MUKUBA UNIVERSITY.

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES.

STUDENT NAME. STUDENT ID.

BWALYA NEDSON. 22010001.
CHANDA AUSTIN. 22010359.
CHOLA FIELD. 22010249.
FELELA CHIYUKA. 22010475
KUMEKA VINCENT. 22010307.
MULINDA FAITH. 22010454.
MUPATA LUWI. 22010225.
MULENGA HELLEN. 22011603.
MWABA ALLAN. 22010910.
NKANDU ABEDNEGO. 22010338.
PHIRI MAYBIN. 22010126.
PHIRI TAONGA. 22010348.
PHIRI MATHEWS. 22010747.
SIMANGOLWA NAMASIKU. 22010182.

LECTURER: MR. KAMUNTU.

PROGRAMME: BACHELOR OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES (BSc.BS)

COURSE: MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY (BPY201).

ASSIGNMENT: SENSORY AND MOTOR SYSTEMS.

YEAR: SECOND YEAR

DUE DATE:
SENSORY SYSTEM

The sensory system is a part of the nervous system that is responsible for
processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory neurons
(including the sensory receptor cells), neural pathways, and parts of the brain
involved in sensory perception (the conscious interpretation of sensations) and
interoception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for version,
hearing, touch, taste, smell, balance visceral sensation (each unique type of
sensation is called sensory modality). Sensation is the conscious or subconscious,
awareness of changes in the external or internal environment. The sensory system
receives and processes information that generates an individual’s awareness of
their environment.

CODING OF SENSORY INFORMATION

Coding of sensory information refers to how the brain processes and represents
information from the sense, such as sight, sound, touch, and smell. Sensory
information is translated into electrical signals that are sent to the brain where they
are interpreted and transformed into meaningful perceptions and experiences. The
brain does this by specialized cells, called neurons which send receive signals
through electrical and chemical processes. Coding is the transformation of the
sensory information into these electrical signals.

COMPONENT OF SENSORY SYSTEM

I. Sensory receptors
II. Ascending tracks
III. Somato-sensory cortex

SENSORY RECEPTORS

They are a group of cells that respond to stimuli and convert them into electrical
signals that can be transmitted to the brain. E.g. photoreceptors.

ASCENDING TRACKS

These are also known as ascending pathways. They are bundles of nerve fibers that
transmit sensory information from the spinal cord to the brain.
SOMATO-SENSORY CORTEX

This is a part of the brain that is responsible for processing and interpreting sensory
information from the body. It is located in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex,
and it contains multiple areas that are specialize for processing different types of
sensory information, such as touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception.

CLASSIFICATION OF RECEPTORS

Receptors can be classified according to;

1. BASED ON THE SOURCE OF STIMULI

 Exteroceptors
 Interceptors
 Teleceptors
 Proprioceptors
2. BASED ON THE TYPE OF STIMULI
 Mechano receptor- Touch and pressure
 Chemo receptor- chemical composition
 Thermos receptor- changes in temperature
 Photo receptor- light
 Noci receptor- pain
3. BASED ON ADAPTATION
 Phasic receptor: they adapt rapidly
 Tonic receptor: they adapt slowly
4. CLINICAL OR ANATOMICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Superficial receptors- present in skin mucous membrane
 Deep receptors- present in muscles, tendons, and joints.
 Visceral receptors- present in the visceral organs.

FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF ASCENDING SENSORY PATHWAYS

The functional organization of ascending sensory pathways refers to the system of neural
pathways that transmit sensory information from the periphery to the brain for processing and
interpretation. These pathways are responsible for carrying different types of sensory information
such as pain, temperature, touch, proprioception, and vibration. Below are more detailed
explanations:

SENSORY RECEPTORS:

These are specialised cells located in the skin, muscles, joints, organs, or sensory organs.
Sensory receptors detect various stimuli such as pain, pressure, proprioception, light, sound,
taste, and smell. The receptors are specialized epithelial cells in the somatosensory and olfactory
systems, the receptors are first-order, or primary afferent, neurons. Regardless of the differences
the basic function of the receptors is the same: to convet electrochemical energy. The conversion
process, called sensory transduction, is mediated through opening or closing specific ion
channels. Opening or closing ion channels leads to a change in membrane potential, either
depolarization or hyperpolarization, of the sensory receptor. Such a change in membrane
potential of the sensory receptor is called the receptor potential. After transduction and
generation of the receptor potential, the information is transmitted to the central nervous system
along a series of sensory afferent neurons, which are designated as first-order, second order,
third-order, and fourth-order neurons. First-order refers to those neurons closest to the sensory
receptor, and the higher-order neurons are those closer to the central nervous system.

FIRST-ORDER SENSORY AFFERENT NEURONS:

Sensory information is initially transmitted from sensory receptors to the central nervous system
via first order neurons. The neurons have cell bodies located in the sensory ganglia (e.g., dorsal
root ganglia for somatic sensations) and send their axon into the spinal cord or brain stem.

SECOND -ORDER SENSORY AFFERENT NEURON S:

In the spinal cord or brain stem, first-order sensory neurons synapse with second-order sensory
neurons. These neurons relay the sensory information to higher brain centres via specific
ascending pathways. They modify the information they receive from first-order sensory neurons.
Axons of the second-order neurons leave the relay nucleus and ascend to the next relay, located
in the thalamus, where they synapse on third-order neurons. The axons of these second-order
neurons cross at the mid-line in the spinal cord. Below are some of the specific pathways.
Dorsal column-medial lemnisci pathway: carries proprioception, touch, pressure, and vibration
sensations. It ascends to the brain stem and crosses over at the medulla before reaching the
thalamus.

Spinothalamic pathway: carries pain, temperature, and touch sensations. It crosses over shortly
after entering the spinal cord and ascends contra-laterally to the thalamus.

Spinocerebellar pathways: transmit proprioceptive information from the spinal cord to the
cerebellum, contributing to the coordination and balance. The

can divide into dorsal and ventral Spinocerebellar tracts.

Trigeminothalamic pathway: carries sensory information from the face, including touch, pain,
and temperature sensations. It projects the thalamus.

THIRD-ORDER SENSORY AFFERENT NEURONS:

Third-order neurons typically reside in relay nuclei in the thalamus. Again, many second-order
neurons synapse on a single third-order neuron. The relay nuclei process the informationon they
receive via local inter-neurons, which may be excitatory or inhibitory. The information forms the
spinal cord is relayed to the thalamus, which serves as a major sensory processing centre in the
brain. The thalamus further processes and directs sensory information to the appropriate cortical
areas for perception and interpretation.

