GEY 462 Seismic and Well logging

GEY 462 Applied Geophysics Lecture note: Seismic Data Processing & Interpretation and Well Logging
(Petrophysics), © Dr. O.O. Osinowo, Dept of Geology, Univ. of Ibadan
GEY 462 APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
OVERVIEW OF SEISMI DATA PROCESSING

Seismic data processing is the alteration of raw seismic data to suppress noise, enhance signal
and migrate seismic events to the appropriate location in space and time. The resultant data
bear simple and direct relationship with the subsurface geology and structures. The main
objective of data processing is to improve the reflection signal compared to the background
noise, i. e. to increase the signal to noise ratio and suppress noise to the minimum level.
Signal is the data elements we wish to see and noise is everything else.
During data acquisition the input signal suffers different kinds of alteration as it travels from
the source through the earth and before being recorded by the recording instrument. Below
are some of the different factors which attempt to alter the input signal and thereby present
the acquisition of desired seismogram.
There are several steps and processing techniques that exist to transform what is acquired into
what is desired for geologic interpretation of seismic record.
Tape
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CMP Gather
Mute the first arrivals (static correction)
Amptitude Recovery (Gain Recovery)
Datum correction
Deconvolution
NMO correction/Dynamic correction
Staking
Mixing (remove multiples/Reverberations)
Filter (remove noise)
Trim Amplitude
Migration
Display – CMP gather
Common Mid-Point (CMP) Gather

Refers to selection of all traces that correspond to the same mid-point from different field
recorder. This simply involves checking traces recorded by different recorder and selecting
those that correspond to the same mid-point and stacking them together as a gather.
Static Correction
Static correction is a bulk shift of a seismic trace in time. A common static correction is the
weathering correction which compensates for a low seismic velocity layer near the surface of
the earth. Muting the first arrival also remove the direct arrival as well as surface waves
which travel directly from the short to the receiver.
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This correction involves determination of time to the first reflection arrival and cutting off
every arrivals before it say 0.002 millisec.
Gain Recovery
As a shot is fined, the wave begins to spread out as a come in 3-dimensions and the energy of
the seismic wave is spread out over an ever increasing wave front.
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Spherical divergence = 1
D2
The spherical divergence from a point causes the energy to decrease inversely as the square
of the distance the wave has traveled. In addition to the loss of energy in spherical divergence
is the attenuation of waves by the rock as it is traveling through the earth.
The higher frequencies of the wave are attenuated first i.e. high frequencies are more rapidly
absorbed than low frequencies. The amount of attenuation also depends on the rock type. Due
to these two reducing factors, seismic energy being reflected from a deep geological event or
structure will be received at the geophone array as a weak signal while near surface reflectors
which have suffered less energy loss from spherical divergence and attenuation will be
recorded as strong signal at the geophone.
For the recorder to be able to record the two types of reflections (shallow & deep) a field gain
is introduced. The field gain scales down the near surface reflections and scales up the deeper
reflections so that the signals remain within the dynamic range of the instrument, but this gain
is removed during processing.
In a true amplitude field record, the near surface signals appear very strong while the
deep reflections are hardly seen. Therefore having removed the field gain we must then gain
recover the true amplitude data so as to build up the reflections from deeper reflectors.
To gain recover signals, a smooth gain curve is introduced. This varies gain with time
and is designed to compensate for both spherical divergence and wave attenuation.
GAIN (DB) = A * T + B x 20 LOG T + C

T = TIME , A = ATTENUATION FACTOR
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B = SPHERICAL DIVERGENCE FACTOR

C = CONSTANT GAIN FACTOR
Factor C compensates for energy loss due to spherical divergence. Factor A compensates for
the energy loss due to rock attenuation. A gradual increase in factor A will gradually cause
deep data to appear on display.
Note from the above gain equation, the gain to be added is a function of time which is
a measure of depth, so that the deeper the reflector, the greater the travel time recorded and
hence the greater the amount of gain to be added.
Assignment
Calculate the gain in decibel and plot the smooth gain curve (Vs time) to be applied to a
seismic field record to make deep reflections visible if the arrival time is between 0 - 20 secs
(at 1sec. interval). A = 12, B = 1 & C = 20
DECONVOLUTION
This is a step in seismic signals processing to recover the high frequencies filtered out during
wave propagation, attenuate multiples, equalize amplitudes and produce a zero-phase
wavelet. Decovolution is the inverse of convolution, it is also, inverse filtering. It improves
seismic data that were adversely affected by filtering or convolution that occurs naturally as
seismic energy is filtered by the earth.
Dynamic/NMO correction
MoveOut is the difference in arrival times t1 and t2 for a given reflector measured at two
offset distances X1 , X2
Dt = t2 – t1 = X22 – X12
2V2t0
where t0 = intercept time, V = travel velocity.
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Normal MoveOut (NMO) is a special moveout, it is the difference in reflection arrival times
t1 and t2 for a given reflector measured at two geophones with one of the geophones situated
at the shot point i.e. one geophone has no or zero offset.
NMO is a principal criterion by which we decide whether an event observed on the seismic
record is as reflection or not. If NMO differs from the value given by Dtn = x2/2V2to
more than allowable experimental/field error, then we are not justified to treat the event as a
reflector.
NMO correction involves using a function of time and offset to compensate for the effect of
delay in reflection times of subsequent receivers. NMO effect causes deep reflectors from
split spread record geometry to appear shallower, having parabolic geometry and NMO
correction tends to return the reflector’s from split spread record to a near linear state.
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Stacking
Stacking involves the addition of traces from different records together to consolidate signal
and reduce noise, hence improve overall data quality. The number of traces added together
during stacking is called the FOLD.
Mixing
This is a processing technique designed to remove non-coherent noise and other types of
noise which are not consistent in all traces.
Mixing is a simple process of adding trace to trace in such a way that all events that are
consistent, appearing on all traces are built up, while non-consistent events such as noise,
reverberations, multiples etc. are cancelled out.
Filtering
Filter is used in data processing to re move unwanted events especially noise. Signal event
have particular frequency range and noise is therefore anything outside this range of
frequency. Surface wave, diffraction, direct arrivals, multiples are either of lower or higher
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vibrations and thus frequencies, so filters are used in data processing to cut off all events that
fall outside the frequency of desired signal events.
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MIGRATION
Migration is the most important processing operation after stacking. The depth point of a
seismic wave is always located halfway between the shot and the receiver. This is due to the
assumption that all reflectors/horizons are horizontal. For the law of reflection to be obeyed,
i.e the incident angle to equal reflection angle (snell’s law), the horizon has to be at the
midway.
In nature, horizons are rarely horizontal, even when some are, all horizons represented or
recorded on a section cannot be horizontal, hence an unmigrated section has the following
short coming.
(a) The dipping events are not properly represented in time and space, having apparent
dip which is different from the true dip.
(b) There exist on an unmigrated section a number of diffraction curves.
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(c) Some events are crossing each other

