Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164

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Nuclear Engineering and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/nucengdes

Experimental investigation of the effect of geometrical and operating

variables on condensation induced water hammer in horizontally
oriented pipes
Anu Dutta a, I. Thangamani a, *, P. Goyal a, V. Verma a, J. Chattopadhyay a, Seik Mansoor Ali b,
L. Raj b
a
Reactor Safety Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
b
Safety Research Institute, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, Kalpakkam, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Condensation-Induced Water Hammer (CIWH) phenomenon involves dynamic pressure changes caused by rapid
Condensation condensation of steam in subcooled water. The magnitude of pressure spike is often large and can cause damage
Water hammer to the pipes and components in steam-water systems. Understanding the phenomena is vital for obtaining a safe
Horizontal pipe
and reliable design. This paper describes experimental investigations carried out in a specially designed facility
Experiments
called Water and Steam Interaction Facility (WASIF-I), that offers control over water and steam flow rates, can
Correlation
operate in co–, cross-, or counter-current flow mode and contains multiple injection locations. The occurrence of
CIWH in horizontally oriented pipes filled with saturated steam is studied for the case where subcooled water is
injected in cross-flow mode. The effect of geometrical and operating variables on the initiation of CIWH as well as
peak pressure are brought out in this experimental work. A correlation to predict the critical minimum feed water
flowrate necessary for triggering CIWH is developed based on multiple, nonlinear regression analysis of data
from around 150 experiments. A regime map is presented that can be used as a guideline to preclude occurrence
of CIWH.

systems of nuclear plants. The magnitude of pressure spike is often large

1. Introduction
Condensation induced water hammer involves dynamic pressure
changes in a fluid under the influence of sudden and rapid condensation
of steam trapped in pockets surrounded by subcooled water. Conden­
sation of steam causes the surrounding water to accelerate towards the
center of the steam pocket and collide. The ensuing pressure rise pro­
gresses through water at the speed of sound in the medium. Direct
Contact Condensation (DCC) of steam and water in pipes is a common
phenomenon in many industries, that includes thermal power plants,
chemical and process industries, nuclear power plants etc. In a nuclear
power plant, the actuation of emergency core cooling system following a
Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA) causes injection of sub-cooled water
from accumulator tanks into flowing or stagnant steam/steam water
mixture in the reactor inlet and outlet headers. Rapid energy transfer
between steam and water causes violent condensation, leading to local
pressure oscillations. Similar condensation process also occurs in
sparger feed pipes of steam generators and residual heat removal
and the ensuing fluid–structure interaction can cause severe damage to
pipes and components. CIWH thus induces undesirable hydrodynamic
and pressure loads that can challenge the structural integrity of safety
equipment and their operation.
Owing to safety implications of CIWH, it has been the focus of
attention for the past several decades. Numerous theoretical and
experimental works have appeared in literature explaining the mecha­
nisms associated with CIWH, pressure oscillation characteristics, in­
tensity and location of occurrence in a particular system. The effect of
pipe size, orientation, system pressure, subcooling, flow rate of water
etc. on the occurrence of CIWH has also been discussed. One of the
earliest study was carried out by Bjorge (Bjorge), who investigated the
initiating mechanism of steam bubble collapse-induced water hammer
when subcooled water was supplied to saturated steam in a horizontal
pipe connected to a steam header. CIWH was reported to occur when the
crest wave appearing on the water surface due to Kelvin-Helmholtz
instability reached the top, completely blocking the entire cross sec­
tion of pipe. Steam entrapped in the cavity condenses rapidly, causing a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tmi@barc.gov.in (I. Thangamani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2024.113164
Received 18 September 2023; Received in revised form 19 December 2023; Accepted 22 March 2024
Available online 29 March 2024
0029-5493/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Dutta et al.
Nomenclature
A Area (m2)
D Diameter of test pipe (m)
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)
hfg Latent heat of enthalpy (J/kg)
L Length of test pipe (m)
m˙ Mass flow rate (kg/s)
P Pressure (N/m2)
T Temperature (K)
ΔT Degree of subcooling (K)
V Velocity (m/s)
sudden reduction in pressure that eventually leads to collision of water
slugs. More detailed fundamental studies were carried out later by
Bjorge and Griffith (Bjorge and Griffith, 1984). Critical flow rates at
which CIWH occurred were determined by varying the water tempera­
ture. One of the findings of this study was that CIWH continued to occur
as long as the water and steam continued to flow into the test section. A
mathematical model for studying CIWH in horizontal pipes was also
developed by these authors. The stability criteria of Taitel and Dukler
(Taitel and Dukler, 1976) was applied to identify the location where the
water slug would form. The formation of water slug that isolates the
steam cavity was identified as a criterion for CIWH initiation. Chou and
Griffith (Chou and Griffith, 1990) performed experiments on vertical as
well as horizontal pipes and obtained the lower limit of water flow rate
for occurrence of CIWH based on surge wave height analysis. Experi­
ments conducted by Lobo (Lobo and Griffith, 1994) indicated that when
cold water is injected from bottom into an inclined pipe filled with
steam, the likelihood of occurrence of CIWH was low. Experiments
conducted by Prasser et al. (Prasser et al., 2008) showed that when cold
water is fed into a horizontal pipe filled with steam, a critical pressure
exists above which pressure surges did not occur. Experimental and
analytical studies on CIWH in a horizontal pipe with steam and water
flow in countercurrent direction were reported by Chun and Yu (Chun
and Yu, 2000). An analytical model was developed to determine the
upper and lower bounds of water flow rate for sustaining CIWH in the
pipe. The effect of key parameters on CIWH was elucidated. Barna et al.