FOURTH-ORDER SENSORY AFFERENT NEURONS:

Fourth-order neurons reside in the appropriate sensory area of the cerebral cortex. Information
reaches the primary sensory cortex and associated higher-order cortical areas, where it is further
integrated with other sensory inputs, and ultimately leads to conscious perception and
interpretation of sensory stimulus.

The functional organization ascending sensory pathways ensures that sensory information is
accurately transmitted, processed, and interpreted in the brain, allowing living organisms to
perceive and respond to their environment effectively.
THE THALAMUS.

The thalamus is a small ovoid or egg-shaped structure that is located medially of centrally deep
within the brain. It is located within the diencephalon bilaterally (on both sides). We can describe
the Diencephalon as the region of the brain that is located between the two cerebral hemispheres
of the brain as well as the brain stem. It houses four main structures including the thalamus itself.
The thalamus itself makes up about 80% of the diencephalon.

FUNCTIONS.

The thalamus is a structure that plays a host of somatic functions or functions relating to
voluntary pathways of the body, and this include the following.

 RELAY CENTRE: the thalamus acts as a connection between the impulses most if not
all; body sensations. The sensations reach the thalamic nuclei and after being processed
are relayed to the cerebral cortex through the thalamocortical fibers.

 CENTER FOR SENSORY INFORMATION PROCESSSING: the thalamus is

responsible for processing of various sensory impulses or information from peripheral
receptors within the body such as taste pain hunger etc. and then sending it to specific
areas of the cerebrum to illicit a response.

 DETERMINING QUALITY OF SENATIONS: the thalamus can determine the quality

of the sensory information received and classify it as either discriminative or affective
nature. Discriminative nature refers to recognition of the type and location and other
specifics about the impulse whilst affective nature refers to the whether the sensation is
pleasant or unpleasant and agreeable or disagreeable.

 CENTER FOR SEXUAL SENSATIONS: the thalamus acts as the center for perception
of sexual sensations.

 ROLE IN AROUSAL AND ALERTNESS REACTIONS: it plays a crucial role in

alertness and arousal reactions.

 CENTER FOR REFLEX ACTIVITY: the thalamus forms the center for relaying of
reflex activities due to the presence of sensory fibers.
SENSORY CORTEX

The sensory cortex is part of the brain that process and interpret sensory stimulus. The term
''cortex'' comes from the Latin word for ''bark,'' indicating that the cortex makes up much of the
exterior layer of the brain. There are actually many parts of the brain that make up the sensory
cortex. Some of these are responsible for primary sensory interpretation, while others are
responsible for the more complex secondary interpretation.

COMPONENTS AND LOCATIONS OF THE SENSORY CORTEX

The sensory cortex is made up of several primary and secondary areas responsible for processing
different sensory modalities. The sensory cortex is composed of primary somatosensory,
secondary somatosensory, visual cortex, auditory cortex gustatory cortex, and olfactory cortex.

Primary somatosensory cortex is the main area responsible for processing and interpreting
tactile, proprioceptive, and kinesthetic sensations from the body. It is organized somatotopically,
meaning different regions correspond to different parts of the body.

Primary somatosensory cortex is Located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe. Situated
just posterior to the central sulcus, which separates the frontal and parietal lobes.

Secondary somatosensory cortex is the area that further processes and integrates the sensory
information received from the primary somatosensory cortex. It helps with more complex
aspects of sensory perception, such as spatial and temporal integration of touch. Secondary
somatosensory cortex is located in the parietal operculum, which is the part of the parietal lobe
that forms the upper wall of the lateral sulcus

Visual cortex. The primary visual cortex (V1) is responsible for processing visual information
received from the eyes. Higher-order visual areas (V2, V3, V4, V5/MT) further process and
integrate visual information for object recognition, motion perception, and other visual functions.
The primary visual cortex (V1) is located in the occipital lobe, at the back of the brain. Higher-
order visual areas are also located in the occipital lobe and extend into the parietal and temporal
lobes.
Auditory cortex. The primary auditory cortex processes sounds and auditory information
received from the ears. Secondary auditory areas help with more complex aspects of auditory
perception, such as speech and music processing. The primary auditory cortex is located in the
temporal lobe, specifically in the superior temporal gyrus. Secondary auditory areas are also
located in the temporal lobe.

Gustatory cortex is responsible for processing taste information from the tongue and mouth.
Located in the parietal operculum, near the secondary somatosensory cortex.

Olfactory cortex is area processes information about smells and odors received from the
olfactory system. Located in the frontal lobe, specifically in the medial temporal lobe.

HOW SENSORY CORTEX WORK SENSORY RECEPTORS

Sensory receptors are specialized cells or structures that detect various forms of stimuli, such as
touch, temperature, sound, or light. These receptors are located throughout the body and convert
the sensory information into electrical signals that can be transmitted to the brain.

SENSORY PATHWAY

The electrical signals from the sensory receptors are transmitted through specialized neural
pathways, known as sensory pathways, to the corresponding regions of the sensory cortex.

For example, the somatosensory pathway carries information about touch and proprioception
(body position) from the body to the somatosensory cortex, while the visual pathway carries
information about light and images from the eyes to the visual cortex.

SENSORY PROCESSING

When the sensory signals reach the corresponding regions of the sensory cortex, they are
processed and integrated to create a coherent perception of the sensory stimulus.

This processing involves complex neural mechanisms, such as feature detection, pattern
recognition, and the integration of information from different sensory modalities.
HIGHER-ODER PROCESSING

The sensory cortex is not the only brain region involved in sensory processing. The information
from the sensory cortex is also sent to higher-order brain regions, such as the association cortex,
where more complex cognitive and perceptual processes occur.

These higher-order regions help us to interpret, analyze, and make sense of the sensory
information, allowing us to form a comprehensive understanding of our environment and to
make informed decisions.

PERCEPTION OF SENSORY STIMULI

Perception is the process by which the brain interprets and organizes sensory information to
produce a meaningful understanding of the world around us. This process involves several key
steps.

SENSORY RECEPTORS

The process begins when sensory receptors detect environmental stimuli such as light, sound,
touch, taste, or smell. Sensory receptors are specialized cells or nerve endings located in sensory
organs like the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue. Here’s how sensory receptors contribute to
perception.

 Detection of Stimuli: Sensory receptors, which can be specialized cells or nerve endings
located in sensory organs such as the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue, detect external
stimuli such as light, sound, touch, taste, or smell.

 Transduction: Upon detecting a stimulus, sensory receptors transduce, or convert, the

energy of the stimulus into electrical signals called action potentials. This process
involves changes in the receptor’s membrane potential, typically triggered by physical or
chemical changes in the receptor.
  Sensitivity: Different types of sensory receptors are specialized to detect specific types of
stimuli. For example, photoreceptor cells in the retina detect light, mechanoreceptors in
the skin detect touch and pressure, and chemoreceptors in the nose detect odors.

