Ethnobiological Notes on the Khasi and Garo Tribes of Meghalaya, Northeast India

Author(s): R. K. Maikhuri and A. K. Gangwar

Source: Economic Botany , Oct. - Dec., 1993, Vol. 47, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1993), pp. 345-357
Published by: Springer on behalf of New York Botanical Garden Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4255542

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ETHNOBIOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE KHASI AND GARO
TRIBES OF MEGHALAYA, NORTHEAST INDIA1

R. K. MAIKHURI AND A. K. GANGWAR

Maikhuri, R. K. (G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Garhwal

Unit, HAPPRC, Post Box 14, H. N. Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal 246 174,
India), and A. K. Gangwar (Centre for Environment Education, Nehru Foundation for Devel-
opment, Thaltej Tekra, Ahmedabad 380 054, India). ETHNOBIOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE KHASI
AND GARO TRIBES OF MEGHALAYA, NORTHEAST INDIA. Economic Botany 47(4)345-357. 1993.
A total of 105 plants usedforfood and medicine and 11 animals hunted and gatheredfor meat
by the Khasis and Garos of Meghalaya were identified. Of the total plants recorded, 85 were used
by the Garos alone, only three by the Khasis whereas the other 17 were used by both tribes. In
addition to fresh use in-season many plant products were processedfor storage and use off-season.
Although all adults were familiar with various uses of plants and animals, the village elders were
more knowledgeable. Garos have especially knowledgeable curers. Wild foods are of particular
value for tiding over lean periods when resources from agriculture and animal husbandry systems
are scarce, especially for the poorer sections of society. The importance of recording the use of
plants and animals in this region is especially important because of rapid loss of rain forest
habitats.

Key Words: ethnobiology; hunting, gathering; conversion of rain forests; slash-and-bum ag-
riculture.

Northeast India is inhabited largely by tribals.
Often within a small contiguous area there live
many tribal communities which differ markedly
in their socio-economy and socio-culture. Be-
cause of the language and cultural barrier and
poor communication system on difficult hilly
terrain they remained aloof from one another,
though living close by. The development ini-
tiated by the Government has helped overcome
these barriers. All these tribal communities in
common practice agriculture and animal hus-
bandry but in different forms. Besides, they all
depend considerably on forest resource base for
their subsistence (Gangwar and Ramakrishnan
1990; Ramakrishnan 1985). There are com-
munities living in the interior which are still
hunter-gatherers such as the Sulungs of Arun-
achal Pradesh (Gangwar 1990a). On the other
hand communities living around town centres
and/or along roadsides depend more on their
agriculture and animal husbandry supplement-
' Received 4 May 1992; accepted 31 March 1993.
ed with market economy with marginal depen-
dence on the forest (Kumar and Ramakrishnan
1990).
Rapid acculturation is taking place in both the
Khasi and Garo societies of Meghalaya in north-
east India, resulting in a loss of traditional values,
culture, animal and plant uses. The purpose of
this paper is to record ethnobotanical informa-
tion of the Khasi and Garo tribes for wider cir-
culation and to catalogue it before it is lost. The
information will also give significant contribu-
tion towards the understanding of the plant wealth
of the region. The present study gives an account
of ethnobotanical observations of 105 species.
Most of these plants have not been mentioned
by the earlier workers or the uses mentioned here
are quite different from the previous reports (Jain,
Hajra, and Sanpru 1977; Kumar, Haridasan, and
Rao 1980; Rao 1979,1981;RaoandNeogi 1980).
STUDY AREA AND CLIMATE
The state of Meghalaya (Fig. 1) lies between
250.00' and 26?.10'N latitude and 890.45' and
92?.45'E longitude and covers an area of 22 549
km2. It is bordered on the northwest, north and

Economic Botany 47(4) pp. 345-357. 1993

t 1993, by The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458 U.S.A.