(Barna et al., 2010; Barna and Ezsol, 2011; Barna et al., 2015) showed
the possibility of occurrence of several CIWH pressure pulses through
experiments and numerical simulation using WAHA3 computer code.
They found that an increase in pipe diameter resulted in increase in
upper and lower limits of water flow rate necessary to cause CIWH.
Insights into the stochastic nature of CIWH has been provided by Urban
and Schluter (Urban and Schluter, 2014) based on extensive experi­
mental work. The full blockage of test pipe by crest wave formed by
development of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability of water surface was found
to be very sensitive to geometrical and process parameters, and is cited
as the prime reason for the stochastic nature of the phenomena. Around
185 experiments were conducted in a test facility with a slightly inclined
(~1.4◦ ) steam-filled horizontal pipe of length 2.5 m and inner diameter
of 51.3 mm. The probability of occurrence of CIWH, peak pressures and
location of nucleation points of steam implosion were identified. A cri­
terion, based on flow rate (Froude No.) and subcooling level of injected
water, was defined for identifying possible conditions for occurrence
and exclusion of CIWH. Selivanov et al. (Selivanov et al.) conducted
experiments wherein cold water was supplied from a tank into a hori­
zontal pipe containing saturated steam under gravity pressure head.
With decrease in water level in the tank, the flow rate of injected water
also reduced due to decrease in gravity head. This scenario is similar to
the one expected when emergency core cooling system operates in a
nuclear plant. Similar experiments in which water from an overhead
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Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
ρ Density (kg/m3)
σ Surface tension coefficient (N/m)
* Non-dimensional variable
Subscripts
c Condensation
cr Critical
f Feed water
p Pipe
s Surface
sat Saturation
stm Steam
sub Sub cooling
reservoir is injected by gravity into a horizontal pipe containing steam
were reported by Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2017). In these experiments
although the water flow rate was not controlled, the flow of steam to the
test pipe was controlled using a valve. The characteristic of entrapped
bubbles during periodic CIWH in horizontal pipes was investigated
through experiments by Chong et al. (Chong et al., 2020). They also
developed a theoretical correlation for calculating the intensity of
pressure oscillation. Chong et al. (Chong et al., 2019; Chong et al., 2021)
extended the work of Wang et al. (Wang et al., 2017) and obtained a
CIWH regime map based on experiments. The map demarcates the re­
gion of periodic, non-periodic and no-CIWH under different water sub­
cooling temperatures and steam flow rates. The condensation patterns
were classified into steam chugging, hemispherical and encapsulating
bubble oscillation. In the experiments reported by Datta et al. (Datta
et al., 2021) a horizontal test pipe section connected to steam tank on
one end and water tank at the other end was used. Subcooled water at
high pressure was injected into steam-filled test pipe. Initial steam
pressure in the pipe was 2 and 3 bar(g). The differential pressure be­
tween steam and water was varied from 1 to 3 bar(g). Distinct pressure
peaks were observed only for cases involving higher differential pres­
sures. More recently, experimental and CFD studies on CIWH in a hor­
izontal pipe of length 3 m and inner diameter of 64 mm has been
reported by Blinkov et al. (Blinkov et al., 2022) with the objective to
expand the database of CIWH experimental data. The novel features of
their test setup includes the use of a damper cap to stabilize the flow of
subcooled water at inlet and a discharge vessel with a closed drainage at
the other end. The main experimental variables were steam pressure,
inlet water temperature and flow rate. Based on 36 experiments, a
regime map with Froude number and water subcooling as the key pa­
rameters was prepared to identify the boundaries for occurrence of
CIWH. Experimental and analytical studies on occurrence of flashing
instability induced CIWH has also been reported in natural circulation
loops by Hou et al. (Hou et al., 2016; Hou et al., 2017). Characteristics of
CIWH in natural circulation systems have been investigated experi­
mentally by Sun et al. (Sun et al., 2020, 2021).