 Sensory Adaptation: Sensory receptors can adapt to prolonged or repetitive stimulation,

reducing their response over time. This phenomenon, known as sensory adaptation,
allows the sensory system to focus on detecting new or changing stimuli while filtering
out constant background information.

 Receptor Sensitivity: Sensory receptors vary in their sensitivity to different stimuli,

allowing us to detect stimuli across a wide range of intensities. For example, some
photoreceptors are more sensitive to dim light, while others are more sensitive to bright
light.

TRANSDUCTION

Transduction us a process in which cells convert one form of energy into another. In
neuroscience, it refers to the conversion of sensory stimuli into electrical signals that can be
interpreted by the nervous system. For example, in the auditory system, hair cells in the inner ear
transduce sound waves into electrical signals that the brain can process. Below is how
transduction contributing to sensory perception.

 Detection of Stimuli: Sensory receptors, specialized cells or nerve endings located in

sensory organs, detect external stimuli such as light, sound, touch, taste, or smell. These
receptors transduce physical stimuli into electrical signals, which can be transmitted by
neurons.

 Conversion of Energy: Transduction involves converting the energy of the sensory

stimulus into electrochemical signals that can be processed by the nervous system. For
example, in the visual system, photoreceptor cells in the retina transduce light energy into
neural signals that can be transmitted to the brain.

 Encoding Information: The characteristics of the sensory stimulus, such as its intensity,
frequency, duration, or quality, are encoded in the patterns of neural activity generated by
 transduction. Different types of sensory receptors and neural pathways are specialized for
detecting specific features of the stimulus.

 Transmission to the Brain: Once transduced, the electrical signals representing sensory
information are transmitted along sensory neurons to specific regions of the brain
responsible for processing that particular sensory modality. For example, visual signals
are transmitted along the optic nerve to the visual cortex, while auditory signals are
transmitted along the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex.

 Integration and Interpretation: In the brain, the transduced sensory signals are integrated
with other neural inputs and processed to generate a coherent perceptual experience. This
involves comparing the incoming sensory information with stored memories,
expectations, and contextual cues to interpret the significance of the stimulus.

TRANSMISSION

Transmission of sensory stimuli refers to the process by which neural signals representing
sensory information are transmitted from sensory receptors to the brain for further processing
and interpretation. Here’s how transmission contributes to perception:

 Propagation of Signals: Once sensory receptors detect a stimulus, they generate neural
signals in the form of action potentials. These action potentials travel along sensory
neurons, which are specialized cells designed to transmit electrical impulses over long
distances.

 Specific Pathways: Different types of sensory information are transmitted along distinct
neural pathways to specific regions of the brain dedicated to processing that particular
sensory modality. For example, visual signals travel along the optic nerve to the visual
cortex, while auditory signals travel along the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex.

 Relay Stations: Along the transmission pathways, neural signals may pass through relay
stations or processing centers, such as the thalamus, where they undergo additional
processing before reaching the primary sensory cortex. These relay stations help to filter
and modulate the incoming sensory signals.
  Coding Information: During transmission, sensory information is encoded in the patterns
of neural activity, including the frequency and timing of action potentials. This coding
scheme allows the brain to represent various attributes of the stimulus, such as its
intensity, location, and quality.

 Integration and Interpretation: In the brain, the transmitted sensory signals are integrated
with other neural inputs and processed to generate a coherent perceptual experience. This
involves comparing the incoming sensory information with stored memories,
expectations, and contextual cues to interpret the significance of the stimulus.

PROCESSING

In the brain, the incoming sensory signals are processed and integrated with other neural inputs.
This involves analyzing the sensory information, comparing it with stored memories and
expectations, and extracting meaningful features. Here’s the mechanisms of processing on
perception.

 Feature Detection: Incoming sensory information is analyzed to detect specific features

such as edges, colors, shapes, frequencies, or chemical properties. Different sensory
modalities have specialized neural pathways for detecting these features.

 Sensory Integration: Information from multiple sensory modalities may be integrated to

create a unified perceptual experience. For example, the brain combines visual and
auditory cues to locate the source of a sound, or it integrates visual and tactile
information to perceive the shape and texture of an object.

 Pattern Recognition: The brain identifies patterns and meaningful configurations within
sensory input. This allows us to recognize objects, faces, sounds, and other complex
stimuli based on familiar patterns stored in memory.

 Contextual Processing: Perception is influenced by contextual factors such as attention,

expectation, emotional state, and prior experience. These factors modulate neural activity
and shape the interpretation of sensory input.
  Top-Down Processing: Higher-level brain regions send feedback signals to lower-level
sensory areas, influencing the processing of sensory input. This top-down processing can
enhance perception by providing context, filling in missing information, or biasing
interpretation based on cognitive expectations.

 Selective Attention: The brain selectively attends to relevant sensory information while
filtering out irrelevant or distracting stimuli. Attentional mechanisms prioritize certain
sensory inputs for further processing, allowing us to focus on what is most important in a
given context.

 Perceptual Organization: Sensory input is organized into meaningful perceptual

structures such as objects, scenes, and events. Gestalt principles, such as proximity,
similarity, and continuity, guide the organization of sensory elements into coherent
perceptual wholes.

PERCEPTION

Finally, the processed sensory information results in the conscious perception of the stimulus.
Perception involves becoming aware of and interpreting the sensory input, allowing us to
recognize and respond to our environment.

PHYSIOLOGY OF PAIN

Pain is a complex physiological process. Pain is a somatic or emotional sensation that is

unpleasant in nature and is associated with potential tissue damage. This happens when the. This
discomfort happens when the specific nerves called nociceptors trigger impulses through the
nerve fibers to the central nervous system (brain) for interpretation. Pain is categorized into two
sub-divisions which are; acute and chronic. However, pain prompts us to take action to avoid
further tissue injury or promote healing. Pain is a complex physiological phenomenon that serves
as a crucial warning system for our bodies. It alerts us to potential or actual tissue damage,
prompting us to take action to avoid further injury or promote healing. Here's a breakdown of the
physiology of pain: This outlines the process of pai and how its physiology of pain occurs in
details.

Nociceptors: The Pain Detectives

The process of pain begins with specialized sensory neurons called nociceptors. These are
essentially the body's pain detectives, present throughout the skin, muscles, joints, and internal
organs. Unlike other sensory receptors that respond to specific stimuli like touch or temperature,
nociceptors are activated by intense or damaging stimuli.

The Pain Pathway: A Neural Highway

When a nociceptor detects a noxious stimulus, it fires an electrical impulse. This signal travels
along nerve fibers to the spinal cord, the central highway for communication between the body
and the brain.

In the spinal cord, the pain signal may either: Be transmitted directly to the brain stem and
thalamus, brain regions responsible for processing sensory information and pain perception.