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 346 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 47

28 e0E 81
-2* 8-.
l N

~~~ ~ ~ ~~~ / ~~~~ALAD ~

'-EAST GARO HILLS/ IDA

~~~1 ~~~~SHILLONG:6

) , / ~'WEST KHASI HILLS 'EAST KHASI HILLSI

WEST GARO HILLS JAINTIA HILLS

25N B A N G L A DESH 30 15 15 M 6. -

Fig. 1. East Khasi Hills district in Meghalaya (with inset map of India) showing the study sites.

east by Assam and south and southwest by Ban- corresponding values for the winter are 26?C and
gladesh. The state is a conglomeration of un- 1 PC, respectively.
dulating hills with an eastwest orientation. It rep-
resents a picturesque landscape of plateaus, lakes THE PEOPLE

and waterfalls. Physiographically, Meghalaya
represents a remnant of ancient plateau of pre-
Cambrian Indian peninsular shield mass but lat-
er separated from it.
Our study on the Khasi and Garo tribes was
done at Lailad and Nongladoh, and two nearby
villages in the Khasi Hills. Both the villages are
13 km east of Umling, a small town on Guwa-
hati-Shillong highway, 70 km south of the state
capital, Shillong. A "kutchcha" approach road
links both these villages with Umling. Nongla-
doh is at a distance of 10 km from Umling. Lailad
is another 3 km on the same way. Most of the
villages in the area are inhabited by a single tribe
but a few villages have more than one. Nongla-
doh is pure Garo whereas Lailad is a pure Khasi
village. Both villages are located 25?.45'N and
9 1.45'E of the equator at an elevation of 296 m.
The soil is red, sandy loam of lateritic origin
with pH ranging of 5-6. The pre-Cambrian rocks
are gneiss, schists and granites. The terrain is
hilly with 20-40' slope angle. The hills represent
a typical karst topography. The climate is mon-
soonic with three distinct seasons. The monsoon
season with high humidity extends from May-
September. Of the total annual rainfall of 2200
mm, about 80% occurs during May-September.
The monsoon is followed by a mild winter which
extends from November to February. The mean
monthly maximum and minimum temperatures
during the summer are 37?C and 28?C, and the
The Khasis were immigrants somewhere from
the Cambodian region and from the banks of the
Mekong river (Bareh 1967). Their language is an
Austro-Asiatic type of the Far East. The Garos
are of Tibeto-Burman stock which drifted into
eastern India and Burma across Tibet. Their lan-
guage retains similarity with Tibetan (Playfair
1975). Both the Khasi and Garo societies are
matrilineal consisting of different exogamous
clans. Woman holds the property.
SETTLEMENTS
Both the Khasis and Garos establish their vil-
lages in depressions on the hillsides close to a
good stream. The sites chosen for the houses are
steep and the villages are rarely on flat ground.
In the village the houses are bamboo, scattered
and built on stilts. The smoke is allowed to es-
cape under the eaves and it is said that the smoke
protects the woodwork of the house from attack
of mites and insects.
Each house has a well maintained kitchen gar-
den with vegetables and fruit trees. Vegetables
produced agriculturally and in the kitchen garden
supplemented by those collected from the wild
suffice to make the family independent of the
market. The surplus is sold.
AGRICULTURE
Traditional slash-and-burn agriculture, locally
called "jhum," has been the chief land use in this