Apart from the extensive experimental work, several analytical and
numerical studies have also been reported over the years. Notable
among these are the studies by Barna et al. (Barna et al., 2010; Barna and
Ezsol, 2011; Barna et al., 2015) using WAHA3 code. The effect of pipe
diameter on the upper and lower limit of water flow rate required to
cause CIWH was brought out. Sanja et al. (Sanja et al., 2014) applied the
homogeneous equilibrium model to simulate the pressure surge process
in vertical pipe. Computer code RELAP5 has also been used by Hou et al.
(Hou et al., 2017) and a few other authors for capturing CIWH phe­
nomenon in pipe configuration. One such study was by Datta et al.
(Datta et al., 2016) who brought out the influence of initial pressure
differential between steam and injected water and the water tempera­
ture on CIWH in horizontal pipes.
Based on the above literature review it is evident that extensive
A. Dutta et al.
experimental and numerical studies have been carried out to understand
the various aspects of CIWH in different types of configurations. The
experimental facility described in this paper differs from those already
reported in literature in a few ways. Firstly, the horizontal pipe is con­
nected to headers at either end and secondly, it can be used to conduct
experiments in co–, counter- or cross current flow mode, with control
over water and steam flow rates. Further, water can be injected into
stagnant steam in the pipe or vice versa. The present experimental
configuration is arrived at based on flow conditions expected to be
encountered in a typical PHWR during actuation of emergency core
cooling system following a LOCA. When sub-cooled water is injected
into steam or in the steam-water mixture present in the reactor headers,
flow conditions in the headers, coolant channels and feeder pipes can
have any of the above flow modes depending on the break location.
These features together with the extensive instrumentation provided
make this facility versatile in many aspects. The present set of experi­
ments focus on investigating CIWH when subcooled water is injected in
cross-flow mode into saturated steam that is initially boxed up within
the test pipe. At the outset, salient features of the experimental facility,
instrumentation system, test matrix and experimental procedure are
described. This is followed by a description of experimental conditions
and systematic analysis of results. The effect of test pipe diameter, initial
boxed-up steam pressure, feed water temperature and water injection
velocity on the initiation of CIWH as well as peak pressure is brought
out. Finally, based on rigorous multiple, nonlinear regression analysis of
experimental data from around 150 experiments, a correlation in non-
dimensional form is developed in terms of geometrical and operating
variables to predict the critical minimum feed water flowrate necessary
for triggering CIWH in horizontal pipes.
2. Experimental setup
The Water and Steam Interaction Facility (Phase-I) (WASIF-I) has
been setup by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) at the Safety
Research Institute (SRI), Kalpakkam for conducting comprehensive
studies on various aspect of CIWH phenomenon. The facility is equipped
with instrumentation system for measurement and control of various
parameters. The main components of this facility are; (a) test pipe (b)
Fig. 1. WASIF-I facility.
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Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
steam and feed water supply system (c) compressed air system (d)
instrumentation, control and data acquisition system. A photograph of
the facility is shown Fig. 1.
The test section, where the physical phenomenon of CIWH is initi­
ated and investigated, is a seamless SS304L pipe of length 2.5 m. It is
connected to two vertically oriented headers, one at each end. The
arrangement is such that one of the headers (H-1) can receive steam
from the steam supply system as well as feed water from the water
supply system. The other one (H-2) can receive only feed water. H-1 is
supported on a rigid column, while H-2 is supported on a flexible column
to accommodate vibrations caused by reaction forces during CIWH in
the axial direction.
Apart from supplying steam or water to the test pipe and supporting
it, the headers also prevent propagation of pressure wave beyond the test
region. Test pipe diameters of 40, 65 and 80 mm nominal bore can be
accommodated between the two headers. A schematic diagram of the
facility is shown in Fig. 2. The test pipe is provided with thermocouples,
pressure transducers (piezoelectric and strain based), strain gauges and
accelerometer to measure temperature, pressure, strain and vibrations
during experiments. Static pressure at various points within the facility
is measured using strain-based pressure transducers (7 Nos.), which
possess an accuracy of ± 0.5 % of their full-scale output. Whereas, five
high-speed Kistler make piezoelectric pressure sensors are provided to
capture the fast-transients during CIWH events. These sensors, namely
Ptrf-105, Ptrf-107, Ptrf-109, Ptrf-111 and Ptrf-113 (Fig. 2), have a
sampling rate of 10,000 Hz and a response time of 5 µs. The linearity of
fast pressure sensors is within ± 1.0 % of full scale output. The fluid
temperature is measured using five K-type, mineral-insulated, SS
sheathed thermocouples of 1 mm outer diameter with accuracy of ±
1.5 ◦ C. Both headers are equipped with pressure gauges and differential
pressure transmitters to measure the water level.