(d) Synclines become bow ties
(e) Points on an unmigrated section spread out as diffractions
(f) Anticlines appear broader
(g) Resolution is poor.
(h) There is spartial smearing
Bow-ties
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Migration process attempts

(a) To correct structural placement of dipping events by moving them to their true
positions
(b) Migrate events on a seismic section to their correct location in time and space.
(c) Diffraction energies are collapsed and migrated back to the point of reflection
(d) Sort out crossing events
(e) Correction of amplitude for geometric focusing effects and spartial smearing.
(f) Improvement in resolution etc.
Note that good migration programme will move events without altering the wavelet
characteristics of these events.
The accuracy of migration depends on
(i) Type of migration algorithm used
(ii) The angle of dip of the reflectors.
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(iii) The accuracy of the velocity information available.
Types of Migration
a. Poststack Migration – migration after stack
b. Prestack Migration – migration before stack
c. Time Migration – adequate where there is only vertical variation in velocity
d. Depth Migration – Effective where there is lateral variation in velocity, requires
accurate velocity information
e. PreStack Time Migration (PSTM)
f. PostStack Depth Migration (PSDM)
Migration Techniques.
(i) Graphical method
(ii) Straight – rays method
(iii) Diffraction Curve Summation
(iv) Maximum Convexity method
(v) Wave equation/Kifchholf Summation
(vi) Finite – Difference
(vii) F-K Techniques
Graphical method
Graphical method is the earliest method which uses the measurement of time and time shift
reflection events that are picked by hand on fixed seismograms. True dips and lateral
displacement are determined by plotting the time using common tangent procedures.
The amount a reflection must be moved depends on;
The time of reflection
The apparent dip of the reflection and
Seismic velocity
Straight Ray Method

This method usually employs constant or average velocity assumption. This method employs
the wave front ray path chart. The assumption is that if the velocity is known as a function of
depth, then it should be possible to migrate reflections with a wave front chart. Wave front
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charts show the successive positions of a wave emanating from a point source at generally
uniform time materials after the instant of wave generation.
The approach to this method is such that families of orthogonal wave front and rays are
constructed to fit a non-linear increase of velocity with depth. The shift between traces due to
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dip over some set distance determined with normal incident ray path corresponds to a
particular dipping event.
In migrating reflections with the chart, one picks the reflection time at zero shot –
receiver separation and the moveout time observed. Over a standard horizontal distance such
as 1000 feet. The semi-transparent graph paper on which the migrated segments are polled is
super-imposed on the chart in such a way that the vertex of the family of ray path is placed at
the shot point position for the record being migrated. The wave front circle corresponding to
the reflection time is located directly or by interpolation and the position along the circle is
determined from the ray path corresponding to the move out time.
A straight edge is aligned on a tangent to the wave fronts at the point so specified and
the reflection segment is drawn along it for a distance based on the spread length.
WAVE EQUATION MIGRATION
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(Petrophysics), © Dr. O.O. Osinowo, Dept of Geology, Univ
Univ. of Ibadan
The scalar wave equation expresses how a wave will be propagated through a medium. The
wave equation is defined in terms of a coordinate system, and relat
relates
es wave displacement and
velocity. Therefore the wave equation can be used to predict how a seismic wave behaves in
a given geologic sequence.
The idea of using this wave equation model is to remove the propagation effects above the
subsurface layer of interested.
terested. By using the wave equation, the propagation properties of the
subsurface above our layer of interest can be predicted and then remove. A popular
geophysical technique of achieving this is
DOWNWARD CONTINUATION
Downward continuation is a process of moving the waves into the earth i.e. moving the
recording geophone closer to the seismic reflector. Downward continuation is achieved
through the wave equation technique in which we remove all the propagation effects between
the surface and the layer off interest i.e. overburden, by doing this we will record the point
reflector as it is before the wave front spreads out to give diffraction curve.
By using the wave equation we are predicting the response of the geophones as if they were
located on the layer
er of interest.
There are two methods of calculating the response of layers.
(i) Recursive technique
(ii) Non – recursive technique
The recursive method removes the layer effect one after the other while in non
non-recursive
method, the effects of the overburden are ca
calculated as one layer.
Recursive migration technique the effect due to each layer is calculated and applied to the
section. Note the gradual disappearance of the diffraction
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Migrated seismic section
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SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Seismic interpretation simply involves the translation of processed seismic data into geologic
terms to give the best picture and information of the subsurface. The objective of seismic
reflection surveying in petroleum exploration is in finding hydrocarbon accumulations, which
are found in reservoir rocks and are themselves bounded by impermeable barrier/cap rocks.
The coherent events seen on seismic reflection record are reflections from acoustic
impedance contrasts in the earth. There contrasts are associated with bedding planes, fault
planes etc which represent the geologic structures. Likewise seismic reflection records
contain information such as wave shape, wavelength, amplitude two way travel time etc that
are important for stratigraphic analysis, direct hydrocaborn indication, structural
interpretation etc.
Seismic reflection survey is therefore useful for mapping geologic structures in the
subsurface, interpretation of sedimentary environments and evaluation of hydrocarbon
accumulations that might occur as amplitude anomalies.
We shall approach seismic interpretation in three dimensions

(a) Structural interpretation
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Univ. of Ibadan
(b) Stratigraphic interpretation

(c) Direct hydrocarbon Indication (DHI)
STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION
Structural interpretation is the study of reflecto
reflectorr geometry on the basis of reflection times.
The idea is to search for structural traps containing hydrocarbons.
Structural traps are often associated with features such as:
(i) Crests of salt domes
(ii) Crests of anticlines
(iii) Faults
(iv) Pinch-out
(v) Unconformities
Faults
Fault cans be identify on reflection sections by the followings
Discontinuities in coherent reflection events/abrupt termination of coherent reflection events.
Reflections, which correspond to bedding geometry are distinctive and coherent, the abrupt
termination
mination of such continuity and resume again in displaced position on the other side of the
fault plane is an indication of faulting. Note that diffraction may prolong reflection events
bond the edge so that fault locations are often not so clear.
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(2) Divergences in dip not related to stratigraphy

