useful for programmers when speed is necessary or
when they need to carry out an operation that is not possible in high-level languages
Q Draw Circuit diagram of Opamp amplifier

Q Whats is Microcontroller

A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a specific operation in

an embedded system. A typical microcontroller includes a processor, memory and input/output
(I/O) peripherals on a single chip. Sometimes referred to as an embedded controller or
microcontroller unit (MCU), microcontrollers are found in vehicles, robots, office machines,
medical devices, mobile radio transceivers, vending machines and home appliances among other
devices. Microcontroller features

A microcontroller's processor will vary by application. Options range from the simple 4-bit, 8-bit
or 16-bit processors to more complex 32-bit or 64-bit processors In terms of memory,

Q What is cache memory

Cache memory, also called CPU memory, is high-speed static random access
memory (SRAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it
can access regular random access memory (RAM). This memory is typically
integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip that has a
separate bus interconnect with the CPU. The purpose of cache memory is to store
program instructions and data that are used repeatedly in the operation of programs
or information that the CPU is likely to need next. The computer processor can
access this information quickly from the cache rather than having to get it from
computer's main memory. Fast access to these instructions increases the overall
speed of the program.
SECTION C LONG QUESTION

Q1 (a) difference between 8085 and 8086

Comparison of 8085 and 8086

There are some of the difference mentioned below:

1.Size:-
8085 is 8 bit microprocessor whereas 8086 is 16 bit microprocessor.

2.Address Bus:-
8085 has 16 bit address bus and 8086 has 20 bit addres bus.

3.Memory:-
8085 can access upto 2^16 = 64 Kb of memory whereas 8086 can access upto
2^20 = 1 MB of memory.

4.Instruction Queue:-
8085 doesn't have an instruction queue whereas 8086 has instruction queue.

5.Pipelining:-
8085 does not support pipelined architechture whereas 8086 supports pipelined architechture.

6.Multiprocessing Support:-
8085 does not support multiprocessing support whereas 8086 supports.

7.I/O:-
8085 can address 2^8 = 256 I/O's and 8086 can access 2^16 = 65,536 I/O's

8.Airthmetic Support:-
8085 only supports integer and decimal whereas 8086 supports integer, decimal and ASCII
arithmetic.

9.Multiplication and Division:-

8085 doesn't support whereas 8086 supports.

10. Operating Modes:-

8085 supports only single operating mode whereas 8086 operates in two modes.

11.External Hardware:-
8085 requires less external hardware whereas 8086 requires more external hardware.

12.Cost:-
The cost of 8085 is low and 8086 is high.

13.Memory Segmentation:-In 8085, memory space is not segmented but in 8086, memory
space is segmented.

14.Clock Speed:-
clock speed of 8085 microprocessor is 3 MHz whereas clock speed of 8086 microprocessor vary
between 5,8 and 10 MHz for different versions.
15.Flags:-
8085 has 5 flags & 8086 has 9 flags.

Q 1 (B) Draw the pin diagram of 8085

Q2

1. differentiate between w multiplexer and demultiplexer

The major factor that differentiates multiplexer and demultiplexer is their ability to
accept multiple input and single input respectively. The multiplexer also known as
a MUX operates on several inputs but provide a single output. As against demultiplexer
also known as DEMUX simply reverses the operation of MUX and operates on single
input but transmits the data to multiple outputs

It is noteworthy here that multiplexer acts as data selector thus provide a single output
from several inputs. However, demultiplexer acts as a data distributor and generates
several outputs with a single input.

2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPILER AND ASSEMBLER

 The compiler is a simple program which converts the source code written by the humans to a machine
language. While the assembler has a little bit different work, it converts the assembly language to the
machine language.
 Compilers work more directly than the assemblers. The compilers can convert the human written code in
the machine language directly. But the assembler can’t do this at once. It converts a source code to an
object code first then it converts the object code to the machine language with the help of the linker
programs.

Difference between Maskable and NonMaskable Interrupts

3.
Maskable Interrupt: An Interrupt that can be disabled or ignored by the instructions of CPU
are called as Maskable Interrupt.
 Eg: RST6.5,RST7.5,RST5.5 OF 8085 are maskable Interrupts.

Non-Maskable Interrupt: An interrupt that cannot be disabled or ignored by the

instructions of CPU are called as Non-Maskable Interrupt.
Eg:Trap of 8085
Q 3 what is hard disk

A hard disk is part of a unit -- often called a disk drive, hard drive or hard disk drive --
that stores and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. Today's computers typically
come with a hard disk that can contain anywhere from billions to trillions of bytes of
storage. A hard disk is actually a set of stacked disks, like phonograph records.
Each disk has data recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles, or tracks, on
the disk. A head, similar to a phonograph arm but in a relatively fixed position, writes
or reads the information on the tracks. Two heads, one on each side of a disk, read
or write the data as the disk spins. Each read or write operation requires that data be
located, an operation called a seek. Data already in a disk cache, however, will be
located more quickly.

Hard disks remain a popular data storage option for consumers and enterprises, in
spite of the growing popularity and rapidly lowering cost of nonvolatile solid-state
flash memory in the form of solid-state drives (SSDs). SSDs fit into the same
external and internal drive bays as their HDD counterparts. SSDs may be much
faster, more durable and draw less power than hard disks, but they are also more
expensive. SSDs are considered a better fit for applications that demand high
performance, while HDDs are more often used for high-capacity use cases.