The steam supply system consists of a steam boiler, steam accumu­
lator, associated piping and instrumentation systems for control and
measurement of various boiler parameters. The steam boiler delivers
saturated steam at a maximum pressure of 10.5 bar (abs) and maximum
flow rate of 400 kg/hr. Steam from the accumulator is fed through a
pressure reducing kit to the header H-1 and from there to the test pipe. A
vortex flowmeter with a transmitter having a range of 0–12000 LPM
A. Dutta et al.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the facility.
(Litres per Minute) is installed in the steam line approaching the test
pipe to measure the steam flow rate. The accuracy of vortex flowmeter is
± 1.0 % of the full scale range. However, in the present set of experi­
ments described in this paper, sub-cooled water is injected into stagnant
steam (boxed up in the test pipe) in nearly saturated conditions at
various pressures. Therefore, measurement of steam flow rate was not
required. The primary focus was on measuring flow rate of subcooled
water and pressure and temperature of steam in the test pipe prior to and
during the experiments.
The feed water system consists of a tank that is partially filled (2/3rd
of its height). The free surface of the tank can be pressurized up to 7 bar
(g) using compressed air (provided by compressed air supply system).
This system consists of an air compressor, reservoir, connecting pipes
and fittings. Air from the reservoir is used for pressurizing water in feed
water tank as well as for the operation of pneumatic control valves
through a separate instrument air header. Three band-type heaters each
of 5 kW capacity are wrapped around the water tank for heating the
water. They are placed at different elevations to minimize stratification.
The tank supplies subcooled water at desired temperature to test pipe
section. Thermocouples are provided at different elevations of feed
water tank to monitor water temperature. Once the desired temperature
is achieved, heaters get switched off in auto mode by temperature
indicating controller. The flow rate of water is controlled by control
valve. A magnetic rotameter with a flow transmitter having a range of
1–300 LPM (Litres per Minute) is installed in the water line approaching
the test pipe to measure the flow rate of injected feed water. The accu­
racy of flowmeter is ± 0.5 % of full scale range. Additionally, real-time
water level measurements are provided by a Differential Pressure-based
Level Transmitter installed in the feedwater tank, with an accuracy of ±
0.1 % of full scale range from 0 to 1300 mm. The level data from the
transmitter has been utilized indirectly for the assessment of the injec­
tion feedwater flow rate. As the experimental study primarily focuses on
water flow rates, the flow measurement data obtained using the flow­
meter has been subjected to thorough cross-verification with variations
in the water tank level to minimize errors.
A dedicated Data Acquisition System (DAS) comprising of two data
loggers records the experimental data. One of them is a 130-channel 10
Hz Yokogawa make datalogger used to acquire experimental data from
normal sensors. The other is an 8-channel DEWE make datalogger
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Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
designed for recording data from high-speed sensors at a sampling rate
of 200 kHz. The fast datalogger also features online graphic visualization
capabilities for sensor data.
3. Experimental procedure
The experiment is commenced by first filling the feed water tank up
to desired level (~65 %). Compressed air from the receiver is fed to the
tank and acts on the free surface to pressurize the water to desired value.
The band heaters are then put on to raise the water temperature and
obtain required subcooling temperature. Simultaneously, the steam
boiler is also started as per the specified operating procedure and steam
parameters are brought to rated conditions. Pressure reducing valve is
adjusted to supply steam at the desired pressure and temperature con­
ditions. To facilitate degassing of the system, all drain and vent valves
are kept open initially and steam is introduced to displace the air and
warm up the test section and headers. When most of the air is displaced,
the drain valves are closed. The vent valves are kept open for an addi­
tional 5 min to ensure complete purging of any remaining air from the
system. The vent valves are then gradually closed until only a faint
stream of steam leaving the test section remains visible. The system is
then boxed up with steam at the desired pressure.
The experimental procedure then began by injecting subcooled
water into the test pipe section radially (crossflow mode) through the
injection nozzle at a given flow rate and temperature. This was done by
operating the inlet valve manually. It was seen that prior to water in­
jection, excessive steam condensation can occur in the test pipe and
headers, leading to pressure reduction. In such cases, the condensate is
drained by intermittently opening the drain valves. This is followed by
opening of main-steam valve to fill the test pipe and bringing the con­
ditions back to desired level. During the water injection process, system
parameters such as pressure, temperature and flow rates are recorded.
Any CIWH event that occurred during the experiment was detected by
the readings obtained from fast pressure transducers placed along the
test section. All key parameters are recorded and displayed on the screen
of the control panel. Finally, the drain valves are opened remotely from
the control panel to remove condensate from the system. To ensure the
reliability of the results, the specific experiments that capture CIWH
were repeated at least three times. Although the onset of CIWH was
A. Dutta et al.
successfully reproduced in most of the cases, the magnitude and location
of peak pressure differed each time and was not replicated consistently.
This was expected to a certain extent owing to the stochastic nature of
the CIWH phenomenon.
The critical minimum inlet water flow rate necessary to initiate
CIWH in the test pipe for given initial steam pressure, pipe diameter and
feed water temperature was determined as follows: Feed water was
injected into steam by keeping the valve opening area at around 10 %.