(3) Geologically real changes in dip near the fault plane
(4) Distortion/disappearance of reflections below suspected fault lines i.e. cut-out of data
below the fault
(5) Mistie around loops i.e misclosure in tying reflections around loops. The amount of
throw across a fault usually varies along the strike of the fault, consequently, if a fault
crosses twice by a loop of lines and the fault is not recognized and picked correctly,
reflection picks may mistie around the loop, making mistie evidence of faulting.
(6) Diffraction patterns, particularly those with vertices which line-up in a manner
consistent with local faulting. An important aid to identifying and tracing fault surfaces is the
family of diffraction patterns that originate from the edge of beds disrupted by faulting.
The resulting diffractions usually have an arcuate shape like the trace of a surface of
maximum convexity. However, care must be taking not to interpret diffraction curves as
reflection having a symmetrical anticline. The time-versus-horizontal distance (offset)
(NMO) relationship is use to validate whether a reflection is an event or a diffraction curve.
Assignment
Briefly explain how you will differentiate a diffraction curve from a seismic event.
(7) Fault plane reflection

Fault planes produce reflections just as strong as a reflector with equal impedance contrast.
However, the rapid change in reflectivity usually associated with fault planes may destroy
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coherence. So we may not recognize the fault plane reflections. Occasionally one can see the
reflection from the fault plane.
Anticlines; Fold and other flow structures

Anticlines can easily be identified by reflection events of domed bedding planes which trace
out arcuate (or the likenss) geometry. Note however that quality may deteriorate over
anticlines because convert-upward curvature weakens reflection amplitude. The top of a salt
pillow or dome usually have large acoustic impedance contrast and may stand out as a strong
reflector. Salt is often inter-bedded with some competent rocks which break into blocks when
stressed by salt movement, resulting in edges that generate diffractions.
Unconformities
Unconformity represents a missing sequence of rocks, a time or period of erosion or non-
deposition. Conditions changed during the period of non-deposition (hiatus), so that the
nature of the sediments above the unconformity is different from those below, at least in age
and compaction and thus, the difference generate high acoustic impedance contrast with
result in VERY STRONG REFLECTION of the plane of unconformity.
Time-structural map
The construction of time structural map can aid better structural analysis and interpretation of
subsurface structures encountered on seismic record. Time structural maps are constructed to
display the geometry of selected reflection events by means of contours of equal reflection
times. They are constructed by posting the reflection times of an event at different points on a
base map. Looping of events on both the in-line and cross-line seismic sections will assist to
trace the continuity of events in the dip lines using the strike lines as guide. The time of
events picked at the intersection of in-lines and cross-lines are posted on the appropriate
location on the field’s base map.
The obtained result is contoured to produce time structure map. Structural contour
maps can be produced from time-structure maps by conversion of reflection times into depth
using appropriate velocity information e.g check-shot data of the field or sonic log data from
a borehole situated in the field.
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Lithologic Determination from Reflection Data
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The identification of lithology is very important for stratigraphic interpretation. It is also very
needful to determine some lithologic parameters such as sand-shale ratio etc which are
required for reservoir description and characterization.
The most widely used method for determining the lithology of various reflection
events on a seismic section is by tracing reflection events to a nearby well in the field, known
as lithologic calibration of reflection events or simply tracing them to an outcrop where
available.
Depth of lithologic formations are usually converted to time using check-shot data
and then posted on seismic section or simply the reflection events of interest, usually colour
code initially and labeled until their geologic significance are established are traced to nearby
well and the corresponding times are converted into depths using velocity/check shot
information so as to determine the corresponding lithologies represented on the well log.
SYNTHETIC SEISMOGRAM
Synthetic seismogram, commonly called a synthetic, is a one-dimensional model of acoustic
energy traveling through the layers of the earth. The synthetic seismogram is generated by
convolving the REFLECTIVITY SERIES derived from ACOUSTIC (SONIC) and
DENSITY LOGS with the wavelet derived from seismic data.
By comparing the marker beds or other correlation points picked on well logs with
major reflections on the seismic section, interpretation of the data can be improved. The
quality of the match between a synthetic seismogram and seismic section depends on the well
log quality, seismic data processing quality and the ability to extract a representative wavelet
from seismic data, among other factors.
A sythetic seismogram x(t) may be considered as the convolution of the assumed
source function s(t) with a reflectivity function r(t) representing the acoustic impedance
contrasts in the layer model.
X(t) = s(t) * r(t)
R(t) = reflectivity function
S(t) = assumed source function
X(t) = synthetic seismogram.
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The acoustic impedance values necessary to compute the reflectivity function may be derived
directly from sonic log data. This is normally achieved assuming density to be constant
throughout the model.
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Check-shot survey/velocity survey

Check-shot survey is a type of borehole seismic survey designed to measure the seismic
travel time from the surface to a known depth. Compressional wave velocity of different
formations encountered in a borehole can be measured directly by lowering a geophone to
each formation of interest, sending out a source of energy from the surface of the earth and
recording the resultant signal.
The data can then be correlated with surface seismic data by correlating the sonic log
and generating a synthetic seismogram to confirm or modify seismic interpretation.
Check-shot-survey differs from Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) in the number and
density of receiver depth recorded. In check-shot survey, geophone positions may be wide
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and irregularly located in the borehole, whereas a vertical seismic profile usually has
numerous geophones positioned at closely and regularly spaced intervals in the well.
Velocity survey is a measurement technique used to determine average velocity
versus depth, and can be from an acoustic log or check-shot survey.
DIRECT HYDROCARBON INDICATORS (DHI)

Hydrocarbon accumulations are sometimes revealed directly on true amplitude seismic
section as either BRIGHT SPOTS which are localized zones of anomalously strong
reflections, or FLAT SPOTS which are horizontal reflection events discordant to the
geological dip.
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Bright Spot
It is a reflection that is much stronger than usual for its limited distance, it is a spot of
amplitude anomaly on a true amplitude seismic section. It has ability to indicate gasses
directly but may not explain whether it is in commercial quantities. AVO analysis (Amplitude
Versus Offset) has been developed to validate bright spot whether it indicate the occurrence
of hydrocarbon and if in commercial quantities.
A consistent increase in amplitude with offset distances may indicate commercial
accumulation of hydrocarbon.
Flat Spot
Where the pore fluids are well separated in a reservoir (because of density differences), the
contrast at the fluid-fluid surface produces a reflection called a flat spot. This reflection is
usually horizontal or nearly horizontal reflection events and generally discordant to the
geology dip where other reflection events are not horizontal. Note that flat spot is usually
clear only where other reflections are not flat.
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SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
Seismic stratigraphy involves using seismic data to determine features of sedimentary
rocks. The concept is simply that if the noise has been attenuated sufficiently, changes in
seismic waveform has geologic significance.
Seismic stratigraphy can be divided into:
(i) Seismic sequence analysis
(ii) Seismic facies analysis
(iii) Seismic modeling
Seismic sequence analysis