Or, it can be transmitted by Interacting with local spinal circuits, where the intensity and
character of the pain can be modulated. Inhibitory neurons in the spinal cord can dampen the
pain signal, while excitatory neurons can amplify it.

The Brain: The Command Center

The brain stem and thalamus further relay the pain signal to various cortical regions responsible
for:

 Localization: Identifying the specific location of the injury.

 Intensity: Perceiving the severity of the pain.

 Emotional Response: Associating the pain with unpleasant emotions like fear or anxiety.

The brain also initiates behavioral and physiological responses to pain, such as:

 Withdrawal reflex: An involuntary movement away from the painful stimulus.

  Increased heart rate and breathing: Preparing the body for action.

 Release of stress hormones: Mobilizing the body's resources to deal with the threat.

TYPES OF PAIN

Pain can be categorized into different types based on its cause and duration:

 Acute pain: This is the sharp, well-localized pain that arises from immediate tissue
damage, like a stubbed toe or a burn. It serves as a protective mechanism, prompting us
to remove ourselves from the harmful stimulus. Acute pain typically resolves within a
few days to weeks as the injury heals.

 Chronic pain: This is pain that persists beyond the normal healing time (usually 3 months
or more). It can arise from various conditions like arthritis, nerve damage, or chronic
illnesses. Chronic pain can significantly impact a person's quality of life.

 Nociceptive pain: This is pain directly caused by tissue damage, activating the classic
pain pathway.

 Inflammatory pain: This type of pain results from inflammation, often associated with
tissue injury or infection. Chemical substances released during inflammation irritate
nearby nociceptors, leading to pain.

 Neuropathic pain: This arises from damage to the nervous system itself. It can manifest
as burning, stabbing, or shooting pain, and is often resistant to traditional pain
management approaches.

Understanding the physiology of pain is essential for developing effective pain management
strategies. By targeting different points in the pain pathway, from medication to interventional
techniques, we can help alleviate pain and improve quality of life for individuals suffering from
chronic pain.

MOTOR SYSTEM
The motor system is the highly complex system that controls body movement. It is responsible
for conscious design and execution of motor planning as well as for numerous unconscious
processes, such as feedback and fine-tuning mechanisms. The motor system is the components of
the central and peripheral nervous system responsible for coordinating motor function, i.e.
movement. It consists of four levels: the spinal cord, the brain stem, the motor cortex, and the
association cortex. It also contains two side loops: the basal ganglia and the cerebellum.

REFLEXES

Reflexes are involuntary response to an internal or external stimuli without the consciousness of
the body. Its response protects the body from damages that cannot be replaced. A reflex has a
basic unit which acts as a pathway of a reflex action, called the reflex arc.

A stimulus is first received by a receptor, which then generates the impulses in the afferent or
sensory nerve after being stimulated. Then the afferent nerve transmits the sensory impulses
from the receptor to the center (brain or spinal cord). These impulses are carried by the afferent
nerve fibers into the center, causing the motor impulses to be generated. After the generation of
the motor impulses, there are transmitted from the center through the efferent or motor nerve to
the effector organ. The response to the stimulus occurs on the effector organ.

CLASSIFICATION OF A REFLEX ARC

Reflex arcs are classified into two, namely;

a. MONOSYNAPTIC This is a reflex of the single synapse between the afferent and
efferent. It has the stretch reflex which is a response of contraction to a stretched skeletal
muscle.

b. POLYSYNAPTIC REFLEXES: These are reflexes that occur in the afferent and efferent
such as the withdraw reflex.

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF REFLEXES

ONE WAY CONDUCTION: It is also known as the Bell-Magendie law. This where impulses
are transmitted in one direction via a reflex arc.

REACTION TIME: It is the rate at which a stimulus occurs and is dependent on the speed by
which impulses are transmitted the afferent and efferent nerve fiber, until it reaches to the center
where impulses are delayed. The delay is called synaptic delay.

SUMMATION: This is when excitatory postsynaptic potentials from the presynaptic sum up or
space up to generate a larger response on a postsynaptic neuron. For instance, when a weak
stimulus used, a lower reflex may be produced. However, a continuous stimulus response may
cause multiple stimulus reflexes. It has two types namely; the temporal summation and the
spatial summation.

OCCLUSION: It involves two motor neurons. When two muscles in a flexor neuron is
stimulated simultaneously the tension of each nerve in a motor nerve is more that the tension in
the muscle. This may cause an inhibition to a reflex response when another reflex is activated.
For example, a hot object plantar is temporarily stopped to allow a withdrawal reflex occur.

SUBLIMINAL FRINGE: Mostly occurs in a muscle where two afferents are stimulated
simultaneously to produce a greater tension than the one in the sum of response produced
separately. E.g. Stretch reflex.
FINAL COMMON PATHWAY: This is when the motor neurons are activated to supply the
extrafusal muscle in order to cause contractions and relaxation on the muscle. In this pathway a,
a coordinated response occurs when the sensory units come together and forms a one thing that
will generate a motor output.

RECRUITMENT: This is when the stronger stimulus causes the activation of more motor units
that leads to the contraction of muscle fibers. An example is when one touches a hot object, more
motor units are produced to cause a withdraw from the hot object. That’s a response of danger
from an injury.

AFTER DISCHARGE: This is when there is a continuous response to a stimulus even after the
stimulus is stopped. This add up to a continuous reflex action even after the stimulation is
ceased.

REBOUND PHENOMENON: It is an inhibition of a reflex action. And when this inhibition is

done, the reflex activity becomes more powerful than before inhibition. An example can be the
extension of a leg after inhibition of flexion.

FATIGUE: When an activity of a reflex is prolonged, the response to a stimulus decreases bit by
bit until it stops, and at that point it does not respond. An example, is the center and synapse of
the reflex arc.

IRRADIATION: This is the generating of the impulses up and down to distinguished segments
as well as motor neurons in the spinal cord. E.g. When being pinched, the flexor withdraws but
the extensor relaxes.

ADEQUATE STIMULUS: The stimulus that occurs on a reflex is specific and enough for a
reflex activity for instance, when the patellar tendon is tapped, the quadricep muscle contract.

In summary, these properties play a very significant role in making sure that the body responds
faster as well as automatically to different stimuli.

FUNCTION ORGANISATION OF MOTOR SYSTEM I

 The motor system is the set of central and peripheral structures in the nervous system that
support motor functions, i.e. movement. Peripheral structures may include skeletal muscles and
neural connections with muscle tissues. The structures composing the four main levels of the
motor system listed from the lowest to the highest level in the hierarchy are the 1) spinal cord, 2)
brain stem, 3) primary motor cortex, and 4) associational cortex.

regarding the specific functions of different parts of the motor system:

Motor System I (Pyramidal Tract): This is also known as the corticospinal tract. It originates
from the motor cortex, particularly the primary motor cortex (M1). It plays a vital role in the
precise and skilled voluntary movements of the limbs.