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1993] MAIHKURI & GANGWAR: ETHNOBIOLOGY, NORTHEAST INDIA 347
humid tropical area, along with valley land plow
agriculture where topography permits. Terrace
agriculture, a recent introduction into the region,
has largely been rejected by the people both for
ecological and economic reasons. The average
size of the "jhum" plot varies from 1 to 1.5 ha
for the Garos, from 2 to 2.5 ha for the Khasis
for an average family size of 8 and 6 for the Garos
and Khasis, respectively. Clearing of the forest
is done during November-December. The dried
slash is burnt in the following March. A mixture
of crops (8-13 species) is sown together, after the
first monsoon showers. The crop mixtures used
for different cycles may vary considerably. Un-
der longer "jhum" cycles, cereals and grains are
emphasized whereas perennials, root and tuber
crops are more important under shorter "jhum"
cycles. Harvesting is done sequentially. The
"jhum" plot is fallowed after one year of crop-
ping.
The present fallow length in the area is 5-10
years which in the past used to be 30-40 years
or even more. The shortened cycle has resulted
in many ecological repercussions (Swamy and
Ramakrishnan 1987).
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Animal husbandry is an integral part of both
the Khasis and Garos. Keeping poultry birds and
pigs is the traditional animal husbandry practice.
Both these systems are detritus based. Crop res-
idue, inferior quality food, fruits and vegetables
which are unfit for human consumption, the left-
over food is given to animals and they are freed
for grazing/scavenging. Pigs are often fed on hu-
man faeces and they serve as important cleansing
agents in the village. Cows are also reared and
traditionally were used for meat only. With the
immigration of non-tribal communities into the
region, Khasis and Garos have begun milking
the cows and consuming milk and milk products.
Milk is also gaining popularity as an important
diet for children.
HUNTING AND GATHERING
Hunting and gathering contributes an impor-
tant proportion of the total diet of both the Kha-
sis and Garos. Vegetables, fruits, roots and tubers
are the important plant food items gathered.
Many insects, caterpillars, honey, larvae of hon-
eybees and wasps, frogs, snails, crabs, etc., are
the important animal foods. Both tribes are fond
of fishing. Because the older forests are disap-
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pearing rapidly, the availability of wild animals
is much reduced: boar, deer, wild cats and birds
are the important game animals. Hunting is ex-
clusively a male activity whereas gathering is
shared by both males and females. Hunting and
gathering are more active during the lean season
when traditional food items are scarce and there
is less agricultural activity.
FOREST TYPES
The forests in the study area are mixed, sub-
tropical, humid, semi-evergreen and deciduous.
The forests generally present a three storied ap-
pearance. The trees of the top story tower above
the rest of the forest more or less in an isolated
manner.
Below the top story is a distinct second story.
These trees reach far below the canopy trees and
are loosely branched and have a narrow crown.
The third or lowest story consists of small trees
and shrubs. In some places these forests tend to
become mixed deciduous as the proportion of
evergreen elements increases giving the forest a
more consistent greenness. Apart from mixed
deciduous forests there are bamboo-intruded de-
ciduous forests. Bamboo forests appear in "jhum"
fallows of 15-20 years and in some places form
pure stands. Bamboos also appear in compara-
tively older forests where there are some gaps in
the canopy.
METHODOLOGY
The observations presented here are based
upon a participatory study with the tribes studied
for a period of one year between May 1984 and
April 1985. Village headman, elders, curers and
knowledgeable persons were consulted and in-
terviewed to gather information. To facilitate
conversation, the help of interpreters was sought.
In both tribes, the older members were found
to have more botanical information. The knowl-
edge of the young was judged to be poor and they
were skeptical about the efficacy of traditional
medicines. The uses of plants for simple ailments
was known to a large number of people but for
serious ailments, to only a few. All the people
did not know about the uses of all the plants.
Different people knew different uses of the same
plant and also different treatments for the same
ailment. The knowledge of treatment for serious
ailments is kept secret but is told to elder mem-
bers of the family. But for research and devel-
opment purposes, as was the case with use, peo-
 348 ECONOMIC
ple do not hesitate to share their knowledge. If
taken into confidence and given respect and ap-
preciation for their knowledge, people take keen