This involves the division of seismic sections into seismic sequences that are
associated with depositional units. There are two basic principles behind seismic sequence
analysis;
(a) Reflections are taken to define chronostratigraphical units, i.e. strata surfaces and
unconformities are what produce reflection on rock interphase. Note however, that
boundaries of diachronous lithological units tend to be transitional which results in reflections
not being produced.
(b) Sedimentary sequences are genetically related, usually made up of a set of strata which
are similar to each other, concordant to each other and show discordance with sequences
overlying and underlying them. They are typically bounded by angular unconformities.
A seismic sequence can be defined as a group of concordant near-concordant reflection
events that terminate against the discordant reflections of adjacent sequences.
Therefore seismic sequence analyses are carried out by locating the bounding unconformities
of sedimentary sequences. These are spotted by nothing angularities among reflections as
illustrated below.
Angularities of the lower boundaries of a sequence may indicate ONLAP OR
DOWNLAP and those at the upper boundary indicate EROSIONAL TRUNCATION OR
TOPLAP sequences.
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Onlap typically indicates a rise in sea level and down lap indicates is drop or basin starvation.
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Divergent indicates differential subsidence; sigmoid indicates low deposition energy while
oblique indicates high depositional energy.
Reflection patterns at the top of a seismic sequence unit may show erosional truncation
toploplap, at the base they may be only downlap or be concordant. Patterns seen within units
may be divergent, sigmoid or oblique depend on the depositional energy level and subsidence
history.
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Seismic Facies Analysis
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This involves the interpretation of identified sequences to determine the environment of

deposition and invariably the lithologies of the individual strata which make up the
sequences.
The depositional environment of seismic sequences is identified on the basis of reflection
character, relationship of reflection character changes within a unit, relationship to other
sequences and three dimensional shapes. For example reflection continuity can be used to
differentiate marine from non-marine deposits, reflections from non-marine sections are
typically discontinuous whereas those from marine deposits are more continuous.
Also a divergent reflection pattern indicates differential subsidence that during
deposition the thicker part subsided faster than the thinner part. Progradational patterns
resulting from how depositional energy deposited are sigmoidal having reflection being
relatively constant through the pattern, whereas those involving high depositional energy are
oblique with changes in reflection continuity and amplitude through the pattern.
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Isochron Maps
Isochron is a line joining points of equal time or age, thus isochron maps display variation in
time between two seismic events or reflections. Isochron maps can be converted into isopach
map by the conversion of reflection time intervals into thickness using appropriate interval
velocity.
Isopach maps show the thickness of sediments between two horizons, and this is useful in
studying structural growth.
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WELL LOGGING TECHNIQUES (PETROPHYSICS)

Definition of Terms
Log: A log is a record of measurements or observations recorded against another parameter,

which may be time, depth etc. a good example is a record of measurements made in borehole
against depth.
Well log is therefore a record of one or more physical measurements as a function of depth in
a borehole, it is also referred to ass borehole log. There are different types of borehole logs
such as wireline logs, drill cutting logs, must logs core logs, drilling time log etc, but the first
three are the most common are most relevant for the purposes of this course.
Drill cuttings logs: This is a record of the different lithology’s fossil contents encountered in
the course of drilling of a bore hole usually recorded against depth. The lithologies are
recorded from the drill cuttings obtained from the shale shaker (sieve or screens) situated
where the returning mud stream flows into. The samples are usually caught bagged and
labeled for record purpose which is to produce drill cuttings logs.
Mud logs: These logs record such parameters as the rate of penetration of bit, various mud
properties, hydrocarbon shows and changes in formation pressure and temperature.
Wireline logs: This is the interest of this course and by far the most important logs in
petroleum industry. Wireline logs are produced from several varieties of physical signals
recorded by fluid-proof metal sondes which are lowered rapidly on wirelines to the bottom of
the open hole and are returned slowly to the surface while the mud column is at rest with the
drill pipe hauled out of the hole.
Wireline logs record vertical changes in electrical, nuclear and acoustic properties of the
strata. It gives information about lithology, porosity, permeability, saturation of water, oil and
gas saturation, dip of the strata, it can also help the geologist to locate faults, unconformities
etc.
Wireline logs have application in identification of strata, stratigraphic and structural
correlation of adjacent formations, quantitative & quantitative evaluation of hydrocarbon
bearing formations and so on.
Need for wireline geophysical well logging.

(i) Geological sampling i.e lithological sampling of the subsurface is inadequate and
equivocal (i.e have doubtful meaning)
(ii) Coring process is very slow, hazardous and very expensive, usually only the
pay/reservoir formations are recovered.
(iii) Wireline logs are relatively cheap and give precise information of the whole
length/depth of interest.
Thus, wireline logging tends to bridge the gap between the lithologic cuttings and the cores.
LOGGING EQUIPMENT
(1) Logging truck:

On shore, a motorized logging truck is used which brings the logging equipment to the drill
site. For offshore the logging cabin is left permanently on a drilling rig or the cabin may be
conveyed on a motorized barge?
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The logging trucks or cabin carry the cable and the cable reel, the logging camera, computers,
amplifiers, and all the probes required for the logging program.
(2) Logging Cable

The cable consists of galvanized steel on the outside while electrical conductors are insulated
in the interior, it is a very solid construction, armored with two layers of steel wire and
insulated copper cores inside. It is made to withstand temperatures more than 1500C in deep
wells, it has to carry more than twelve tons of weight, and it has to be completely insulated.
The logging cable acts both as support for the logging sonde and as a channel for data
transmission. The cable is wound around a motorized drum which is used to draw it from the
hole during measurement. The logging cables have magnetic makers set at regular intervals
e.g 50m or 100m.
(3) The logging sonde or probe

