ELECTRODYNAMICS

Electromagnetic induction
When a bar magnet moves towards or away from a conductor connected to a galvanometer (an
instrument for detecting and measuring small electric currents) the galvanometer shows
deflection. This deflection shows the presence of a current in the conductor.
The motion of the magnet relative to the conductor (or vice versa) induces a voltage or emf and
by extension a current in the conductor. This process is known as electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction is the process of using magnetic fields to produce a voltage and in a
complete circuit an electric current. It occurs whenever a magnetic field and an electric
conductor move relative to one another so the conductor crosses lines of force in the magnetic
field as shown below.

Whenever a conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced.

If the conductor is placed in a closed circuit, a current is induced which is called induced
current.

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Faradays Law
A current will be induced in a conductor, which is exposed to a changing magnetic field. The
current is a result of an EMF induced by a changing magnetic field.
Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through a given area
of a conductor. The magnetic flux through a surface is proportional to the number of field lines
passing through that. Faraday’s Law relates induced emf to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
This law states that when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines of force,
which induces an electromagnetic force (EMF) in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced
EMF depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor.
This EMF will cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed
The uses for electromagnetic induction include electric motors used in anything from washing
machines to trains, electric hobs and cookers, transformers, welding. Other devices that use
magnetism to induce currents include pickup coils in electric guitars, transformers and airport
security gates.
Generators
A generator is a device which generates electricity by converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The working principle of a generator is based on Faraday’s laws
of electromagnetic induction. In a generator, the conductor is formed from a coil of wire and
placed inside a magnetic field.
The conductor is manually rotated within the changing magnetic field and an electromotive
force is induced within the conductor. If the conductor is provided with a closed path, the
induced current will circulate within the closed path. The current produced is transmitted from
the conductor to the load e.g. a light bulb as shown below:

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There are two types of generators, namely a Direct Current (DC) generator and an Alternating
Current (AC) generator.

Direct Current (DC) Generator

In a DC generator, electrical current flows only in one direction. A simple DC generator is

constructed the same way as an AC generator except that it has a split ring commutator instead
of slip rings. The split ring commutator is used to make sure that current flow is in one
direction only. A carbon brush is a sliding contact used to collect DC from the split ring
commutator and transmit it from a static to a rotating part

The Direct Current (DC) cycle

The voltage across a DC voltage source is constant as is the current through a DC source. The
systems use only one polarity of voltage or current, and to refer to the constant, zero-
frequency, or slowly varying local mean value a voltage or current as shown below.

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 When coil is vertical 0°;180°;360° When coil is horizontal 90°;270°;
1) Coil is perpendicular to the magnetic 1. Coil is parallel to the magnetic field
field
2) There is no changing magnetic flux 2. There is a changing magnetic flux

3) ∴ no emf or current is induced in the 3. ∴ emf and current are induced in the
coil coil

4) ∴ V = 0 V and I = 0 A 4. ∴ V = Vmax and I = I max

Alternating current (AC) generators

AC generators work on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic. The conductor is

formed of a coil of wire, placed inside a magnetic field. According to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field EMF gets induced
across the conductor. If the close path is provided to the conductor, induced emf causes
current to flow in the circuit as shown in the diagrams below:

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The alternating current needs to be transmitted from the conductor to the load e.g. a light bulb.

In an AC generator,the direction of the current changes periodically. The coil is connected to slip
rings .The slip rings allow the transfer of alternating emf induced in the rotating coil to the
external circuit. Each ring is connected to one end of the coil wire and is electrically connected to
the external circuit via the conductive carbon brushes. The brushes collect the alternating current
(AC) from the slip rings.

This type of current which changes direction is known as alternating current.

The Alternating Current (AC) cycle

AC generators produce voltage which switches polarity over time, but does so in a very
particular manner. When graphed over time, the “wave” traced by this voltage of alternating
polarity takes on a distinct shape, known as a sine wave as shown below.

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For an alternating current generator, the current vs. time graph is a sine wave and alternates
between positive and negative values as shown below.

The AC current cycle

Coil position during rotation

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 When coil is vertical 0°;180°;360°
1. Coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
field
2. There is no changing magnetic flux
When coil is horizontal 90°;270°;
1) Coil is parallel to the magnetic field
2) There is a changing magnetic flux

3) ∴ emf and current are induced in the

3. ∴ no emf or current is induced in the coil
coil
4) ∴ V = Vmax and I = I max
4. ∴ V = 0 V and I = 0 A
but the emf and current are reversed.