interest in sharing their knowledge with outside
people. Women possess less knowledge com-
pared to men but for the cases of infants they
know more. Curers are the most knowledgeable
persons.
Plant samples collected are deposited with the
Herbarium of the North-Eastern Hill University
(NEHU), Shillong. To eliminate any chance of
error in identification, the specimens were col-
lected in flowering and fruiting condition. Iden-
tification of plant species was done at the Eastern
Circle of the Botanical Survey of India, and Her-
barium of the NEHU.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Khasis and Garos of Meghalaya in north-
east India use many plant and animal species
collected from the wild for medicinal and food
purposes. This listing of plants and animals of
ethnobiological value is important for evaluating
human-plant relationships (Alcorn 1981 a; Bye
1979) and for understanding the regional human
ecology relations to their environment (Alcorn
198 lb).
A total of 105 plants was recorded of which
85 are used by the Garos alone and only three
by the Khasis. The rest were shared by both the
tribes. Eleven animal species which are hunted
or gathered for meat by both the tribes have also
been recorded. This shows that the ethnobotan-
ical knowledge of the Khasis is very poor com-
pared to the Garos. This may be attributed to
the rapid acculturation that took place among
the Khasis. Additionally, the "jhum" plot size
cultivated by the Garos being considerably
smaller than the Khasis and their larger family
size compared to the latter may lead the Garos
to depend more on wild resources. Availability
of more gatherers amongst Garos may also fa-
cilitate more wild collections.
Of the total plants recorded, 44 are edible in
various ways (Table 1) whereas the other 61 are
used for medicinal purposes to treat a variety of
ailments (Table 2). For the Khasis only 13 edible
plants were recorded, whereas for the Garos the
number was 44. Flower, leaf, petiole, stem, fruit,
seed, bark, root and tuber were the items used.
Bark of Malvastrum tricuspidatum is used as
masticatory and the leaves of Piper malamissis
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BOTANY [VOL. 47
are used as substitute of betel leaf. Tender leaves
of a large number of plants are used as vegetable
throughout the year. Young and tender shoots of
Calamus acanthospathus and Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii are collected and eaten fresh during
June-October and are preserved for consump-
tion during off-season. Sometimes fresh shoots
are used to make pickles. More commonly they
are pounded to pulp, which is packed into a con-
ical basket made of bamboo wrapped in Hedy-
chium or plantain leaves and left to ferment for
a few days. After fermentation, the pulp is stored
or squeezed to remove the liquid, then it is dried
in sun and stored for consumption. A small
quantity of it is added while cooking meat and
vegetables or it may be stored. Being acidic in
nature this cannot be stored in metal containers.
In almost all houses it was found stored in plastic
and glass containers. This is also mixed while
cooking vegetables.
Collection of wild products both in Garo and
Khasis is done largely by women. But in Garos,
children of nine years and above also do this
especially when the elders remain occupied with
the agricultural operations. The more commonly
used species for food purposes by both the com-
munities are Bauhinia purpurea, Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii, Ixora subsessilis, Moringa pterygos-
perma, Pedicularis carnosa, Monochaeria has-
tata, Rhynchotechum ellipticum, Strobilanthes
coloratus and S. discolor. During the lean season
when traditional food items are in short supply,
roots and tubers of Colocasia affinis, C. esculen-
tum, Ipomoea racemosa, Pedicularis carnosa and
Phrynium capitatum are harvested from the wild.
Their consumption constitutes a significant pro-
portion of the diet during season. Digging of roots
and tubers from underground is a strenuous task
and is done chiefly by males. Wild fruits are
available throughout the year. They are collected
more by the children and constitute an important
supplement to their diet. Amongst others, Cas-
tanopsis indica, Dillenia indica, Ficus hispida and
Mallotus phillippinensis are the important ones.
Many wild products are sources of cash in-
come. They are harvested from the wild by the
poorer section of the society and are sold in the
market (Fig. 2, 3). They are chiefly bought by the
tribal people living away from the forests or by
the people from outside the region. These wild
products being lesser-known and less available
have good market value. Both tribes use a variety
of plants as tribal medicine. Though all adult
 TABLE 1. SOME WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE KHASIS AND GAROS OF MEGHALAYA IN