This is often referred to as the logging tool. It is the electrode which takes measurement of
the parameter measured and in the cause of induced measurements, such as induction/sonic
logging, probe or sonde also serves as the transmitter.
Modern logging tools are multifunctional and can contain a combination of more than one
tool, e.g a combination of sonic, gamma, induction e.t.c.
Logging sonde may be up to 18m in length but maintaining diameter between 3-4 inches. The
sonde is generally very heavy, solid steel or plastic tubes, barrels or bars, some fitted with
steel springs which have to press them against the walls of the boreholes.
Most sonde/probe contain a lot of electronic circuit and some of them even contain
radioactive sources. Many of these probes hardly show anything on the outside, they are
nothing but smooth tubes or barrels.
Some DC or AC current have to be supplied to nearly all logging systems and the logging
signals come back by some other cores of the cables.
A good example of a logging sonde is the Schlumberger ISF sonic tool of 35/8inches diameter
and 16.9m log.
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Schematic Representation of FDC Sonic Logging Sonde
(4) Logging Drum

it is a motorized drum which rotates on an axis. It used to haul the cable from the hole during
logging operation at a constant speed.
(5) Surface Recorder

It records the signal, it is the most complicated and sophisticated instrument where all
logging results are recorded against depth of the well together with different scales for every
different type of log with the depth in meters or feet.
Every movement in the cable into or out of the hole causes a generation of physical signal
measured by the logging tool, and the same is transferred to the surface recorder by electrical
means via the logging cable. The surface recorder consists of an amplifier, a galvanometer, a
camera, a light source, a computer and a magnetic tape. The signal from the sonde is
amplified and transferred into a galvanometer, the mechanical movement of the galvanometer
needle corresponds to the signals from the probe.
Surface Recorder continues its recording through a camera on photographic film which roll
along in front of the window of the camera at a speed that corresponds to the speed of the
probe within the well.
When one log has been run, part of the logging cabin is turned into a kind of darkroom, and
the logging film is treated with developer; the fixing solution and rinsed with water like every
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other photographic film. The computers memories depth-match the various readings and the
magnetic tape is used to record the raw data.
A schematic below shows a well logging setup
LOGGING OPERATION
There are two types of logging operations
(a) Open hole logging: this involve those logging runs made while the hole remains
uncased. All but radioactive logs are carried out in open hole.
(b) Cased hole logging: Gamma ray log, neutron and density log may be carried out in a
cased hole (why?)
Logging Run
the drilling tool is hauled out, the hole is cleansed and stabilized. The cable and sonde are
lowered into the hole to the bottom of the hole. The cable is gently hauled from the hole with
the aid of the logging drum on which the tail of the cable is wound, so that with the rotation
of the drum the sonde samples the hole at constant interval. The sampling is usually at about
once every 15cm, but could be as high as once every 3m.
It takes an average of 2-3 days to carry out a full set logging for a deep hole with each
tool taken an average of 4-5 hours.
Drilling Mud and Logging
There are three types of drilling muds, oil base mud, salt mud and fresh water mud and they
are used for different types of drilling operations and also for different kind of logging
operation.
Page 41 of 61
Oil Base Mud Fresh water mud Salt mud

FDC FDC FDC
SL SL SL
GRN, GRL GRN GRN
IES, ES
L7, CLL L3, L7, CLL
ML, MD MLL
SP SP
IL IL IL
FDC = formation density log (compensated)

SL = Sonic log
GRN = Gamma ray Neutron log
IES = Induction electric log
ES = Electric log
L3, L7, CLL = focused electric logs
ML = Microlog
MLL = Microlaterolog
MD = Microdiameter log
SP = Spontancous potential log
IL = Induction log.
LOGGING ENVIRONMENT
Fluid invasion
During drilling operation, the mud pressure in the well annulus must be kept greater than the
hydrostatic pressure of fluid in the formation pores in order to prevent a well blowout. The
differential pressure which is typically a few hundred psi, forces drilling fluid into the
formation. Liquid that filters through into the formation – the mud filtrate, permeates into the
formation and pushes back some of the reservoir fluid, therefore causing an inverted zone to
formed adjacent to the borehole. As drilling continues however, solid particles in the drilling
mud gradually form mud cake on the wall of the well to prevent excessive loss of drilling
mud into the formation which has the tendency to damage the pay permeability. In summary
inversion is the replacement of formation fluid by drilling mud filtrate; invasion is small in
highly porous & permeable formation. This is because mud cake builds up rapidly to block
the dynamic filtration. Poorly permeable zone is slow to build up mud cake and hence mud
filtrate travels farther distance.
Page 42 of 61
Zones of Infiltration of Mud-Filtrate
Excessive invasion is harmful for logging because it drives the formation water far beyond
the level that can easily be detected by logging tool.
RI - Resistivity of the annulus zone

Rm - Resistivity of mud
Rmc - Resistivity of mud cake
Rxo - Resistivity of flushed zone
RT - Resistivity of uninvaded zone which is the true
resistivity of the formation
Rmf - Resistivity of fluid in the zone
RN - Resistivity of mud filtrate
Rw- Resistivity of formation water
D - Water saturation in the zone
Sxx - Water saturation in the fluid zone
SN - Water saturation in the uninvaded zone
Page 43 of 61
BASIC LOGGING THEORY
Basic Parameters
The basic parameters determined from well logs are lithology, porosity, permeability,
hydrocarbon saturation and volume of formation containing hydrocarbon. Porosity is the pore
volume per unit formation. Hydrocarbon saturation is the fraction/percentage of pore volume
filled with hydrocarbon. The volume of formation containing hydrocarbons is needed in order
to ascertain the commercial quantity of accumulation. Knowledge of the thickness and area of
the reservoir is required for the computation of its volume.
To evaluate the productivity of a reservoir, it is necessary to know how easily fluid can flow
through the pore system. The properties of a formation which determines its permeability are
grain size and void inter-connectivity.
Porosity can be determined from porosity tools such as various types of resistivity logs,
acoustic (50mc) logs, density and neutron logs. It is worth noting however that these tools are
affected by rock properties in different ways so that a combination of two or more will yield
better information.
Lithology can be identified by lithologic tools such as SP, caliper and gamma logs.
Accurate values of water saturation and consequently oil/gas saturation can generally be
determined when various combination of resistivity and porosity logs are selected to suit the
geology environment and drilling conditions.
Formation Factor
The formation factor ‘F’ is a basic property of rock
F=
Ro = Resistivity of brine saturated rock

Rw = Resistivity of brine filling the rock
Note that F will always be greater than 1, this is because the earth (rock) as an insulator will
always reduce the conductivity of brine (higher resistivity so that RO> Rw).
Example
If a 4cm cube sand has a resistance of 200Ω between silvery plates fixed at opposite ends,
what is the formation factor if Rw = 0.1Ωm?
Solution
( )
Ro =
Page 44 of 61
(200Ω ( )
= )
=200 x 4 x 10 Ω x m
= 8Ωm
. Ro 8
.. F= = = 80
Rw 0.1
Porosity
Archie in 1942 related formation factor F with porosity Φ.