Uses of AC and DC generators

AC generator

 The AC generator is used to produce alternating current which has high transmission
power and power generation capability for homes, offices, factories etc
 It is used in automobiles .
 It is also used in hydroelectric dams

DC generator

 used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.
 used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
 They are also used as back up power supply

Increasing induced EMF in a generator

The EMF induced in a conductor depends on a variety of factors. To increase the induced :

 Use a stronger magnet.

 Increase frequency of rotation of the coil.
 Increase number of turns in the coil.
 Decrease distance between magnet and coil. (To increase magnetic field strength
experienced by coil)

Motors

An electric motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The basic working principle of a DC motor is based on that, whenever a current carrying

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conductor or coil is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. The principle
on which electric motors work is called the motor effect. Motors use electric energy, supplied
by a battery or power source, to turn a coil in a magnetic field. The diagrams below shows a
simple demonstration of a current-carrying coil and conductor moving within a magnetic field.

Motor effect

A wire carrying a current creates a magnetic field. When this current-carrying conductor is
placed between the poles of a pair of magnets, the conductor will experience a force. This is
called the motor effect.

The current is travelling along the wire and the magnetic field from the permanent magnet goes
from left to right. The field from the permanent magnet and the field due to the current in the
wire combine and there is a force on the wire. The current, the magnetic field and the force are
all at right angles to one another.

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If the current and the magnetic field are parallel to each other (i.e. they are in the same
direction) they cancel each other out, and no force is generated. This is because the wire is not
passing through any magnetic field lines

If the current carrying wire is bent into a coil, then the two sides of the coil which are at right
angles to the magnetic field will experience forces in opposite direction. The pair of forces
creates a turning effect or torque that rotates the coil. These forces are due to the interaction
of the magnetic field generated by the current-carrying conductor and the magnetic field
formed by the pair of magnets.

There are two types of motors i.e. Direct Current Motor (DC) and Alternating Current Motor
(AC) are shown below.

Direct Current Motor Alternating Current Motor

In a DC electric motor, the electric current is supplied by a DC power supply. The split ring
commutator reverses the current each half turn to keep the coil turning in the same direction.
The brushes on the commutator allow for the free rotation of the coil while making contact
with split ring commutator to supply the DC to the coil.
DC motors can vary in size and power from small motors used for hair dryers, toy cars and
appliances to large mechanisms that power vehicles, pull elevators and hoists, and drive steel
rolling mill.
AC motors are powered by an AC power supply. They have slip rings instead of split rings. AC
electromagnets supply a magnetic field that changes direction during each AC cycle and the

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brushes make contact with a split ring commutator to supply the AC to the coil. General uses
for AC motors include pumps, washing machines, electric drills, water heaters, lawn and garden
equipment, ovens, and off-road motorized equipment.

Increasing the motor effect

To increase the force experienced by the coil

 Increase the current

 Increases the number of coil
 Increase the strength of the magnet
 Increase the length of the conductor in the field

Flemings Left Hand Rule for Motors

For any given combination of current and magnetic field strength, the force is greatest when
the direction of the current is 90° to the direction of the magnetic field. There is no motor
effect force if the current and magnetic field are parallel to each other.

It is possible to predict the direction of the force acting on a conductor i.e. its motion, if the
direction of the current and the magnetic field are known.

Hold the thumb, forefinger and second finger of the LEFT hand at right angles to each other. If
the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field (N to S) and the second finger points
in the direction of the conventional current, then the thumb will point in the direction of the
force (movement). Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used as illustrated in the diagram below.

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Right Hand Rules for Generators

Fleming's right-hand rule is used for generators to show the direction of induced current when
a conductor attached to a circuit moves in a magnetic field. The current in the wire can have
two possible directions. Fleming's right-hand rule gives which direction the current flows.

To use the rule, hold the thumb, forefinger and second finger of the RIGHT hand at right angles
to each other. If the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field (N to S) and the
thumb points in the direction of the force (movement), then the second finger points in the
direction of the induced current as shown below:

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Electricity generation

One of the important application of electromagnetic induction is the generation of alternating

current. Direct current (DC), which is electricity flowing in one direction only. DC is the kind of
electricity made by a battery, with definite positive and negative terminals.

Power stations generate alternating current and the power delivered to consumers is in the
form of AC. The major advantage of distributing current as AC is that it can be stepped up or
down by transformers to any voltage required. This is advantageous because for the electricity
to be transmitted safely and efficiently, it has to be at a high voltage and a low current. If the
current was too high, the cable would heat up too much and even melt.
The voltage can be” stepped up” at power stations to a very high voltage so that electrical
energy can be transmitted along power lines at low current and therefore experience low
energy loss due to heating. In this way, it is more efficient and economical to distribute
electricity over long distances as high voltage .The voltage can then be stepped down for use in
buildings and streetlights as shown in the diagram below.