Parts of
Vernacular the pl
Plant Family name (tribe) used' Method of u

Adhatoda vasica Nees [00311 Acanthaceae devglameh (K)2 L, Fl Cooked as veg

Alocasia indica Schott [004] Araceae kimchit-nokam (G)3 P Cooked as vege
Amaranthus gangeticus L. [005] Amaranthaceae chantili (G) L, S Cooked as veg
Antidesma diandrum Roth [006] Euphorbiaceae aburok-arabok (G) Fr Eate
Azadirachta indica Juss. [010] Meliaceae neemu (G) L, S Cooked as veg
Baccaurea sapida Lour. [051] Euphorbiaceae soh-ramdieng (K); Fr Eaten
dojuka (G)
Bauhinia purpurea L. [011] Caesalpiniaceae muyung-laphang (K); L, Fl Cooked as v
megong (G)
Begonia roxburghii A. DC. [012] Begoniaceae kimchare (G) L, S Cooked with dr
Calamus acanthospathus Griff. [014] Araceae rie (G) S Vegetable; pounded
mented
then su
season
Castanopsis indica A. DC. [018] Fagaceae chhakku-khokrak Fr Eaten r
(G)
Colocasia affinis Schott [020] Araceae goneusu (G) RT Cooked with dry
C. esculenta Schott [021] Araceae matchitangong (G) RT Cooked as veget
Corchorus capsularis L. [022] Tiliaceae mehku (G) L Cooked as vegetab
Crinum pratense Herb. [024] Amaryllidaceae amaltchu (G) RT Cooked as veg
Dendrocalamus hamiltonli Poaceae banh (G) S As of Calamus acant
Nees & Am. [028] spathus
Desmodium triflorium DC. [030] Fabaceae memang-mong-ara- L Cooked preferably
bak (G) with dry fi
Dillenia indica L. [027] Dilleniaceac agachi (G); dieng- Fr Unripened fruit
soh-karbam (K) cooked with
Elaeagnus latifolia L. (091] Elaeagnaceae soh-sang (K); chhok- Fr Eaten
hua (G)
Eryngium foetidum L. [035] Apiaceae etucha-bellock, dha- L Cooked as vege
nia-patta (G)
Ficus hispida L. [036] Moraceae thamusa (G) Fr Unripened fruits cook
as vege
eaten r
Garcinia pedunculata G. Don [103] Guttiferaceae soh-danei (K); thizou Fr Eate
(G)

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 TABLE 1. CONTINUED.

Parts of
Vemacular the pl
Plant Family name (tribe) used1 Method of u

Hibiscus pungens Roxb. [041] Malvaceae kaldha (G) L Cooked as veget

Homalomena aromatica Schott [042] Araceae kimchit-nokam (G) P Cooked as veg
Ipomaea racemosa Roth [044] Convolvulaceae setre-budu (G) RT Cooked as vegetabl
consum
Ixora subsessilis Wall. [047] Rubiaceae sang-rura (G) L, Fl, S Cooked preferably
with
Mallotus philippinensis Muell. [052] Euphorbiaceae bol-khing-khang (G) Fr Unripe fruits
vegetab
Malvastrum tricuspidatum A. Gray [053] Malvaceae sam-zalik (G) Seeds, bark Seeds cooked a
ble, als
ment
Monochoria hastata Solms [056] Pontederiaceae garopoksi, gachli (G) P Cooked with d
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. [057] Moringaceae sajna (G); rodina (K) L, Fl, Fr Cooked wit
Myrica nagi Thunb. [104] Myricaceae soh-phi (K) Fr Eaten ra
Oxyspora paniculata DC. [064] Melastomataceae long-tang (K) Fr Eaten r
Pedicularis carnosa Wall. [066] Scrophulariaceae Sam-dipo (G); sam- L, RT Leaves are c
thapar (K) vegetable pref
mixed
Peperomia pellucida H. B. & K. [067] Piperaceae bithe (G) L Cooked as veget
Phiogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees [068] Acanthaceae verua-kainchait (G) L, Fr Cooked with
meat
Phrvnium capitatum Willd. [070] Zingiberaceae balgato (G) RT Cooked as vege
Phyllanthus emblica L. [071] Euphorbiaceae bon-bakeri (G) Fr Fruits eaten ra
mixed
P. parvifolius Ham. [072] Euphorbiaceae ja-la-mat-kha (K); Fr As ab
memang-ambri (G)
Piper malamiris L. [074] Piperaceae dubili (G) L Leaves chewed as subs
tute of
cooked
Plectranthus incanus Link [075] Lamiaceae chichithoni (G) L Cooked as vege
Portulaca oleracea L. [079] Portulacaceae stilehi (G) L, S Cooked as vege
Psychotria denticulata Wall. [082] Rubiaceae sonopincyl (G) L Cooked as vege
Rhynchotechum ellipticum A. DC. [085] Gesneriaceae re-gong (G) L Cooked with dr