a
F=
Φ𝑚
where m is the cementation factor and usually ranges between 1.0 and 3.0 the constant ‘a’ is
determined empirically, usually taken to be 1.
F = 0.81 in sands
1
F= in Limestone
Φ2
Humble modified Archie’s formula, and determined ‘a’as 0.62 and ‘m’ 2.15
Humble formula (Tixier, 1965);
0.62
F=
Φ2.15
Example
Using theArchie’s and Humble formula determine the porosity of Limestone if formation
factor = 80
Solution
Archie’s formular
1
F=
Φ2
`
1
Φm = = 0.112 or 11.2%
80
Φ= √0.112
Page 45 of 61
Humble’s formula
. 0.62
Φ=
80
= 0.105 or 10.5%
Apparent Formation Factor Fa
Fa =
Where Rxo = resistivity of the flushed zone. This can be obtained from a shallow focused
device such as microlog, microlaterolog or proximity log.
Rmf = resistivity of mud filtrate. The value of Rmf is obtained from the log heading and
corrected to formation temperature.
Example
The microlaterolog opposite a potential oil bearing zone reads 5Ωm if Rmf at formation
temperature is 0.10Ωm what is the apparent formation factor.
Solution
F=
= .
= 50
Residual Hydrocarbon saturation (RHS)
Theoretically, in a 100% mud filtrate, flushed invaded zone Fa = F. However, this is not the
condition when oil or gas is present. Under these conditions Fa ≠ F because there will be
residual hydrocarbon saturation present within the filtrate flushed zone. Hence.
F = Fa (1-RHS)2
RHS is better estimated using the rule of thumb

RHS is 0 – 10% for 40-50 API oil
10 – 20% for 20-40 API oil
20 – 30% for 10 – 20 API oil
30 – 40% for National gas
Page 46 of 61
Φ = 1 x for limestone
.
= (1-RHS) x √0.62x for sandstone
Example
The microlaterolog opposite a potential oil bearing zone reads 5Ωm Rmf at formation
temperature of 0.100m, what is the porosity of the formation if it is a limestone.
Fa =
= .
= 50
Φ =1 x
= 50
Water Saturation Sw
In a formation containing oil/gas or both, water saturation is the fraction of the pore volume
occupied by formation water Sw, while hydrocarbon saturation (1-Sw) is the fraction of the
pore volume occupied by hydrocarbon.
Sw = n
RT = true resitivity
Ro = resitivity of brine saturated rock
N = saturation exponent normally assumed to be equal to 21.0
Sw =
Since RO = FRw
.
. . Sw =
Page 47 of 61
LOG TYPES
Log type and Formation Parameter Measurement
Mechanical caliper log variation in hole diameter

measurement
Spontaneous Temperature log Borehole temperature

measurement SP log SP electrical current
Gamma ray log Natural Radioactivity
Induced Resistivity Resistance to electric current

measurement Induction Conductivity of electric current
Sonic Velocity of sound propagation
Density Reaction to gamma ray bombardment
Neutron Reaction to neutron bombardment
Well logs can further be categorized into;
(a) Lithologic identifying tools

o SP log tools
o Gamma ray log
o Caliper log
(b) Hydrocarbon identifying tools

o resistivity log tool
o Induction log
(c) Hydrocarbon differentiating tool (into either oil/gas)

o Density log (FDC) tool
o Neutron log (CNL) tool
o Porosity tool
o Sonic log tool
o FDL formation density log
SPONTANCEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
SP log is a recording versus depth of naturally occurring differences between the fixed
potential of a surface electrode and a moveable electrode (logging sonde) in a borehole filled
with conductive fluid SP cannot be run in a non-conductive mud or cased hole.
Page 48 of 61
Application of SP logs
(1) To detect permeable zones by distinguishing between sands and shales

(2) Locate bed boundaries
(3) Estimate degree of shaliness in reservoir rocks
(4) Determination of Rw (formation water resistivity)
(5) Used for zone or bed correlation
Mechanism of SP
The difference in potential between the surface electrode and the moveable electrode in the
borehole filled with conductive fluid is dueto electromotive forces generated by
electrochemical potential as well as the electrokinetic potential
1. Electrochemical potential consists of

(a) shale membrane potential
(b) Diffusion potential or liquid-junction potential
a. Shale membrane potential (ESH):
It is due to specific properties of clay minerals in which shale rock allows the passage of
positively changed ions (cations such as Na+) but not the passage of negative ions such as
C1-. Movement of charge ions generates electric current and the force responsible for this
movement result in potential known as shale membrane potential across the shale surface.
Φ
ESH = log
ESH = 59.115 log (in millivolts)
b. Diffusion or liquid – junction potential Ed
Ions tend to migrate or diffuse from concentrated solution into dilute solution for equilibrium
to be achieved. Negative ions have greater mobility (i.e cl- moves faster) than positive ions
(Na+). The potential across junction between fluids of different salinities such as mud filtrate
and formation water is called diffusion potential.
Φ( )
Ed =− ( )
log
c. Electrochemical potential:
This is the sum of shale membrane and diffusion potential.
Page 49 of 61
Ec= ESH + Ed = -Kt log (in millivolts)
2. Electrokinetic potential (Ek)
This is also called streaming potential or electro-filtration potential. It results from the flow of
an electrolyte through porous medium. In borehole, it occurs across mud cake or across
shales.
Electrokinetic potential is negligible in case of saline formation water. If the permeable

formation is not shaly then the total electrochemical potential corresponds to the membrane
potential.
Ek =
where DP = pressure difference, n = viscosity, Φ = porosity, S = density, E = Dielectic

constant.
Page 50 of 61
SP deflections based on Rw& Rmf
(i) Rmf> Rw
presence of fresh water muds will result in a negative deflection i.e a kick to the left.
(ii) Rmf= Rw
The salinity of mud filtrate and formation brine is about the same. There will be no SP
current flow.
(iii) Rmf<Rw
when formation water is fresher than mud filtrate. Positive SP deflection will be product i.e. a
kick to the right.
Note: that the larger the salinity contrast between Rmf and Rw, the greater the deflection kick.
i.e deflection is dependent on
Page 51 of 61
Interpretation of SP log.
i. Qualitative interpretation
We need to establish the shale base line as well as the sand line. The shale base line is the
maximum deflection to the right while the sand line is the maximum deflection to the left as
long as Rw< Rmf.
Therefore, deflection to the right is shale while to the left is sand.
ii. Quantitative interpretation
One of the quantitative interpretation obtained from SP log is the determination of Rw i.e.
resistively of the formation water.
SP = -klog10
Where K = U + 0.133TF.
T = bottom hole temperature recorded and the log heading