The system was observed for several minutes to determine if a CIWH
would occur. If none occurred, the water flow rate was gradually
increased by increasing the valve opening area in steps of 1 %. The
primary objective of the study is to identify the critical flowrate,
responsive to minute changes in flow rate resulting from the transition of
flow patterns. As mentioned earlier, the magnetic rotameter has a range
of 1–300 LPM with an accuracy of ± 0.5 % of full scale range i.e. ± 1.5
LPM. It may be noted that increase in valve opening by 1 % leads to an
average flow rate increase of around 10 %. Therefore, the increase in
valve opening is meaningful considering the sensor error. It is under­
stood that measuring flowrates at low opening areas requires a mass
flowmeter with a smaller range for lower error and more accurate
measurements. However, this necessitates several mass flowmeters to
cover the scattered range of flows. The current setup employs a single
flowmeter that covers a wide range of flows, but it introduces maximum
error when the flow is minimal. To address this limitation, real-time
water level measurement using a differential pressure-based level
transmitter (installed in feed water tank) is also used to calculate mass
flow rate. The accuracy of differential pressure-based level transmitter is
± 0.1 % of full scale i.e. 0 to 1300 mm. Mass flowrate measurement
using level transmitter gives ± 9 % error when the valve is opened at 10
% and as the valve opening increases, the error reduces to ± 5 %.
The conditions at which CIWH occurred were obtained based on the
pressure profile data from high-speed piezoelectric pressure sensors
installed at various locations along the test section.
4. Results and discussion
The main objective of this experimental program was to generate
data to understand the mechanisms responsible for initiation of CIWH in
a horizontal pipe containing stagnant saturated steam when subcooled
water is injected radially into the pipe. A series of experiments totaling
around 150 were conducted under varying initial and boundary condi­
tions. These include experiments in which CIWH was not observed. The
test pipe diameter, initial steam pressure, initial feed water temperature
and feed water injection rate were varied systematically in these ex­
periments. The effect of feed water inlet velocity and water temperature
on CIWH peak pressure were also obtained based on parametric studies.
The range of parameters considered for experiments is given in Table 1.
The test pipe diameters were chosen to represent the diameter of feeder
pipes in Indian Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). To ensure
the occurrence of CIWH events, the length of the test section was chosen
so as to maintain an L/D ratio greater than 30 for test pipes of all di­
ameters (i.e., 40 mm, 65 mm and 80 mm), aligning with recommenda­
tions from referred literatures for occurrence of CIWH (L/D > 24). The
L/D ratios are maintained in range of 33 to 63 in the present work.
At the outset, the basic processes occurring within the test pipe is
explained based on one set of experimental data. For illustration pur­
pose, experiments with test pipe size of 40 mm, initial steam pressure of
4 bar(g) and feed water temperature of 30 ◦ C is chosen. The flow rate of
Table 1
Range of system parameters considered for experiments.
System Parameters Values
Test pipe diameter (mm) 40, 65, 80
Steam pressure [bar(g)] 1, 2, 3, 4
Feed water temperature (◦ C) 30, 40, 50, 60
5
Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
injected water is varied by maintaining the valve opening area at 10 %,
11 %, 12 % and 13 %. The corresponding mass flowrates for these valve
openings are 281, 313, 335, and 392 kg/hr, respectively. Fig. 3 illus­
trates the typical patterns of pressure fluctuations observed during
different stages of water injection process. When the flow rate is low,
subcooled water introduced radially into the test pipe gradually fills it. A
stratified layer tends to form, where the lower portion of the pipe is
occupied by water and the space above it remained filled with steam.
The injected water initially compresses the steam space as indicated by
the flat pressure profile shown in Fig. 3(a). As the flow rate increased
slightly, the local velocity of the steam-phase also increases. When the
velocity difference between the two phases became significant, surface
waves started to form. The amplitude of the waves is determined by the
relative velocity of the two phases. The wavy nature of the interface and
corresponding pressure profile is depicted in Fig. 3(b). Further increase
in feed water flow rate leads to further increase in the amplitude of the
waves, resulting in transition to plug flow regime. A steep phase
boundary is formed due to bridging near the water injection point.
Subcooled water then flows beneath the steam layer and steam starts to
condense on the water surface. The elongated wavy nature and pressure
profile indicating the presence of plug flow inside the pipe is shown in
Fig. 3(c).
With a further increase in the water flow rate, the amplitude of
surface waves becomes even larger. Steam is accelerated towards the
interface due to suction created by the condensation on the interface.