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1993] MAIKHURI & GANGWAR: ETHNOBIOLOGY, NORTHEAST INDIA 351

Cu '

~) 0

-u u

to
75 ~
4~~~~~~~4

.~~~~~~~~~r

zA r

C 0 dO0 '

Fig. 2. Fruits of Myrica nagi (three baskets at left

side) and Elaeagnus latifolia (basket at extreme right)
for sale in the market.

members are familiar with them, the village el-

ders are more knowledgeable. Garos have es-
pecially knowledgeable curers called "kobiraj"
(only males) who perform medical practices for
the local people. A "kobiraj" keeps medicines at
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o home to treat villagers during illness. Mostly he
renders his services free of cost. In the case of
0~~~~~~~~(
rare medicines the cost of collection and prep-
LU ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ E~~~~~~~~~~EuC~~~~~~~~i
aration is charged. After treatment is considered
H~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;4 to be completed patients reciprocate the favour
with something in kind. Thus a "kobiraj" com-
mands considerable respect in the society. It was
observed that the Khasis have poor knowledge
of medicinal plants but they have faith in the
C.C)

CO) CN
efficacy of these medicines and use the services
of Garo "kobiraj." A wide range of ailments are
treated locally using plant medicines (Table 2).
Hospitals are sought only during emergency.
In many cases a combination of plants is used.
Sometimes the same plant is suggested for more
than one disease. In such cases it is difficult to
assess which plants are actually effective. Efforts
should be made to survey the region thoroughly
for more such plants. Important plants should

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 TABLE 2. SOME WILD MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY THE KHASIS AND GAROS OF MEGHALAYA I

Vernacular name
Plant Family (tribe) Condition treated and m

Abroma angusta L. [001]1 Sterculiaceae bon-khopai (G)2 Oil obtained from endosper
spoonsful 3
cold. For rin
Acanthus leucostachyus Wall. [002] Acanthaceae sam-sikal (G) Decoction of leaves mixed
Allium sp. a
ternally for
Aristolochia cathcartii Hk. f. & T. [007] Aristolochiaceae baro-hirkhut (G) Extract of rhizome con
ly relieves s
testes.
Artemisia vulgaris L. [008] Asteraceae sak-suk (G) For headache fresh leaves ar
Capparis ass
headache and
Asparagus racemosus Willd. [009] Liliaceae sam-riching (G) For fever extract of root
Bonnaya reptans Spreng. [013] Scrophulariaceae sam-reng-chick (G); Neing- For snakebite decoctio
lik (K)2 orally (1 tablespoonful
rubbed on bi
Calotropis gigantea Br. [015] Asclepiadaceae akom-aring (G) For malaria extract of fres
teaspoonful
Canscora andrographioides Griff. [016] Gentianaceae sak-sre (G) Paste made of roots and
wounds. In s
nally.
Capparis assamica Hk. f. & T. [017] Capparaceae mantori (G) For headache and general b
leaves and ro
of Artemisia
ful twice a d
Costus speciosus Sm. [019] Zingiberaceae karami (G) For fever decoction of roo
Crepisfuscipappa Benth. [023] Asteraceae pan-bihar (G) Extract of fresh leaves is us
4 times a day
Curcuma aromatica Salisb. [026] Zingiberaceae tikegopl (G) In gastric troubles green lea
ma, tubercu
leaves and st
Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Merr. [032] Amaranthaceae sam-sanum (G) For fever, headache, n
young fresh
Desmodium laxiflorum DC. [029] Fabaceae mari (G) Aqueous extract of roots and
(1 tablespoon
Disporum calcaratum D. Don [033] Liliaceae tike-jakriting (G) Aqueous extract of tubers

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 TABLE 2. CONTINUED.