Rmf = resistivity of the mud filtrate and it’s also recorded at the log head.
Note that Rmf was measured as surface temperature hence the need to convert it to hole
temperature. Schlumberger charts exist for such conversion. This conversion is necessary
since resistivity decreases with temperature.
The obtained Rw is used in saturation equation to obtain Sw.
Sw =
And the obtained Sw is used to obtain hydrocarbon saturation.
Sh = (1.0 – Sw)
Assignment
Briefly discussed gamma ray and caliper log under the following headings.
(i) Equipment’s configuration
(ii) Operation set up and running.
(iii) Operating mechanism/principle
(iv) Quantitative and quantitative interpretation
INDUCTION LOG (IL)
Page 52 of 61
The induction log is an electromagnetic device designed to measure the conductivity of the
non-invaded zone of surrounding formation. It is classified as a RT measuring device.
The induction tool is able to measure the conductivity of the non-invaded zone (deep
penetration) because it utilizes a focusing system.
Induction log has special advantage/ability in that it cans be run in various types of borehole
environments. Reliable measurements of conductivity can be obtained in boreholes,
containing oil base mud, fresh water mud, salt mud, gas or air.
Principle of operation
Induction logging system consists of two coaxially wound coils attached to an insulated
mandrel. One of the coils is a transmitter and the other a receiver.
Principle of Induction Logging
A high frequency alternating current is applied to the transmitter coil, which produces an
alternating electromagnetic field. This electromagnetic field induces fault current (eddy
currents) into the formation surrounding the induction sonde.
The flow of the current in the formation will generate a secondary electromagnetic field. The
propagation of this secondary field will cut the receiver coil and induce a current into the
measuring system of the tool. The magnitude of the induced eddy current is proportional to
conductivity of the media and corresponding intensity of the secondary electromagnetic field.
It follows therefore that the induced signal in the receiver coil is directly proportional to the
conductivity of the formation. Conductivity is measured in milliohms per meter.
Page 53 of 61
Interpretation
Qualitative
High conductivity in porous medium indicates the presence of saline formation fluid i.e.
water (brine) but low hydrocarbon may be suspected or fresh water.
Quantitative
RT can be obtained from induction log which is used to obtain water saturation Sw using
Archie’s saturation equation.
RT is obtained from the log
Sw = n
But F =
Sw = n x = n
Types of Induction logs
There are basically two types deep induction log LLd and LLm for deep and medium
resistivity determination respectively.
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Resistivity logs are developed to measure the electrical properties of beds adjacent to the
borehole. The basic instrument used are similar to those used in surface resistivity
prospecting. Usually direct current or a low-frequency alternating current is applied between
current electrodes and the potential is measured between two or more potential electrodes.
The record is then a plot of potential variation or its equivalent (apparent resistivity) verses
depth. There are several electrode configurations such as single electrode, normal
arrangement, lateral arrangement, etc. but the normal arrangement is the most widely used
since early thirties.
In normal arrangement, two electrode system known as the short and long normal are
employed. As seen in the figure below one current and one potential electrode on the logging
sonde are closely spaced downhole (16 inches apart for the short-normal, 64 inches for the
long-normal) and the other two are fixed at the top of the hole.
Page 54 of 61
1 1 1 1
Pa = ( - P1C1
− P1C1
+ P1C1)
Since P1C1 is much smaller than the other three dimensions, then
Pa=4 (P1G)
P = Power source (dc or ac)

I =Current measuring device
V = device for measuring potential difference
There are different types of resistivity measuring tools for measuring the resistivity of
different parts of the hole, some for measuring the resistivity of mud cake, flushed zone and
even deeper in uninvaded zone.
Mud Flushed zone Shallow Medium Deep

