1.

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Q: Explain the major political condition of Europe in the mid-eighteenth century
Europe.
A: The political condition of Europe in the mid-eighteenth century was as
mentioned below :
(1) Mid -eighteenth Europe There were no nation states.
(2) Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and
cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories.
(3) There were autocratic monarchies in Eastern and Central Europe.
(4) People spoke different languages and belonged to different ethnic groups, For
example, Habsburg Empire consisted of different regions and peoples. They did not
share a collective identity or a common culture, It included German-speaking
people of Bohemia as well as Italian-speaking people of Lombardy and Venetia.
5.Half of the population of Hungary was Magyar, Such differences did not promote
a sense of political unity. The only tie binding diverse groups together was a
common allegiance to the emperor.

1.Explain the social composition of the mid-eighteenth-century Europe?

A. i) Europe in the mid-18th Century No nation states because Europeans never saw
themselves as sharing a common identity or culture. E.g., The Habsburg Empire of
Austria–Hungary comprised French, Italian and German- speaking people.
ii)Europe was broadly divided into two classes during this period namely: Aristocracy
The land-owning class. Numerically small, but dominated Europe, both socially and
politically. Spoke French which was considered the language of the high society.
Families were connected through marriage.
iii)Peasantry Tenants and small land owners who worked as serfs. Cultivated the
lands of the aristocratic lords. The growth of trade and industrial production facilitated
the growth of towns and rise of a commercial class of traders. Consequently, the new
conscious, educated, liberal middle class emerged and popularized nationalism and
stood for the abolition of aristocracy.
2.Explain liberalism in political and economic fields prevailing in Europe in the 19th
century.
OR
Explain the concept of Liberal Nationalism which developed in Europe in the 19 th
century.
A. Ideas of National unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the
ideology of Liberalism. The term ‘Liberalism’ derived from the Latin root Liber, meaning
free. Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
Politically, liberalism stood for (i) It emphasised the concept of government ruling by
consent.
ii) A constitution, representative government through parliament and ownership of
private property. (iii) End of the privileges of aristocracy.
(iv)Revolutionary France marked the first political experiment in liberal democracy in
which right to vote and get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.
(v) Men without property, and all women were excluded from political rights.
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men organised
opposition movements demanding equal political rights.
Economically, liberalism stood for (i) Freedom of markets;
(ii) Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
(iii)A customs union or Zollverein was formed by Prussia in 1834, which many German
states joined
(iv)This union reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two and abolished
tariff barriers.
(v) A network of railways led to great mobility and gave an impetus to national unity.
It boosted economic nationalism.
3.Why is the time period between from 1830’s to 1848 known as the Age of
Revolutions? Explain.
A. i) 1830 to 1848 is rightly referred to as the age of revolution because it was during
this period that the world witnessed the rise of liberal nationalism, that stood in
opposition to conservative regimes across Europe.
ii)Many revolutions took place in the Europe by liberal nationalists.
UPHEAVAL IN FRANCE- the first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The
Bourbon kings who had never been restored to power after the Vienna congress by
the conservatives were now overthrown by the liberal’s revolutionaries who installed
a constitutional monarchy with Louis Phillipe as its head.
UPRISING IN BRUSSELS -The July revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led
to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
UPRISING IN GREEKS - Greece had been a part of Ottoman empire since the 15th
century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for
independence amongst the Greeks which result in the Treaty of Constantinople of
1832, and recognised Greece as an independent nation.
4.Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the
political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
A. The 1848 revolution of the liberals refers to the various national movements
pioneered by educated middle classes alongside the revolts of the poor, unemployed
and starving peasants and workers in Europe. While in countries like France, food
shortages and widespread unemployment during 1848 led to popular uprisings, in
other parts of Europe (such as Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian
Empire), men and women of the liberal middle classes came together to voice their
demands for the creation of nation-states based on parliamentary principles.
The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were:
Political ideas: In German regions, a large number of political associations whose
members were middle-class professionals, businessman and prosperous artisans
came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for all German National
Assembly.
Social ideas: A large number of women had participated actively and formed their
own political associations founded a newspaper, took part in political meetings and
struggled for the right to vote.
Economic ideas: Liberals struggled for an abolition of serfdom and bonded labour
and wanted freedom of the market. Though conservative forces were able to
suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not restore the old order. Thus,
serfdom and bonded labour were abolished.
5. Briefly trace the process of German unification.
A. In the mid-1800s, nationalist feelings were strong and engraved in the hearts of the
middle-class Germans. They all came united in 1848 to create a nation-state out of
the numerous German States. But the monarchy and the military members got
together to repress them and they gained support from the landowners of Prussia
(the Junkers) as well. Prussia then became the leader of the German unification
movement. Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck at that time was the architect of the
process with support from the Prussian army and Prussian bureaucracy.
Process of unification of Germany
i)Nationalist sentiments were often organised by conservatives for promoting state
power and achieving political domination over Europe.
ii)This can be noted in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as
nation-states
iii)Middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of German
Confederation, but their plans were not taking place due to actions of large
landowners called Junkers of Prussia.
iv)The unification process was concluded after Prussia won wars with Austria,