Vernacular name
Plant Family (tribe) Condition treated and m

as eye drop,
urinary prob
Dracaena ensifolia Wall. [031] Liliaceae Milam (G) For cold, malaria, rheumatism
of roots and
Elephantopus scaber L. [034] Asteraceae samskal (G); kombatskurt Aqueous extract consume
sriang (K) to treat urinary disor
Garcinia cowa Roxb. [037] Guttiferaceae tekra-rengran (G) Aqueous extract of the bark
ings of the h
mosquito lar
Geodorum purpureum Br. [038] Zingiberaceae matea-bas (G) For malaria and whoopin
ground, past
Globba clarkei Baker [039] Zingiberaceae dike-holdiram (G) For "run down condition"
roots is cons
Hedyotis scandens Roxb. [040] Rubiaceae sam-reting (G); meidi (K) For cough, cold, decocti
Homalomena aromatica Schott [042] Araceae roathi (G) Swelling, pimples, skin sore
applied
Hydrocotylejavanica Thunb. [043] Apiaceae mana-muni (G) For cough, cold, fever dried
leaves of Oe
tracted. Extr
Ipomoea uniflora Roem. & Schult. [025] Convolvulaceae - For cholera, dysentery, vom
sumed orally
Itea chinensis Hk. & Am. [045] Saxifragaceae dieng (K); myllons (G) For skin diseases decoct
ly.
Ixora acuminata Roxb. [046] Rubiaceae saoltua (G) For irregular menstrual cycle
and flowers
rification.
Jasminum lanceolaria Roxb. [048] Oleaceae pipli (G) For ringworm extract of leav
nally, used o
Justicia gendarussa L. f. [049] Acanthaceae dija-gipe, dochenpok (G) For body pain decocti
Lasia spinosa Thw. [050] Araceae timulana (G) For poisoning decoction of rhi
consumed or
Melia composita Willd. [054] Meliaceae sural (G) For gastric problem aqueous e
taken or
Molineria recurvata Herb. [055] Hypoxidaceae rekosi (G) For dysentery, diarrhoea, fr
to paste take

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 TABLE 2. CONTINUED.

Vemacular name
Plant Family (tribe) Condition treated and me

Mycetia longifolia (Wall.) 0. Ktz. [058] Rubiaceae Janthro (G) For fever or "body heat" e
plied on fore
ing summer.
Oenanthe stolonifera Wall. [059] Apiaceae bopo-goli-teng (G) For stomach pain, constipat
taken orally.
Oldenlandia diffusa Roxb. [060] Rubiaceae chenong (G) For sore eyes leaves and ten
ter. Solution
0. nudicaulis Roxb. [061] Rubiaceae chenong-ri (G) For general debility extract o
Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don [062] Liliaceae ticea-ohik (G) For vomiting extract of lea
for children
Ophiorrhiza subeapitata Wall. [063] Rubiaceae samachik (G) Decoction of roots and leav
orally for fe
mixed in wa
Parabaena sagittaria Miers [065] Menispermaceae chiongbombuelu (G) For skin diseases extract
Phlogacanthus tubiflorus Nees [069] Acanthaceae sam-rongtek (G) For fever extract of fres
Pilea lancifolia Hk. f. [073] Urticaceae sam-rongtek (G) For fever decoction of leave
children. Als
Plumbago zeylanica Linn. [076] Plumbaginaceae agea (G) For general debility in child
the neck.
Pogostemon parviflorus Benth. [077] Lamiaceae sam-sanum (G) Extract of fresh leaves is
Also used as
from the eye
Polygonum chinense L. [078] Polygonaceae samitchang (G); jasch (K) For urinary disorders aq
leaves of He
Pothos kunstleri Hk. f. [080] Araceae garore (G) For toxicity extract of fresh
orally.
Pouzolzia indica Gaud. [081] Urticaceae fakrum (G); miensa-miyo For urinary and spleen d
(K) leaves is taken or
Rhaphidophora hookeri D. [083] Araceae dhukentri (G) For snake and dog bite paste
ed. Extract i
ry.
Rhus semialata Murr. [084] Anacardiaceae khitma (G); dieng-soh-sma For stomach pain, intest
(K) of fruits is taken o
Rubus moluccanus L. [087] Rosaceae thekhi-sembok (G); soh- Paste of roots applied on c
nybbah (K) prevent swellin