1-16 inches 0.5-1.5ft 1.5-3ft 3 + ft
Fresh mud Proximity log Laterolog Medium Deed Induction
(PL)specially 8(L18) Induction log log (LLd)
focused (SFL) (LLm)
Salt Microlaterolog Shallow Laterolog-7 Deep Laterolog
Mud (MLL) Laterolog LL7 (LLd)
(LLs) Laterology-2
(LL3)
Read more on
d. Proximity log
Page 55 of 61
e. Laterolog
f. Specially focuses log
Interpretation
Qualitative
High resistivity in porous medium indicates the presence of non-conductive formation fluid
or fresh water, while low resistivity readings indicate brine.
Resistivity Log
Page 56 of 61
POROSITY TOOLS
Formation Density Log
The formation density log is a radioactive log. It was developed to measure the bulk density
of formation in site. The logging tool responds to the electron density of the media. Since the
electron density is extremely close to the formation bulk density it is taken to be bulk density.
What is actually measured is the electron density which is related to the bulk density. The
bulk density in term is related to the density of the fluid.
The log is said to be compensated i.e. formation density compensated tool when the spacing
is short and the count rate is long; this will allow for better accuracy.
Density Tool
The density tool consists of a medium gamma ray source, either Cobalt 60 or Cesium 137.
this source is mounted on a skid and during logging operation’s its held in contact with the
borehole wall. Gamma rays are emitted by the source and diffused through the surrounding
formation. A neutron detector (epithermal type) is also mounted on the same skied at a fixed
distance vertically above the sources.
The number of diffused gamma-rays reading on the detector are counted. An increase in the
number of gamma-rays counted indicates a decrease in formation bulk density and conversely
a low count rate signifies an increase in bulk density.
Compensated density Tool (formation density compensated FDC) compensated density tool
has short spacing and long count rate. It has a second detector which is located on the skid
closer to the gamma ray source. This shorter spacing increase the sensitivity of the detector.
Advantage of compensation
It automatically corrects for the effects of mud cake density and thickness and for minor
borehole irregularities
Interpretation
Quantitative
Determination of porosity
The various reading from the log curve is the average or effective formation density near the
well bore which is a summation of the effects of both the rock matrix and the fluid contained
in the pore spaces.
Pb =Ф Pf + (1.0 – Ф) Pma
Ф =Pma
Pma
Pb
Pf
Page 57 of 61
Where
Pma = density of the matrix
Pf = formation fluid density
Pb = bulk density from the log
To adequately employ the formular to determine porosity, the knowledge of the mineral
composition is necessary to permits a more accurate selection of a value for matrix density.
Also, it is essential to know the nature of the pore fluid.
Interpretation
Density porosity measurements are based on electron density which is closely proportional to
bulk density. Light hydrocarbons, gas and condensates result in abnormally low bulk density
readings and hence ABNORMALLY HIGH APPARENT POROSITY VALUES. Note that
the density log is generally less affected by ‘shaliness’.
NEURON LOG
The neutron log is a porosity device whose measurement depends primarily on the number of
hydrogen atoms in the formation. The hydrogen atoms are either as oil, water or gas and are
occupied in the pore spaces, so a measurement of the hydrogen atoms in the pore spaces is a
measure of the porosity.
The source
The source is a combination of uranium with an alpha particle source such as beryllium. The
radioactive element uranium bombards the beryllium with alpha particle which causes
beryllium to give off a high energy neutron.
4He + 9Be =12C + 1n
+2 +4 = 6 + o
The neutron is electrically neutral with a mass equal to that of hydrogen.
Mechanism of operation
The fast neutron generated collide with nucleus within the formation in a sort of billiard bill
collision. The maximum energy is released when hydrogen atom is hit.
When the fast neutron hits large nucleus in the formation, there is no considerable effect on
the speed as well as the energy of the neutron, but since the nucleus as well as the man of
Page 58 of 61
hydrogen atom is equal (or almost so) to that of the neutron, upon collision, the hydrogen
nucleus captures the neutron and in the process, releases a gamma –ray.
The detector in neutron logging tool is a gamma ray detector such as Geiger Muller counter
or scintillometer. The number or density of gamma ray count is taken to be approximately
equal to the hydrogen atom concentration in the formation.
Interpretation
Neutron porosity measurements are dependent on the number of hydrogen nucleus present in
the formation. Gas and light oil have a lower hydrogen concentration than water and heavy
oils, therefore their presence results in low neutron porosity values. Note however that
‘shaliness’ results in abnormally high neutron porosities.
Note that a combination of FDC and CNL is very useful for differentiating hydrocarbon types
into either oil or gas. Wide separation of CNL and FDC will indicate gas while oil and water
will give a characteristic small separation.
SONIC LOG
Sonic log is a continuous record verses depth of the specific travel time Dt, required for a
compressional wave to travel a given distance of formation immediately adjacent to the
borehole. Dt is known as interval transit time ITT.
The interval transit time Dt for a given formation depends upon its lithology and
porosity, therefore when the lithology is known; the acoustic device becomes useful as a
porosity log.
Sonic log can be run only in liquid filled holes, but it is not affected by the type of
liquid filling the hole, it will perform equally in salt or fresh water muds, oil or water filled
holes, it will not work in empty holes.
Principle of Operation
The sonde comprises of two transmitters and two pairs of receivers (upper and lower
receivers)
The pair of transmitter (transducers) generate a pulse of acoustic energy which travels a given
distance and it is received by a receiver which is located some distance from the transmitter.
The received signal is amplified and transmitted up the logging cable and measured by
surface equipment.
Page 59 of 61
Univ. of Ibadan
The geophysical wave

wave-train received by a sonic log
Uses of sonic log
(i) for determination of the porosity of formation

(ii) Sonic log can bee modified and used in cased holes to determine the presence or
absence of cement boding to pipe and formation.
Porosity Determination
The measurement recorded on the logs is the sum of the effect of the solid part or framework
of the rock (rock matrix) and the fluid filled pore spaces
The empirical relationship between Dt and porosity was given by M.R.J. Wyllie (1956) as
Dtlog = response of fluid + response of matrix
Dtlog =ΦDtf + (1.0 – Φ) Dtma.
Dtlog Dtma
Φ= Dtf – Dtma
Where
Dtlog = reading from the log
Dtma = transit time for matrix
Dtf = transit time for matrix
Φ = Fractional porosity of rock
Computation of the volume of hydrocarbon in place
Hydrocarbon in place = ΦAhh (1

(1-Sw)
Where Φ = porosity (fractional)

A = Area of the reservoir
h = saturated thickness of the reservoir
Page 60 of 61
Sw = water saturation.
In Barrels = 7758 x ΦAh (1 – Sw)
Page 61 of 61

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GEY 462 Applied Geophysics Lecture note: Seismic Data Processing & Interpretation and Well Logging

(Petrophysics), © Dr. O.O. Osinowo, Dept of Geology, Univ. of Ibadan

GEY 462 APPLIED GEOPHYSICS

OVERVIEW OF SEISMI DATA PROCESSING

Mute the first arrivals (static correction)

Amptitude Recovery (Gain Recovery)

NMO correction/Dynamic correction

Mixing (remove multiples/Reverberations)

Filter (remove noise)

Display – CMP gather

Common Mid-Point (CMP) Gather

GAIN (DB) = A * T + B x 20 LOG T + C

B = SPHERICAL DIVERGENCE FACTOR

where t0 = intercept time, V = travel velocity.

(c) Some events are crossing each other

Migration process attempts

(iii) The accuracy of the velocity information available.

Straight Ray Method

WAVE EQUATION MIGRATION

Migrated seismic section

We shall approach seismic interpretation in three dimensions

(b) Stratigraphic interpretation

(2) Divergences in dip not related to stratigraphy

(7) Fault plane reflection

Anticlines; Fold and other flow structures

Lithologic Determination from Reflection Data

Check-shot survey/velocity survey

DIRECT HYDROCARBON INDICATORS (DHI)

Seismic sequence analysis

Seismic Facies Analysis

This involves the interpretation of identified sequences to determine the environment of

WELL LOGGING TECHNIQUES (PETROPHYSICS)

Log: A log is a record of measurements or observations recorded against another parameter,

Need for wireline geophysical well logging.

(1) Logging truck:

(2) Logging Cable

(3) The logging sonde or probe

Schematic Representation of FDC Sonic Logging Sonde

(4) Logging Drum

(5) Surface Recorder

A schematic below shows a well logging setup

There are two types of logging operations

Drilling Mud and Logging

Oil Base Mud Fresh water mud Salt mud

FDC = formation density log (compensated)

Zones of Infiltration of Mud-Filtrate

RI - Resistivity of the annulus zone

BASIC LOGGING THEORY

The formation factor ‘F’ is a basic property of rock

Ro = Resistivity of brine saturated rock

Archie in 1942 related formation factor F with porosity Φ.

Humble formula (Tixier, 1965);

Apparent Formation Factor Fa

Residual Hydrocarbon saturation (RHS)

RHS is better estimated using the rule of thumb

Log type and Formation Parameter Measurement

Mechanical caliper log variation in hole diameter

Spontaneous Temperature log Borehole temperature

Induced Resistivity Resistance to electric current