This induces continued flow of fresh steam towards the interface to
replenish the lost steam. If the condensation rate is high, then induced
steam velocity will draw up water waves due to Bernoulli effect and seal
the pipe. The water slugs will isolate the steam portion and a steam
pocket is formed as shown in Fig. 3(d). The enclosed steam will continue
to condense on the available interface area as long as the vapor pressure
is higher than the saturated vapor pressure of water at the interface
temperature. This will create a local low-pressure region. Due to ensuing
pressure differential, the water slugs will accelerate towards the center
of the low pressure region. The inertia forces of the accelerated slugs will
cause any remaining steam to get compressed and collapse rapidly. The
collision of slugs causes propagation of pressure a pulse into the sur­
rounding water at the speed of sound. It is clear that CIWH is mainly
controlled by the condensation rate at the phase boundary. Analyzing
the phenomena further, the condensation rate is given as follows:
hAs ΔTsub
ṁc = (1)
hfg
Where, h is condensation heat transfer coefficient, As is interfacial area
available for condensation, ΔTsub is degree of subcooling and hfg is latent
heat. Eq. (1) is dependent on the heat transfer coefficient, interface area,
and degree of subcooling. Besides, the heat transfer coefficient is sus­
ceptible to variations influenced by factors such as liquid velocity and
hydraulic diameter. However, in this specific scenario, where the water
velocity experiences minimal changes for a given inlet diameter, the
heat transfer coefficient remains relatively constant. Hence, it can be
inferred that the size of the interfacial area predominantly governs the
initiation of CIWH and the associated pressure pulse, highlighting the
intricate interdependence of these parameters in the dynamics of the
phenomenon. Therefore, under constant steam pressure and subcooling
temperature, it becomes apparent that the magnitude of the interfacial
area dictates both the occurrence of CIWH and the magnitude of the
pressure pulse.
To gain further insights into this complex phenomenon, the influence
of various parameters that trigger CIWH were studied by conducting a
sequence of experiments by systematically altering key process and
geometrical parameters. The findings are discussed in subsequent
sections.
A. Dutta et al.
Fig. 3. Pressure profile indicating stratified to slug flow transition.
4.1. Effect of steam pressure
In this section, we explore the effect of initial steam pressure on
initiation of CIWH in test pipe when feed water is injected. The pressure
in the pipe is varied from 1 to 4 bar (g) in steps of 1 bar (g). Feed water
temperature is maintained at 30 ◦ C.
Fig. 4 presents the critical flow rate of water necessary to trigger
CIWH within test pipes of diameters 40 mm, 65 mm, and 80 mm. For a
given pipe diameter and feed water temperature, the critical flow rate
required to initiate CIWH decreases as the steam pressure increases. This
behavior can be attributed to the fact that the saturation temperature of
steam is higher at higher pressure. This in turn ensures a greater degree
of subcooling as the injected water temperature remains constant at
30 ◦ C. Further, when the initial steam pressure is higher, the latent heat
of vaporization is lower. From eq. (1) it is evident that both these factors
aid faster condensation of steam on the interface. It is also seen that at a
given steam pressure the critical feed water flow rate reduces with in­
crease in L/D ratio.
Fig. 4. Effect of initial steam pressure on the critical feed flowrate for onset
of CIWH.
6
Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
4.2. Effect of feed water temperature
Four sets of experiments were conducted in the 40 mm test pipe with
feed water temperatures at 30, 40, 50, and 60 ◦ C, while keeping initial
steam pressure in the test pipe as 1 bar (g). For each feed water tem­
perature case, the flowrate was varied until CIWH was achieved in the
test pipe. These experiments were repeated with test pipe diameters of
65 and 80 mm NB. From Fig. 5 it is clear that the critical flowrate for the
occurrence of CIWH increases as the feed water temperature rises.
This observation can be attributed to the reduction in the degree of
subcooling, which subsequently decreases the rate of condensation. This
shows that when subcooling is low, a higher flow rate is required for
stratified to slug transition that can initiate CIWH event. It is also seen at
a given feed water temperature the critical feed water flow rate reduces
with increase in L/D ratio.
The impact of feed water temperature on the peak pressure of CIWH
was also investigated in the 40 mm NB test pipe. The temperature was
varied from 30 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C in increments of 10 ◦ C, while maintaining
other parameters such as water injection velocity and initial steam
pressure in test pipe as constants. Fig. 6 shows the pressure profile when
initial steam pressure and water flowrate were 1 bar(g) and 3.5 kg/s
respectively.
It was found that as the feed water temperature increased, the
amplitude of the peak pressure decreased. The observed trend can be
attributed to the decrease in subcooling with increase in feed water
temperature. A lower degree of subcooling leads to a reduced conden­
sation rate. When condensation rates are lower, the transition from
steam to liquid water occurs more gradually. This slower condensation
process results in the generation of smaller water slugs, which, in turn,
displace a reduced volume of steam during the condensation phase.
Consequently, a lower condensation rate leads to the formation of
smaller water slugs due to the decelerated conversion of steam to liquid
water. This, in sequence, contributes to a diminished displacement of
steam and consequently lowers the peak pressures observed during the
water hammer event.