Motor System II (Extra pyramidal System): This encompasses various pathways outside of the
corticospinal tract. It includes the rubrospinal tract, reticulospinal tract, vestibulospinal tract, and
tectospinal tract. Motor System II helps regulate posture, balance, and coordination of
movement. It also contributes to involuntary movements, such as reflexes.

both motor systems work together to ensure smooth and coordinated movement, with Motor
System I primarily involved in voluntary, precise movements and Motor System II assisting in
posture, balance, and involuntary movements.

AN OVERVIEW ABOUT THE CORTICOSPINAL TRACT. (PYRAMIDAL TRACT)

The corticospinal tract, often referred to as the pyramidal tract, is a vital pathway within the
central nervous system responsible for the precise control of voluntary movements. It serves as
the primary conduit through which motor commands originating in the cerebral cortex are
transmitted to the spinal cord, ultimately leading to muscle contraction and movement.

Originating primarily from the motor cortex of the brain, particularly the precentral gyrus (also
known as the primary motor cortex) and other motor areas, the corticospinal tract consists of
long descending nerve fibers that form a distinctive bundle resembling a pyramid, hence its
name. These nerve fibers travel through various regions of the brain, including the internal
capsule and brainstem, before descending through the spinal cord. Along its course, the
corticospinal tract undergoes significant anatomical organization, with fibers from different parts
of the motor cortex projecting to specific regions of the spinal cord. The corticospinal tract is
renowned for its role in fine motor control, particularly of the distal extremities such as the hands
and fingers. It enables precise and coordinated movements necessary for activities like writing,
typing, and manipulating objects. Additionally, the corticospinal tract is involved in skilled
movements such as playing musical instruments or engaging in sports that require intricate motor
coordination.

Disruptions or lesions affecting the corticospinal tract can lead to various motor impairments,
including weakness, spasticity, and loss of fine motor control. Understanding the organization
and function of the corticospinal tract is crucial not only for comprehending basic motor
physiology but also for diagnosing and managing neurological conditions that affect motor
function.

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE MOTOR SYSTEM INVOLVES TWO MAIN

COMPONENTS:

the upper motor neurons (U M N s)

the lower motor neurons (L M N s)

The upper and lower motor neurons form a two-neuron circuit. The upper motor neurons
originate in the cerebral cortex and travel down to the brain stem or spinal cord, while the lower
motor neurons begin in the spinal cord and go on to innervate muscles and glands throughout the
body.

COURSE OF THE CORTICOSPINAL TRACT

The course of the corticospinal tract involves a complex pathway from its origin in the cerebral
cortex to its termination in the spinal cord. Here’s a brief overview:

ORIGIN: The corticospinal tract originates primarily from the motor cortex of the brain,
including the precentral gyrus (primary motor cortex), premotor cortex, and supplementary
motor area.

Upper motor neurons within these cortical regions send their axons downward, forming the
corticospinal tract.

INTERNAL CAPSULE: After originating in the motor cortex, corticospinal fibers converge and
pass through the internal capsule, a white matter tract located deep within the brain.

The internal capsule serves as a major pathway for motor fibers traveling between the cerebral
cortex and the brainstem/spinal cord.

BRAIN STEM: Once the corticospinal fibers pass through the internal capsule, they descend
through the brain stem, specifically the mid brain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

In the medulla oblongata, most corticospinal fibers undergo decussation (crossing over) to the
opposite side of the brainstem. This crossing occurs at the level of the pyramids, forming the
pyramidal decussation.

SPINAL CORD: After decussation, the corticospinal fibers continue their descent through the
spinal cord.

In the spinal cord, the corticospinal tract is organized into two main divisions: the lateral
corticospinal tract and the anterior corticospinal tract.
The majority of fibers form the lateral corticospinal tract, which descends in the lateral funiculus
of the spinal cord and primarily innervates distal limb muscles.

A smaller portion of fibers form the anterior corticospinal tract, which descends in the anterior
funiculus and primarily innervates axial and proximal limb muscles.

TERMINATION: The corticospinal tract terminates by synapsing with lower motor neurons in
the ventral horn of the gray matter throughout the entire length of the spinal cord.

These lower motor neurons then project their axons out of the spinal cord to innervate skeletal
muscles, allowing for voluntary movement execution.

THE CORTICOSPINAL TRACT IS COMPOSED OF TWO MAIN SETS OF FIBERS:

the lateral corticospinal tract

the anterior corticospinal tract

1. LATERAL CORTICOSPINAL TRACT

- The majority of fibers in the corticospinal tract form the lateral corticospinal tract.

- These fibers originate from the primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus) and the premotor
cortex.

- They cross over from one side of the brain to the opposite side in the medulla oblongata at the
level of the pyramids

- After crossing over, the fibers descend through the spinal cord in the lateral funiculus (white
matter).

- Once in the spinal cord, they synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horn of the
gray matter.

- The lateral corticospinal tract is responsible for controlling voluntary movements, especially
of the limbs, fingers, and toes.

2. ANTERIOR CORTICOSPINAL TRACT

 - The anterior corticospinal tract consists of fibers that do not cross over in the medulla but
continue down the spinal cord on the same side from which they originated.

- These fibers descend through the spinal cord’s anterior funiculus.

- Upon reaching the spinal cord, they also synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral
horn.

- The anterior corticospinal tract contributes to the control of bilateral and axial (trunk)
muscles, as well as fine motor control of the proximal limbs.

Together, these two sets of fibers in the corticospinal tract play a crucial role in the initiation and
execution of voluntary movements by transmitting motor commands from the cerebral cortex to
the spinal cord.

FUNCTION OF THE CORTICOSPINAL

The corticospinal tract plays a central role in the initiation and execution of voluntary
movements. Its function can be summarized as follows:

INITIATION OF VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS:

The corticospinal tract carries motor commands from the motor cortex of the brain to the spinal
cord.

These commands initiate voluntary movements by activating lower motor neurons in the spinal
cord, which in turn innervate skeletal muscles.

Fine Motor Control:

The corticospinal tract is particularly involved in controlling fine, skilled movements, especially
of the distal extremities such as the hands and fingers.

It allows for precise and coordinated movements necessary for tasks such as writing, typing,
playing musical instruments, and manipulating objects.
INDIVIDUAL MUSCLE CONTROL: The corticospinal tract provides individual control over
specific muscles or groups of muscles, allowing for selective activation and coordination of
muscle groups.

This enables the execution of complex movements involving multiple muscle groups working in
concert.