Denmark, and France over seven years’ time.
v)In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was indicated the German Emperor in
a ceremony held at Versailles.
vi)Three wars over the span of seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended
in a Prussian victory. In Jan 1871, Prussian King William I was proclaimed German
emperor.
6 Briefly trace the process of the Unification of Italy.
Political Fragmentation: Like Germany, Italy was also politically fragmented. During
the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one,
Sardinia- Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Prince.
The northern region was controlled by the Austrian-Habsburg dynasty, the central
region was governed by France’s Popes, and the southern region by Spain’s Bourbon
kings.
Role of Giuseppe Mazzini: Mazzini, a great revolutionary leader of Italy, inspired the
youth with the ideas of establishing a single unified Italy. He set up secret societies
like Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne with like-minded young men
from Poland, France, Italy, and German states.
Role of Count Cavour: He was the chief minister who led the movement to unify Italy.
He formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces
in 1859
The second victory of Emmanuel overcame the popes of France and liberated the
southern area and completed the unification of Italy.
Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi: Garibaldi also formed armed volunteers. In 1860, they
marched into South Italy and the Kingdoms of Two Sicilies and successful in winning
the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.
7.Trace the process of the Unification of Britain.
A. In Britain, the formation of a nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval,
revolution or national struggle but of a long-drawn-out parliamentary process. The
process of unification of Britain is as follows:
i) Britain was not a nation-state prior to 18th century. England had people of many
ethnic groups such as English, Welsh, Scot and Irish with their own cultural and
political traditions.
ii) The English nation steadily grew in importance, wealth and power and extended
her influence over other nations of the island.
iii) In 1688, England established as a nation-state. English parliament seized power
from the monarchy.
iv) In 1707 the Act of Union between England and Scotland led to the formation of
the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’.
v) England dominated Scotland and Ireland in all spheres. British Parliament was
dominated by English members.
vi) After a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen, Ireland was
forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801 and the a new "British Nation"
was formed.
vii) The symbol of new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem-
God save Our Noble King, the English language were actively promoted
8.Why did the nationalist tension emerge in the Balkans?
A. i) The Balkan was a region with diversity, ethnicity and geographical variation,
which comprises of following countries – modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Greece,
Albania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro.
Its inhabitants were known as Slavs.
ii) The Balkan issue become one of the major factors responsible for the First World
War. Some of the examples were – Many parts of the Balkan were under the control
of the Ottoman Empire.
iii) The idea of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire
intensified the situation, even though Ottoman empire tried to strengthen its
position by introducing reforms but didn’t succeed, so the Balkan people demanded
independence and political rights.
iv) They also proved that they were always free but later subjugated by foreign
powers.
v) In Balkan, Slavic Nationalities were in search of their identity and independence
made the situation worse.
vi) The Balkan states wanted to capture more territories no matter how; this made
Balkans a big power rivalry.
vii) During this time, the European powers conflicted on trade, colonies, naval and
military.
viii) Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary wanted to establish their power in
Balkan.
ix) All these were the examples that made Balkan issues as the major factor
responsible for the First world war.
9. How did Romanticism seek to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiments during 18th century? Explain.
i)Romanticism referred to a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular
form of national sentiment. Culture played an important role in creating the idea of
the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and shape nationalist
feelings.
ii)Romantic artist and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science.
They focussed on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create
a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.
iii)Some German Romantics like Johann Gottfried Herder thought that through folk
songs, folk poetry and folk dance, the true spirit of the nation could, be popularised.
He claimed that true German-culture was to be discovered among the common
people.
So, collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project
of nation-building.
iv)The French painter Delacroix depicted an incident through his painting in which
20,000 Greeks were assumed to have been killed by Turks. By dramatizing the incident
and focusing on the suffering of women and children Delacroix wanted to appeal to
the emotions of the spectators and create sympathy for the Greeks.
v) In Poland Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and
music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.
(vi) Language played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After
Russian occupation, The Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian
language was made obligatory everywhere. Members of the clergy in Poland began
to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish became a common
language in church gatherings and all religious instruction. The use of Polish came to
be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.
10.Explain the role of languages in developing the nationalist sentiments in Europe.
A) Language played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
i) Regional languages had always been an obstacle in the unification of a country. To
overcome it, a common national language was adopted.
ii)The Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was made
obligatory everywhere. (iv) In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place
but it was crushed. After the failure of this rebellion, members of the clergy in Poland
began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
Iii)Polish became a common language in church gatherings and all religious instruction.
As a result, several priests and bishops were put in jail by the Russian authorities as
punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as
a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

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