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 TABLE 2. CONTINUED.

Vernacular name
Plant Family (tribe) Condition treated and m

Smilax prolikra Roxb. [088] Liliaceae narang-wa (G) For hydrocoel hot poultice o
Sonerila maculata Roxb. [093] Melastomataceae pak-soaga (G) tract of leaves and roots,
sumed orally
Spilanthes acmella L. [089] Asteraceae sam-atching (G) For infant fever fresh leaves
made into p
head.
Strobilanthes scaber Nees [092] Acanthaceae sam-siphra, kimehat (G) For body itching extract
nally.
Symplocos racemosa Roxb. [094] Symplocaceae boligpok (G) For indigestion and impair
of bark is co
Tacca laevis Roxb. [095] Taccaceae Colbera (G) For neck and body pain tuber
honey and b
Decoction is
Terminalia chebula Retz. [096] Combretaceae artak, saluka (G) For diarrhoea, stomach p
of dry fruits
Thunbergia coccinea Wall. [097] Acanthaceae kakku-budu (G) For bone fracture, leaves,
Acanthus le
poultice.
Uraria crinita Desv. [098] Fabaceae sam-gichhok (G), dieng- For mouth pain young l
kha-rik-phlang (K)
Urena lobata L. [099] Malvaceae samtha-kkhari (G), soh- For swelling, bone fracture
byrthil (K) plied.
Viola diffusa Ging. [100] Violaceae ducherek (G) Roots and leaves are ground
paste placed
typhoid fev
ous extract i
Vinca rosea L. [101] Apocynaceae pimancho (G) Nodes are pounded. Pulp, after
applied to cu

Collection number of RKM.

2 Vernacular name, Garo.
3 Vernacular name, Khasi.

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 356 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 47

Fig. 3. A scene from a village market. A Khasi woman selling fruits of Baccurea ramiflora (large pile in the
foreground) to a customer. Fruits of Garcinia pedunculata, pile near the pair of baskets, are also seen in the
picture.

be introduced to experimental gardens to learn UNESCO/UNEP/FAO 1978) and in northeast

optimum conditions for their growth, behaviour,
etc., and also for assessing the right period when
the active principles in them will be at the max-
imum level (Rao 1979).
Thus the traditional tribal societies obtain a
variety of their requirements from the wild. Apart
from the fact that their traditional land use
"jhum" and traditional animal husbandry sys-
tems are closely linked to the forests ofthe humid
India (Gangwar 1 990a,b; Ramakrishnan 1984).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are thankful to P. S. Ramakrishnan, Professor of Ecology at the
School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New
Delhi, and the Director, G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment
and Development for their constant encouragement and guidance. We
sincerely acknowledge the help and cooperation of the people of Lailad
and Nongladoh villages. We thank Botanical Survey of India, Eastem
Circle, Shillong and the Herbarium of the NEHU, Shillong for identifying
plant species. This research was supported by the Department of Science

tropics where they live (Gangwar and Rama-
krishnan 1987, 1989; Maikhuri 1992; Maikhuri
and Ramakrishnan 1990, n.d.), dependence on
wild resources from the forest varies consider-
ably between tribes (Gangwar and Maikhuri 1991;
Maikhuri 199 la,b; Maikhuri and Ramakrishnan
and Technology and the Department of Environment and Forests, Gov-
emnment of India and was carried out at the Centre for Eco-Development,
School of Life Sciences, NEHU.
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