BILATERAL CONTROL: While the lateral corticospinal tract primarily controls voluntary
movements on the contralateral (opposite) side of the body, the anterior corticospinal tract
contributes to bilateral control.

The corticospinal tract helps coordinate movements involving both sides of the body, ensuring
balanced and synchronized movements.

VOLUNTARY MUSCLE TONE: The corticospinal tract influences muscle tone, helping to
regulate the degree of muscle tension during voluntary movements.

It contributes to the maintenance of appropriate muscle tone, ensuring muscles are neither too
relaxed nor too rigid during movement.

MOTOR SYSTEM II

The motor system II, also known as the supplementary motor area (SMA), is a region of the
brain located in the medial aspect of the frontal lobe, adjacent to the primary motor cortex. It is
an integral part of the motor control network and plays a crucial role in the planning and
coordination of voluntary movements.

FUNCTIONS OF THE MOTOR SYSTEM II

Movement Planning: One of the primary functions of the SMA is to plan voluntary movements.
It receives inputs from various cortical and subcortical regions, integrating sensory information
and cognitive processes to organize and initiate motor plans. This function is essential for
executing complex movements that require precise timing and coordination.
 Motor Initiation: The SMA is involved in the initiation of voluntary movements. It sends
signals to the primary motor cortex and other motor regions to activate the appropriate muscle
groups and initiate motor commands. Dysfunction of the SMA can lead to difficulties in
initiating movements, resulting in motor impairments.

Sequence Coordination: The SMA plays a critical role in coordinating sequential movements.
It helps organize the timing and order of muscle activations required for executing complex
motor sequences, such as typing on a keyboard or playing a musical instrument. This function is
crucial for tasks that involve precise sequential actions.

Bilateral Movement Coordination: Another important function of the SMA is the coordination of
bilateral movements. It helps synchronize movements between the left and right sides of the
body, ensuring smooth and coordinated actions. This aspect of its function is essential for
activities like walking, where both legs need to work in synchrony.

Motor learning: The SMA is implicated in motor learning processes. It is involved in the
consolidation of motor memories and the refinement of motor skills through practice and
repetition. This function enables individuals to adapt to new motor tasks and improve motor
performance over time.

Internally generated movements: The SMA is responsible for generating internally guided
movements based on intentions or mental imagery. It allows individuals to plan and execute
movements without relying solely on external stimuli. This aspect of its function is crucial for
tasks that require self-initiated actions.

Response Inhibition: The SMA is involved in inhibiting inappropriate motor responses. It helps
suppress unwanted movements and select the most appropriate action based on the context and
task demands. This function is essential for maintaining motor control and preventing
impulsivity.

Motor Imagery and Visualization: The SMA is active during motor imagery and visualization
tasks. It plays a role in mentally simulating movements without actual execution. This function is
utilized in sports training, rehabilitation, and other contexts where mental rehearsal can enhance
motor performance.
Overall, the SMA performs a variety of functions essential for motor control, including
movement planning, initiation, coordination, learning, and inhibition. Dysfunction of the SMA
can lead to a range of motor impairments, highlighting its importance in maintaining smooth and
coordinated movements.

BRAIN STEM REFLEXES, STRETCH REFLEXES AND TENDON REFLEXES

 BRAIN STEM REFLEXES

Brainstem reflexes are relatively simple responses organised by the brainstem and designed to
enable the body to adjust rapidly to sudden changes in the environment. These reflexes do not
involve higher brain centre. and are essential for survival and protection. Examples include the
pupillary reflex, which adjusts the size of the pupils in response to light changes and the gag
reflex,

which helps prevent choking by triggering a coughing or gagging response when something
touches the back of the throat.

 STRETCH REFLEXES

The stretch reflexes also known as the myotatic reflex it refers to the contraction of a muscle in
response to its passive stretching. They involve a sensory neuron detecting the stretch of a
muscle spindle and quickly initiating a reflexive contraction of the same muscle (causes the
muscle to contract, thereby protecting the muscle from being over stretched or torn). The purpose
of stretch reflexes to maintain muscle tone, stabilize joints and prevent overstretching or injury.
An example is knee jerk, where tapping the patellar tendon stretches the quadriceps muscle,
causing a reflexive contraction that extends the knee.

 TENDON REFLEXES

Tendon reflexes are automatic responses triggered when a tendon is tapped with a reflex
hammer, causing the muscle to contract. They are part of the bodies reflex ears involving sensory
neurons, relay neuron and motor neuron, to quickly respond to stimuli. The tendon reflexes help
maintain posture, balance and coordination.
BASAL GANGLIA

The basal ganglia are the deep nuclei of the telencephalon: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus
pallidus and amygdala. There also are associated nuclei including the ventral anterior and ventral
lateral nuclei of the thalamus, the subthalamic nucleus of the diencephalon, and the substantia
nigra of the midbrain. The main function of the basal ganglia is to influence the motor cortex via
pathways through the thalamus.

PATHWAY IN THE BASAL GANGLIA

 Indirect pathway. In the indirect pathway, the striatum sends inhibitory input to the
external segment of the globus pallidus, which has inhibitory input to the subthalamic
nuclei. The thalamus
then sends excitatory
input back to the motor
cortex. In this pathway,
the inhibitory
neurotransmitter is
GABA, and the
excitatory
neurotransmitter is
glutamate. The overall
output of the indirect
pathways is inhibitory.

 Direct pathway. In the direct pathway, the striatum sends inhibitory input to the internal
segment of the globus pallidus and the pars reticulata of the substantia nigra, which send
inhibitory input to the thalamus. As in indirect pathway, the thalamus sends excitatory
input back to the motor cortex. Again, the inhibitory neurotransmitter is GABA, and the
 excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate. The overall output of the direct pathway is
excitatory.

FUNCTIONS OF BASAL GANGLIA

1. Control of muscle tone: Basal ganglia decrease the muscle tone by inhibiting gamma
motor neurons through descending inhibitory reticular system in brainstem.

2. Control motor activity; regulation of voluntary movement, regulation of conscious

movements, and regulation of subconscious movements.

3. Control of reflex muscular activity: Some reflex muscular activities, particularly visual
and labyrinthine reflexes are important in maintaining the posture. Basal ganglia are
responsible for the coordination and integration of impulses for these reflex activities.

4. Role of neurotransmitters in the functions of basal ganglia: function of basal ganglia on

motor activities are executed by some neurotransmitters released by nerve endings within
basal ganglia.

 Dopamine released by dopaminergic fibres from substantia nigra to corpus

striatum.

 Gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA) secreted by intrinsic fibres of corpus

striatum and substantia nigra.

 Acetylcholine released by fibres from cerebral cortex to caudate nucleus and

putamen

 Glutamic acid secreted by fibre from subthalamic nucleus to globus pallidus and
substantia nigra.

APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY- DISORDERS OF BASAL GANGLIA

Diseases of the basal ganglia include Parkinson disease and Huntington disease. In Parkinson
disease, cells of the par’s compacta of the substantia nigra degenerate, reducing inhibition via the
indirect pathway and reducing excitation via the direct pathway. The characteristics of Parkinson
disease are explainable by dysfunction of the basal ganglia. Huntington disease is a hereditary
disorder caused by destruction of striatal and cortical cholinergic neurons and inhibitory
GABAergic neurons.

CERBELLUM

The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a structure that is located at the back of the brain, underlying
the occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex (as shown in the figure below). Although
the cerebellum accounts for approximately 10% of the brain’s volume, it contains over 50% of
the total number of neurons in the brain. Historically, the cerebellum has been considered a
motor structure, because cerebellar
damage leads to impairments in motor
control and posture and because the
majority of the cerebellum’s outputs are
to parts of the motor system. Motor
commands are not initiated in the
cerebellum; rather, the cerebellum
modifies the motor commands of the
descending pathways to make
movements more adaptive and accurate.

The cerebellum is involved in the following functions:

Maintenance of balance and posture. The cerebellum is important for making postural
adjustments in order to maintain balance. Through its input from vestibular receptors and
proprioceptors, it modulates commands to motor neurons to compensate for shifts in body
position or changes in load upon muscles. Patients with cerebellar damage suffer from balance
disorders, and they often develop stereotyped postural strategies to compensate for this problem
(e.g., a wide-based stance).

Coordination of voluntary movements. Most movements are composed of a number of different

muscle groups acting together in a temporally coordinated fashion. One major function of the
cerebellum is to coordinate the timing and force of these different muscle groups to produce fluid
limb or body movements.

Motor learning. The cerebellum is important for motor learning. The cerebellum plays a major
role in adapting and fine-tuning motor programs to make accurate movements through a trial-
and-error process (e.g., learning to hit a baseball).

Cognitive functions. Although the cerebellum is most understood in terms of its contributions to
motor control, it is also involved in certain cognitive functions, such as language. Thus, like the
basal ganglia, the cerebellum is historically considered as part of the motor system, but its
functions extend beyond motor control in ways that are not yet well understood.

VESTIBULAR REFLEXES: MAINTENANCE OF EQUILIBRIUM

Vestibular neck reflexes are a set of reflexes that help maintain balance and posture. They
involve the coordination between the vestibular system in the inner ear and the muscles of the
neck. These reflexes help us keep our head and body aligned, especially when our head is
moving.

The vestibular neck reflexes help maintain equilibrium by coordinating the movements of our
head and neck with our body’s position in space. When the head moves or tilts, the vestibular
system in our inner ear detects these changes and sends signals to the muscle in our neck to
adjust our posture. This helps us stay balanced and our heads aligned with our body.
Types of vestibular neck reflexes

There are several vestibular neck reflexes including:

1. Vestibulocollic reflex (VCR)

The vestibulocollic reflex (also known as the vestibular neck reflex) is a mechanism that helps
maintain balance and stability by coordinating head and neck movements in response to changes
in head position detected by the vestibular system in the inner ear. When the head moves, signals
from the vestibular organs are sent to the neck muscles to adjust the position of the head,
therefore maintaining equilibrium.

The VCR consists of several subtypes:

i) Horizontal VCR

This reflex involves the coordination of head and neck muscles to stabilize head position during
horizontal head movements (i.e., turning the head from side to side).

ii) Vertical VCR

This reflex stabilizes head position during vertical head movements (i.e., nodding up and down)

iii) Torsional VCR

This reflex helps stabilize head position during rotational head movements (i.e., spinning the
head)

2. Cervicoocular reflex (COR)

The cervicoocular reflex is a mechanism that helps stabilize vision during head movements by
coordinating eye movements with neck movements. It works in conjunction with the vestibulo-
ocular reflex (VOR) to ensure the visual information remains stable and clear despite head
motion. The COR primarily involves the coordination between the neck proprioceptors and the
oculomotor system to produce compensatory eye movements that counteract the effects of head
movements on vison.
The COR can be categorized into two main types based on the direction of head movements and
the corresponding eye movements, which are the following:

i) Vestibularly-mediated COR (vCOR)

This type of COR is influenced by signals from the vestibular system. It involves compensatory
eye movements in response to head movements detected by the vestibular organs (e.g., when the
head turns to the right, vCOR causes the eyes to move to the left to maintain visual stability).

ii) proprioceptively-mediated COR (pCOR)

This type of COR is driven by signals from neck proprioceptors, which detect changes in neck
position and movements. It helps stabilize vision during proprioceptors, which head movements
with neck movements.

3. Vestibulospinal reflex (VSR)

The vestibulospinal reflex is a mechanism that helps maintain balance and stability by adjusting
muscle tone and posture in response to signal from the vestibular system. When the vestibular
organs detect changes in head position, they send signals to the spinal cord, which in turn
activates muscles throughout the body to adjust posture and maintain equilibrium.

There are two main pathways involved in VSR reflex:

i) Medial vestibulospinal tract

This tract influences neck and upper back muscles, helping to stabilize the head and upper body
during head movements. It plays a crucial role in maintaining posture and stabilizing gaze.

ii) lateral vestibulospinal tract

this tract influences muscles in the trunk and limbs, aiding in the maintenance of balance and
posture, especially during walking and other locomotion activities. It helps adjust muscle tone
and posture to counteract the effects of gravity and external disturbances.

4. Tonic Neck reflex

The tonic neck (other name: fencing reflex) is a reflex observed in the early stages of an infant. It
helps a baby learn how to move their limbs, track their vision, and develop hand-eye
coordination. This reflex fades around six months of age as voluntary motor control develops. Its
thought to be important for early motor development and coordination.

There are two main types of tonic neck reflexes:

i) Asymmetric tonic neck reflex (ATNR)

This reflex occurs when the head is turned to one side, causing the limbs on that one side to
extend while the limbs on the opposite side flex. It’s also known as the fencing posture due to the
fact that the arms position resembles a fencer’s stance.

ii) Symmetric tonic neck reflex (STNR)

This reflex occurs when the head is either extended or flexed. When the head is extended, the
arms straighten and the legs flex. When the head is flexed, the arms flex while the legs extend.
This reflex is thought to help facilitate crawling movements in infants.