Power stations all over South Africa are linked by transmission lines and towers called pylons.
Transmission lines send the electricity through thick aluminium and copper wires. The network
of transmission lines is called the National Grid. In South Africa, Eskom generators in power
plants produce alternating current that has a frequency of 50 Hz and changes direction
according every 0,02 seconds.
The generators in the power stations produce electricity at 20,000 volts. This voltage is raised
or transformed before it is sent out at 132,000, 275,000, 400,000 or even 765,000 volts onto
the transmission grid. These very high voltages were necessary to push the required flow of

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electricity through the wires and keep costs down. The electricity is transformed down to
11,000 volts for local distribution and then further reduced according to the need – for
example, 240 or 220 Volts for domestic use.

Advantages of AC over DC

Alternating Current Direct Current

AC power can be transmitted at high voltages DC power is provided at one voltage only
and stepped up or down to any voltage
required

AC can be transmitted over long distances DC is very expensive to transmit over long
distances as many plants are required
Because it can be transmitted at high voltage There is greater amount of energy lost when
and low current over long distances, there is transmitting DC over long distance
less energy losses. The loss in energy due to
the heating effect of current on the cables is
low.

AC power plants can be far outside cities DC power plants must be close to users
Maintenance of an AC sub station is easy and The brushes and commutators used in DC
cheap power plants are high maintenance items

Calculations for AC

As stated earlier, in alternating current circuits the potential difference and the current
continuously change between the negative and positive maximums over a period of time as
compared to DC as shown in the graphs below.

The graphs below show a graph of voltage versus time for a DC and AC supply

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The graphs below is a sine wave for the current in an AC circuit:

Since the potential difference and current are changing, there is a need to measure these
values. Taking an average of the values would equate to zero since the magnitude of the
maximums are the same above and below the axis. To overcome this problem, the Root Mean
Square values of the voltage(Vrms ) and current (Irms ) are used . This is a special average and is
shown for voltage in the graph below:

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Root mean square values

The root-mean-square or rms value of a time-varying quantity is that which delivers the same
amount of power on average as a constant quantity of the same value .
Root mean square (rms) values are the AC equivalent of DC emf. If a DC circuit has an emf of 30
V and an AC circuit has a Vrms of 30 V, the circuits would use the same amount of power.

Root-mean-square potential difference (Vrms)

The root-mean-square potential difference is the AC potential difference that dissipates the
same amount of energy (gives the same heating effect) as an equivalent DC potential
difference.

Peak potential difference (Vmax)

The maximum potential difference value reached by the alternating current as it fluctuates i.e.
the peak of the sine wave representing an AC potential difference.

Root-mean-square current (Irms)

Root-mean-square current is the alternating current that dissipates the same amount of energy
(gives the same heating effect) as and equivalent DC current.

Peak current (Imax)

The maximum current value reached by the alternating current as it fluctuates i.e. the peak of
the sine wave representing an AC current.

In most South African households, the potential difference delivered across the terminals of a
wall plug is 220V. This is the Vrms value that appliances operate on. It is not the maximum value.

The following formulas show the relationships between rms values and peak(maximum values)

Vmax
Vrms =
√2

Imax
Irms =
√2

Other useful formulas include:

Pave = Vrms × Irms

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 Pave = Irms 2 × R

Vrms 2
Pave =
R

PAST EXAM PRACTISE QUESTIONS

2014 Eastern Cape Prelim Paper 1 Q 8

The simplified sketch below represents a DC motor.

8.1 Name the principle on which the motor operates. (1)

8.2 State the energy conversion which takes place in a DC motor. (1)
8.3 Give a reason why section BC in the above diagram does NOT experience a
magnetic force whilst the coil is in the position as shown. (2)
8.4 In which direction will the coil rotate, CLOCKWISE or ANTI-CLOCKWISE? (1)
8.5 Write down ONE way in which the turning effect (torque) can be increased. (1)
8.6 The graph below shows how the alternating voltage, produced by the AC
generator, varies with time.

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8.6.1 Calculate the frequency of the alternating voltage. (3)
8.6.2 The generator’s average power output is 2,7 kW. Calculate the maximum current that the
generator produces. (5)

2008 Prelim Paper 1 Q 12

Electric motors are important components of many modern electrical appliances. AC motors
are used in washing machines and vacuum cleaners, and DC motors are used in toys and tools.
12.1 What energy conversion takes place in electric motors? (2)
12.2 What is the essential difference in the design between DC motors and AC
motors? (2)
12.3 List THREE ways in which the efficiency of the motor can be improved. (3)
12.4 Consider the diagram below. The conventional current flows in the direction
indicated by the arrows

12.4.1 In which direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise), as seen from position

A, will the coiled armature rotate if the switch is closed? (1)
12.4.2 Why does the armature continue moving in the same direction once
it has reached the vertical position? (2)

2009 March Paper 1 Q 13

Electric motors are used in pumps, fans and compressors. Electric motors can be either AC or
DC. The diagram below illustrates one of these types of electric motors.