4.3. Effect of pipe diameter
Experiments were conducted using test pipes of diameter 40 mm, 65
mm, and 80 mm. The pressure in the pipes was varied from 1 to 4 bar (g)
in steps of 1 bar(g). Feed water temperature was maintained at 30 ◦ C. In
each experiment, the test section was initially filled with steam and
subsequently feed water was injected. The flow rate of the feed water
A. Dutta et al.
Fig. 5. Effect of feed water temperature on the critical flowrate for onset of CIWH.
was gradually increased until CIWH was detected by one of the pressure
transducers in the pipe. The critical flow rate at which CIWH occurred
was recorded for each experiment. Experiments were repeated 3 times
for each test pipe. Fig. 7 illustrates the relationship between pipe
diameter and the critical flow rate. It is evident that the critical flow rate
increases with increase in pipe diameter. This observation suggests that
larger pipe diameters require higher flow rates to initiate CIWH. The
reason behind this relationship lies in the increased space available for
condensate accumulation before transitioning from the stratified to the
slug flow regime. The larger diameter provides a higher condensate
hold-up volume within the pipe, thereby prolonging the time required
for significant disturbances in the condensate layer to develop and
trigger CIWH.
4.4. Effect of feed water inlet velocity
The influence of feed water inlet velocity on peak CIWH pressure was
investigated in the 40 mm NB test pipe. The temperature of injected
water was maintained at 30 ◦ C and its flow rate was varied to obtain four
different inlet velocities. The initial pressure of steam in the test pipe
was maintained at 2 bar (g). The effect of feed water velocity on CIWH
pressure is shown in Fig. 8. The peak pressure is found to increase with
increase in velocity. It is also observed that the time of occurrence of
CIWH is earlier for higher feed water velocity. When the liquid velocity
is higher, the water droplets generated during condensation process
have greater momentum. The resulting impact force caused by collision
with pipe walls leads to amplified pressure surges. Moreover, the fluid
velocity influences the rate of condensation due to the higher heat
transfer coefficient associated with increased velocity. This, in turn,
accelerates the condensation process, resulting in a more significant
release of latent heat and contributing to an overall rise in pressure.
In the current set of experiments, the initiation of the CIWH event
was successfully reproduced, but there was inconsistency in replicating
the peak CIWH pressure, leading to varying amplitudes observed in each
experiment. To assess repeatability, four experiments were conducted
7
Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
for each inlet velocity condition. While the initiation of the CIWH event
demonstrated consistent reproducibility, the peak CIWH pressure dis­
played variability across experiments. Mean values of peak pressure
amplitude were determined for inlet feed water velocity conditions of 1
m/s, 2 m/s, 3 m/s, and 4 m/s, resulting in values of 4.175 bar, 5.575 bar,
6.7625 bar, and 9.775 bar, respectively. The associated variations,
expressed as standard deviation, ranged from 47 % to 80 % around the
mean value. This variability can be attributed to uncertainties associated
with maintaining precise control over experimental conditions,
including the manual operation of the feed water injection valve, po­
tential variation in the initial quality of steam and feed water temper­
ature, and may also be due to the inherently stochastic nature of the
phenomenon itself.
5. Correlation for predicting onset of CIWH
The experiments reveal the dependence of CIWH phenomenon on
several geometrical and operating variables. It is therefore impractical
to rely only on experimentation for design of pipelines to preclude the
occurrence of CIWH. Based on experimental data generated in the pre­
sent program, a correlation is developed to estimate the critical feed
water flowrate necessary to trigger CIWH in a horizontal pipe filled with
steam.
In formulating the correlation, emphasis is placed on incorporating
pipe geometrical data and relevant operating/measurable parameters,
including steam and feed temperature. Two dimensionless numbers, the
Froude number (Fr) and Bond number (Bo), denoted as (m*f ) and (D*),
respectively, are integrated into the proposed empirical correlation to
assess the critical flow rate for the onset of CIWH. The Froude number,
representing the ratio of fluid velocity (V) to the square root of the
product of gravity (g) and characteristic flow depth i.e. pipe diameter
(D), plays a crucial role in the CIWH correlation. Traditionally used in
open channel flow analysis, the Froude number contributes significantly
to understanding the flow regime dynamics, especially concerning water
condensation and liquid slug formation in steam pipes during CIWH
A. Dutta et al.
Fig. 6. Effect of feed water temperature on CIWH peak pressure.