LEVEL OF LESION IN NEUROGICAL DISEASE

A lesion is an area of tissue that has been damaged through injury or disease so a brain lesion is
an area of injury or disease within the brain. This can be caused by injury, infection, exposure to
certain chemicals, problems with the immune system, some sign and symptoms are; headache,
neck pain and stiffness, nausea, vomiting and lack of appetite, vision changes, seizures, fever,
difficulty moving. Areas of the brain that can be damaged include;

MOTOR CORTEX

The motor cortex control system can be damaged by the common abnormality called a stroke,
this is caused by either a ruptured blood vessel that hemorrhages into the brain or by thrombosis
of one the major arteries supplying blood to the brain. The result is the loss of blood supply to
the cortex or to the corticospinal tract where it passes through the internal capsule between the
caudate nucleus and the putamen. The lesion that occurs in motor cortex are mostly caused by
stroke and also affect the adjacent parts of the brain and basal ganglia. In this instance muscle
spasms occurs in the afflicted muscle areas on the opposite side of the body, this spasm results
mainly from damage to accessory pathways from the nonpyramidal portions of the cortex. This
spasticity is one which accompanies a stroke in human beings.

SPINAL CORD

The most common signs of spinal cord dysfunction are ataxia or incoordination, weakness caudal
to the lesion and spinal pain. Ataxia can be a feature of vestibular and cerebellar diseases. The
presence of focal spinal pain is localizing and suggests a compressive lesion such as disc
extrusion or neoplasia and non-painful spinal diseases are usually lesions that affect the spinal
cord parenchyma only (intramedullary lesions), such as degenerative and vascular disorders. The
degree of weakness of the patient often parallels the severity of the lesion

Proprioceptive deficits are an early indicator of compressive spinal cord lesions. In severe cases
superficial and deep pain perception are caudal to the lesion. In the all cases of focal spinal cord
disease whatever the location, there, are no mentation changes or signs of cranial nerve
dysfunction.

SPINAL SEGMENTS CERVICAL 1 AND 5

Lesion affecting the spinal cord segments C1 and C5 can cause weakness or paralysis in all four
limbs (tetra paresis/ tetra paresis) or in the limbs on just one side (hemiparesis). Lesions in the
center of the spinal cord in this region can cause weakness in the thoracic limbs with minimal
deficits in the pelvic limbs (central cord syndrome). Segmental spinal reflexes are not affected by
lesions in this region of the spinal cord and therefore remain intact. Severe lesions can cause
respiratory weakness or apnea.

SPINAL SEGMENTS CERVICAL 6 AND THARACIC 2

The lesions affecting spinal cord segments C6 and T2 can result in the same pattern of motor
dysfunction in the thoracic and pelvic limbs as that seen with C1-C5 lesions, with the addition of
weak or absent spinal reflexes in the thoracic limbs. Segmental spinal reflexes are intact in the
pelvic limbs. With mild extradural lesions, the pelvic limbs can be more severe affected than the
thoracic limbs.
THORACIC SEGMENTS 3- LUMBAR 3

Lesions affecting the T3-L3 spinal segments may cause varying degrees of ataxia and weakness
in pelvic limbs with normal motor function in the thoracic limbs. The segmental spinal reflexes
in all limbs remain intact with lesions in this region. Acute lesions in this region may cause a
Schiff – Sherrington posture but this does not have prognostic significance.

LUMBAR 4 AND SACRAL 2

Lesions affecting the L4 through the second sacral spinal segments cause weakness in the pelvic
limbs with limited ataxia and reduced spinal reflexes (patella reflex / femoral nerve L4-L5;
flexor withdrawal reflex/sciatic nerve L6-S2).

SACRAL1 AND SACRAL 3

Lesions affecting the sacral spinal segments can cause mild pelvic limb weakness with reduced
or absent flexor withdrawal reflexes but may predominantly cause urinary and faucal
incontinence with reduced or absent perineal or anal reflex. In addition to reduced motor
function in the tail.

BRAIN AND STEM

The brain stem includes the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata with cranial nerves three
through twelve. Severe brain stem lesions can cause severe depression, stupor or coma. Tetra
paresis or tetra paresis with decerebrate rigidity, conscious proprioception deficits and intact
spinal reflexes are often seen with stem disease. Ipsilateral cranial nerve deficits are possible in
isolation or in conjunction with central motor and sensory dysfunction, depending on whether the
cranial nerve is affected after it exited the brainstem. There they are a potential for cardiac and
respiratory abnormalities, including apnea and cardiac arrest.

VESTIBULAR SYSTEM

The function of vestibular system is to send messages to the brain about the gravitational forces
acting on the head and any movement that the head and any experience.
The brain can then determine the position of the head in space and can coordinate subsequent
movements of the eyes and limbs. Damage to either the peripheral or the central components of
the vestibular system will cause vestibular dysfunction, the sign exhibited by the patient depends
upon the portion affected.

Head tilt this is the most common sign of unilateral vestibular disease and occurs because of the
loss of muscle tone on one side of the neck in the peripheral disease whereas it can be to any side
if there is central lesion. Often, there is no head tilt if there is bilateral disease and instead there
are wide excursions of the head and neck from to side.

Ataxia and disequilibrium the loss of general balance that is experienced by the animal with
vestibular disease is manifested by a base wide stance and swaying of the head and truck. This
can progress to rolling, leaning of falling to one side with unilateral lesions. Peripheral vestibular
disease occurs without any deficits in conscious proprioception or strength whereas a central
lesion may cause these abnormalities.

Strabismus – vestibular disease may cause one eye to be deviated ventrally or ventrolateral when
the neck is extended positional strabismus. The ventrally deviated eye is usually, a constant
ventral strabismus is present with vestibular disease. Cranial nerve abnormalities- peripheral
vestibular lesions may be accompanied by ipsilateral facial nerve paresis and, or Horner’s
syndrome due to the anatomical proximity of these two nerve defects be present with central
vestibular disease.

Lesion to the brain can be unilateral or bilateral depending on the cause. Characteristics signs
include spastic ataxia, wide- based stance, dysmetria, intention tremors, and no obvious signs of
weakness. Lesions of the lobes of the cerebellum produce signs to those of vestibular disease,
including loss of equilibrium, nystagmus, and tendency to fall and also diffuse caballer lesions
may cause the menace response to be absent with vision remaining normal.

Cerebrum lesions (including the cerebral hemispheres and basal nuclei) usually cause alterations
in behavior or mental status, seizures, loss of vision with intact pupillary light reflex,
contralateral decrease in facial sensation, and mild contralateral hemiparesis and deficits in the
postural reactions
REFERENCESS

I. Werner. G. (2012) The head-neck sensory motor system, 2nd ed. Oxford University press
II. Gutierrez. A. (2016) Neuromorphic Olfaction 12th ed. University of Manchester, UK
III. Scott. L. (2017) Neurobiology of Motor Control, Willey Blackwell.
IV. Volkenburgh. E. (2019) Bioinspired Actuators and sensors, 10 th ed. University of
Washington, seattle, USA.