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13.1.1 What type of electric motor (AC or DC) is illustrated in the diagram? Give a reason for
your answer. (2)
13.1.2 If the loop turns in a clockwise direction, in what direction is the current in section AB of
the loop flowing in the above diagram? Write down from A to B, or from B to A only.
(1)
The motor in the diagram is now changed to operate as a generator.
13.1.3 On what principle does a generator operate? (1)
13.1.4 Draw a sketch graph of the potential difference versus time for this generator while it is
functioning. (2)
13.2 The diagram below shows a dynamo attached to the wheel of a bicycle. When riding a
bicycle, the wheel rotates a magnet near a coil.

Explain how a current is induced in the coil. (2)

2009 March Paper 1 Q 14

In the circuit below the AC source delivers alternating voltages at audio frequency to the
speaker.

14.1.1 What is the peak voltage that the source can deliver? (2)
14.1.2 Calculate the average power delivered to the speaker. (6)

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14.2Alternating current is generated at power stations.
Name TWO advantages of AC transmission over long distances. (2)

2014 Prelim Limpopo Paper 1 Q 10

Electric generators are described as either AC or DC generators.
10.1 What energy conversion takes place in all electric generators? (1)
10.2 Consider the simplified sketch of a generator below. The direction of the initially induced
current is indicated on the sketch.

10.2.1 Is the above generator an AC or a DC generator? (1)

10.2.2 Which specific part of the generator in the above sketch,1, 2, 3, or 4 helps to identify the
type of generator? (1)
10.2.3 In which direction (clockwise or anti-clockwise) is the coil between the magnets being
rotated? (1)
10.2.4 Briefly explain why the induced emf is at a maximum when the coil is
parallel to the magnetic field. (2)
10.3 The graph of potential difference and time for the generator in question
10.2 is shown below

If an rms current of 15 A is produced, determine the rate at which the generator

will transfer energy. (5)

2013 March Paper 1 Q 10

AC generators and DC generators differ in their construction and the type of current they
deliver. The simplified sketch below represents a DC generator.

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10.1 Which component (P or Q) enables this generator to produce DC? (1)
10.2 What structural change must be made to this generator to change it to an AC generator
(1)
10.3 Briefly explain why Eskom prefers using AC instead of DC for the long-distance
transmission of electricity (2)
10.4 An AC generator delivers 240 Vrms to a 60 W light bulb. The peak current in the light bulb is
0,35 A.
Calculate the:
10.4.1 rms current in the light bulb (3)
10.4.2 Resistance of the light bulb (3)

2015 Mpumalanga Prelim Paper 1 Q 10

The diagram below represents a simplified alternating current (AC) generator

10.1 State the energy conversion that takes place in an AC generator. (1)
10.2 A 2 Ω resistor is attached to the AC generator. Calculate the maximum current that flows
through the resistor if the resistor dissipates an average power of 80 W.
(5)

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A television is switched on for an average of 142 hours per month. The television is rated 1 200
W; 220 V.
10.3 If the ESKOM tariff is R1,25 per unit, calculate the monthly cost of the electricity used by
the television. (2)

2015 Winelands Prelim Paper 1 Q 9

A learner is turning a lever connected to a metal coil with a commutator that rotates inside a
magnetic field as shown in the diagram below.

9.1.1 Write down the name of the TYPE of electrical machine represented by the diagram
(1)
9.1.2 Write down the energy conversion that occurs in the diagram (2)
9.1.3 In which direction will the current flow in the wire that is connected to the light buld? Only
write A to B or B to A. (1)
9.1.4 What type of current is generated in the diagram above. Only write DIRECT CURRENT or
ALTERNATING CURRENT (1)
9.1.5 Explain the answer to QUESTION 9.1.4 (2)
9.1.6 Except for increasing the speed at which the handle is turned, write down two changes that
could be made to this setup to increase its output (2)

The graph of the output emf versus time for an AC generator is shown below

9.2.1 Define the term root mean square value (rms) of an AC voltage (2)
9.2.2 Calculate the rms voltage for the generator (3)

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9.3 Give ONE reason why AC voltage is preferred to DC voltage for everyday use (1)

“We never stop running, never”- Mr X

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