events. The Bond number, denoted as (D*), also plays a vital role in the
empirical correlation. It provides insights into gravitational and surface
tension forces acting on the liquid slug during CIWH events, influencing
slug behavior and contributing to the overall CIWH phenomenon dy­
namics. The correlation accounts for the influence of various parameters
such as pipe diameter (D), steam pressure (Pstm), feedwater inlet tem­
perature (Tf), and the length-to-diameter ratio of the pipe (L/D), either
explicitly or implicitly. This correlation offers a method to predict the
critical feedwater flow rate triggering CIWH without extensive experi­
mentation. Based on rigorous multiple nonlinear regression of the
experimental data, the following correlation in non-dimensional form is
proposed for estimating the critical feedwater flow rate:
ṁ*f = 0.1328 (T * )9.674 (D* )1.249 (2)
ṁ*f ,D* and T * are the dimensionless forms of critical feed water flow rate
(Froude No.), diameter (Bond No.) and feed water temperature respec­
tively and can be expressed as follows (Chun and Yu, 2000):
8
Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
√̅̅̅̅̅
ṁ*f =
ṁf
√̅̅̅̅ ; D* = D gσρf ;.T* = Tf
Tsat
ρf .Ap gD f
The variable “Ap ” in the denominator of the ṁ*f ratio denotes the
cross-sectional area of the test pipe section.
This correlation is applicable to subcooled water injection into a
horizontal pipe filled with saturated steam. It has been obtained based
on experimental data generated in pipes having L/D ratio in the range of
33 to 63, with initial steam pressure and feed water temperature ranging
from 1 to 4 bar (g) and 30–60 ◦ C respectively. This correlation enables
the anticipation of the onset of CIWH with a predictive accuracy within a
± 15 % deviation from experimental results. The correlation’s uncer­
tainty, established through multiple nonlinear regression, adheres to the
standard procedure for evaluating the coefficient of determination and
the standard error of the correlation coefficient. A non-dimensional
regime map is provided in Fig. 9 that has been derived from the corre­
lation given by eq. (2). This map demarcates the zone of occurrence or
non-occurrence of CIWH for different L/D ratios. The limiting minimum
critical mass flow rate can be directly obtained from these plots.
A. Dutta et al.
Fig. 7. Effect of pipe diameter on the critical flowrate for onset of CIWH.
Previous research has established an upper limit, commonly referred to
as the maximum critical flow rate, beyond which CIWH is unlikely to
occur (Chun and Yu, 2000). This limit is typically associated with a
Froude number of 1. However, in the current experimental study, CIWH
events were observed at Froude numbers significantly higher than 1,
within the experimental range of subcooling as shown in the Table 2.
This finding is consistent with similar observations reported by Urban
et al. (Urban and Schluter, 2014); who emphasized the crucial role
played by degree of subcooling and the Froude number in determining
the maximum flow rate at which CIWH cannot occur.
6. Conclusion
Extensive experiments are conducted on CIWH phenomenon in a
horizontal pipe filled with saturated steam when subcooled water is
9
Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
injected radially into it. The effect of pipe diameter, initial boxed-up
steam pressure, feed water temperature and water injection velocity
on the initiation of CIWH as well as peak pressure are brought out. The
main observations from the experiments are summarized as follows:
(a) Steam pressure and feed water temperature are found to have a
significant impact on the critical flow rate. At a given steam
pressure the critical feed water flow rate increases with reduction
in L/D ratio. The increase is more significant at lower initial
steam pressure. For a given pipe diameter and feed water tem­
perature, the critical flow rate required to initiate CIWH de­
creases as the steam pressure increases.
(b) The magnitude of the instantaneous pressure spike reduces with
increase in feed water temperature and increases with increase in
inlet velocity.
A. Dutta et al.
Fig. 8. Effect of feed water inlet velocity on CIWH peak pressure.
(c) The diameter of the pipe also played a role in determining the
critical flow rate. Larger pipe diameters required higher flow
rates for CIWH initiation.
(d) The initiation of CIWH event could be reproduced successfully.
However, the amplitude of peak CIWH pressure varied with each
experiment. This variability can be attributed uncertainties in
experimental conditions and also due to stochastic nature of the
phenomena itself.
(e) Only the lower limit of critical mass flow rate could be identified.
The upper limit could not be identified due to limitations in the
experimental setup.
(f) Based on a rigorous multiple nonlinear regression analysis of
experimental data, a correlation is developed in non-dimensional
form, in terms of geometrical and operating variables to predict
the minimum feed water flowrate necessary for triggering CIWH
10
Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164
in horizontal pipes. The regime map is developed based on the
correlation that demarcates the CIWH and non-CIWH zones.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Anu Dutta: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing
– original draft. I. Thangamani: Data curation, Investigation, Method­
ology. P. Goyal: Formal analysis, Validation, Visualization. V. Verma:
Writing – review & editing. J. Chattopadhyay: Supervision, Writing –
review & editing. Seik Mansoor Ali: Resources, Visualization, Writing –
review & editing. L. Raj: Investigation, Validation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
A. Dutta et al. Nuclear Engineering and Design 423 (2024) 113164

Fig. 9. Non-dimensional regime map for onset of CIWH based on experimental data.

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