Q3 b explain cylinder heads plotter,tracks and section of a hard disk

CHS addressing is the process of identifying individual sectors (aka. physical block of data) on a disk by their
position in a track, where the track is determined by the head and cylinder numbers. The terms are explained
bottom up, for disk addressing the sector is the smallest unit. Disk controllers can introduce address
translations to map logical to physical positions, e.g., zone bit recording stores fewer sectors in shorter (inner)
tracks, physical disk formats are not necessarily cylindrical, and sector numbers in a track can be skewed.

Sectors[edit]
Floppy disks and controllers use physical sector sizes of 128, 256, 512 and 1024 bytes (e.g., PC/AX), whereby
formats with 512 bytes per physical sector became dominant in the 1980s.[3][4]
The most common physical sector size for harddisks today is 512 bytes, but there have been hard disks with
520 bytes per sector as well for non-IBM compatible machines. In 2005 some Seagate custom hard disks used
sector sizes of 1024 bytes per sector. Advanced Format hard disks use 4096 bytes per physical sector (4Kn)
[5]
since 2010, but will also be able to emulate 512 byte sectors (512e) for a transitional period.[6]
Magneto-optical drives use sector sizes of 512 and 1024 bytes on 5.25-inch drives and 512 and 2048 bytes on
3.5-inch drives.
In CHS addressing the sector numbers always start at 1, there is no sector 0,[1] which can lead to confusion
since logical sector addressing schemes (e.g., with logical block addressing (LBA), or with "relative sector
addressing" in DOS) typically start counting with 0.
For physical disk geometries the maximal sector number is determined by the low level format of the disk.
However, for disk access with the BIOS of IBM-PC compatible machines, the sector number was encoded in
six bits, resulting in a maximal number of 111111 (63) sectors per track. This maximum is still in use for virtual
CHS geometries.

Tracks[edit]
The tracks are the thin concentric circular strips of sectors. At least one head is required to read a single track.
With respect to disk geometries the terms track and cylinder are closely related. For a single or double
sided floppy disk track is the common term; and for more than two heads cylinder is the common term. Strictly
speaking a track is a given CH combination consisting of SPT sectors, while a cylinder consists
of SPT×H sectors.

Cylinders[edit]
A cylinder is a division of data in a disk drive, as used in the CHS addressing mode of a Fixed Block
Architecture disk or the cylinder–head–record (CCHHR) addressing mode of a CKD disk.
The concept is concentric, hollow, cylindrical slices through the physical disks (platters), collecting the
respective circular tracks aligned through the stack of platters. The number of cylinders of a disk drive exactly
equals the number of tracks on a single surface in the drive. It comprises the same track number on each
platter, spanning all such tracks across each platter surface that is able to store data (without regard to whether
or not the track is "bad"). Cylinders are vertically formed by tracks. In other words, track 12 on platter 0 plus
track 12 on platter 1 etc. is cylinder 12.
Other forms of Direct Access Storage Device (DASD), such as drum memory devices or the IBM 2321 Data
Cell, might give blocks addresses that include a cylinder address, although the cylinder address doesn't select
a (geometric) cylindrical slice of the device.

Heads[edit]
A device called a head reads and writes data in a hard drive by manipulating the magnetic medium that
composes the surface of an associated disk platter. Naturally, a platter has 2 sides and thus 2 surfaces on
which data can be manipulated; usually there are 2 heads per platter, one per side. (Sometimes the
term side is substituted for head, since platters might be separated from their head assemblies, as with the
removable media of a floppy drive.)
Q 4 explain operation of magnetic type storage devices

Magnetic tape recording works by converting electrical audio signals into magnetic energy,
which imprints a record of the signal onto a moving tape covered in magnetic particles.
Playback is achieved by converting the recording on tape back into electrical energy to be
amplified. ape recording relies on a plastic film coated with tiny magnetic particles on one side
(the tape) moving at a consistent speed through a tape machine. This is accomplished by
unwinding the tape from one reel, passing it through a series of stabilizing rollers and guides,
and spooling it onto a second takeup reel to be stored. If the speed is changed during playback
or recording due to improper settings or faulty motors, the pitch will be distorted

Between the reels, the tape passes over a series of magnetic heads that convert audio signals
into magnetic energy and back again. First the tape passes over the erase head, which (if the
track is armed) scrambles anything stored on that track.

Next comes the record or sync head, which is essentially a stack of magnets (one per track), each
wound with a coil of wire. Between the positive and negative poles of each magnet is a tiny gap
where an electromagnetic field is created that fluctuates in response to the changing signal. As
the tape passes by, these pulses align the tiny magnetic particles into patterns, leaving a record
of the sound.

Finally, the tape moves across a dedicated playback head, which “reads” the magnetic
information stored on the tape and converts it back into electrical signals that are sent to the
machine’s outputs. The record head can also play back what’s on the other tracks while
recording to enable real-time overdubbing.

The Sound of Tape

The physics behind magnetic tape give the medium an idiosyncratic sound, which is coveted for
its unique saturation properties. The tape can only absorb so much magnetic energy, but
instead of distorting like an amplifier when overloaded with signal, it compresses the sound in a
soft, flattering way.

This saturation effect, combined with all the analog circuitry on the inputs and outputs, gives
tape an unmistakable sonic signature that can be subtly pleasing or intentionally exaggerated
for an effect.

Modern Usage
Magnetic recording has been obsolete since digital technology took over the industry, but tape
is still used by many engineers who praise its unique tonal properties, the inherent workflow
restrictions involved, and the stability of the storage medium.

Somewhat ironically, those first two positives have historically been seen as flaws, with
manufacturers designing tape and equipment to produce the purest sound possible.