Next Energy 2 (2024) 100088

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Next Energy
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/next-energy

Research article

Enhancing energy-saving potential of radiative cooling by integrating with

humidity control in hot-humid climates
Qihao Xu a, 1, Qiang Zhang a, 1, Dikai Xu a, b, Jingtao Xu c, Dongliang Zhao a, d, e, *
a
School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210096, China
b
Lyles School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
c
Ningbo Ruiling Advanced Energy Materials Institute Co., Ltd, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315500, China
d
Institute of Science and Technology for Carbon Neutrality, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210096, China
e
Engineering Research Center of Building Equipment, Energy, and Environment, Ministry of Education, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210096, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: For a long time, there have been abundant studies on the application of radiative cooling to save cooling energy,
Radiative cooling basically focused on solving sensible cooling loads. Although earlier research has achieved exciting results, there
Humidity control is also a requirement for further enhancing its energy-saving potential, especially in hot-humid climates that
Hot-humid climate
require humidity handling. A fiber-gel composite (FGC) that can simultaneously reduce sensible load and latent
Building energy-saving
load is proposed. In field tests, the FGC could maintain the relative humidity in a chamber within the comfortable
range between 45%RH to 65%RH during humid nighttime and could achieve 6 ºC more sub-ambient temperature
reduction than a pure radiative cooler during hot daytime. By applying an FGC-based window, simulation results
show that a building can save 11% more cooling energy compared to a pure radiative cooler in hot-humid
climates.

1. Introduction of radiative cooling material.

Radiative cooling material achieves cooling by emitting its heat
through the atmospheric window to the outer space [1]. As it requires no
energy input, radiative cooling holds great potential to alleviate the
energy crisis and contribute to carbon neutrality [2–4]. Recent de­
velopments in dynamic radiative cooling have significantly improved its
thermal management capabilities and demonstrated greater
energy-saving potential [5–11]. However, it is important to note that
focusing solely on spectral characteristics cannot overcome a funda­
mental limitation of radiative cooling: the cooling performance de­
teriorates in hot-humid climates. Fig. 1(a) shows sub-ambient
temperature reductions achieved by an ideal selective radiative cooler
under different temperatures and relative humidity conditions. Both
higher temperatures and relative humidity levels result in lower
sub-ambient temperature reductions. This can be attributed to factors
such as reduced atmospheric transparency, and increased parasitic heat
gain, including solar irradiation, non-radiative heat transfer, and
downward atmospheric radiation [12,13]. The reduced atmospheric
transparency cannot be overcome by dynamically tuning the spectrum
Earlier studies have improved the cooling performance of radiative
cooling at high-temperature conditions by integrating it with evapora­
tive cooling [14–17]. As shown in Fig. 1(b), at a certain relative hu­
midity, an evaporative cooler can achieve a larger sub-ambient
temperature reduction at higher ambient temperatures because the
ambiance can hold more vapor. Therefore, integrating with evaporation
is an efficient way to boost the cooling performance of radiative cooling
in hot-dry climates. However, evaporative cooling suffers from cooling
capacity degradation under humid conditions as well, meaning this
strategy is also restricted by high humidity. Once the sub-ambient
temperature reduction cannot be achieved, the application of radiative
cooling will be limited. For example, our previous research on applying
radiative cooling to pre-cool fresh air revealed a negative energy saving
in Singapore summer. Because poor cooling performance leads to the
above-ambient temperature of the processed fresh air, increasing both
sensible and latent heat load [18].
To save cooling energy, a larger radiative cooling power is preferred.
However, significantly enhancing the cooling capacity of radiative
cooling in hot-humid climates is challenging. There is also a

* Corresponding author at: School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210096, China.
E-mail address: dongliang_zhao@seu.edu.cn (D. Zhao).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxener.2023.100088
Received 17 September 2023; Received in revised form 25 November 2023; Accepted 28 November 2023
Available online 16 December 2023
2949-821X/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Q. Xu et al.
thermodynamic limit for the cooling power of radiative coolers [1].
Moreover, it is nearly impossible to achieve effective thermal insulation
between the radiative cooler and the ambient in real-world applications,
meaning that a radiative cooler usually cannot achieve good perfor­
mance as it is in lab-experimental conditions. Therefore, further
enhancing the energy-saving potential of radiative cooling in hot-humid
climates requires a novel strategy. In a hot-humid climate, cooling en­
ergy is not only consumed to lower the temperature but also to handle
humidity, with the latter accounting for about 20–40% of the total en­
ergy consumption in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems [19], largely due to the widespread use of overcooling and
reheating strategies [20]. Therefore, expanding the capabilities of
radiative cooling to include humidity control passively will enhance its
energy-saving performance. This can be realized by integrating radiative
coolers with hygroscopic materials such as Metal-organic frameworks or
hygroscopic salt-embedded composites [21–26]. Among them, hygro­
scopic salt-embedded composites have the advantage of low-cost and
scalable fabrication and adaptability over wide air humidity ranges
[27]. However, it’s worth noting that the humidity control materials
need to be indoors for dehumidification yet to be outdoors for effective
regeneration. Meanwhile, radiative coolers usually need to be outdoors
for cooling. Consequently, how to balance the need for dehumidifica­
tion, regeneration, and cooling is the key to enhancing the energy-saving
potential of radiative cooling.
Here, we propose a bilayer fiber-gel composite (FGC) to combine
radiative cooling and humidity control. The upper layer of the FGC is
capable of radiative cooling and is moisture-permeable. The bottom
layer is a hygroscopic gel that can manage moisture through sorption
Fig. 1. Design principles of the FGC. (a) The effect of ambient temperature and relative humidity on the sub-ambient temperature drop achieved by the ideal se­
lective radiative cooler. (b) The effect of ambient temperature and relative humidity on the sub-ambient temperature drop achieved by direct evaporative cooler. (c)
Analysis of cooling load during the day in hot-humid climate. (d) Structure and working mechanism of the FGC.
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Next Energy 2 (2024) 100088
and desorption. In the nighttime, the FGC could control the relative
humidity of a chamber (with natural ventilation) below 60%RH by
sorption. In the daytime, the FGC achieved a 6 ºC more sub-ambient
temperature reduction than a pure radiative cooler by evaporation. In
addition, we propose an operation strategy for integrating the FGC in
buildings to overcome the contradictory needs for dehumidification,
regeneration, and cooling. Energy-saving simulations were conducted.
The results show that the FGC can effectively reduce cooling energy
consumption by 11% compared to a pure radiative cooler on a typical
day in hot-humid climate.
2. Methodology
2.1. Materials design and fabrication
2.1.1. Design of the fiber-gel composite (FGC)
Nanjing, located in a subtropical hot climate zone, is selected as a
reference city to design the FGC. For occupied buildings, cooling is
aimed at realizing thermal comfort [28,29]. It is noted that high tem­
perature and high relative humidity occur at different times during a
typical day in summer (Fig. S1(a)). As recommended by ASHRAE,
temperature between about 20 ºC and 28 ºC and relative humidity be­
tween about 45%RH and 65%RH are required to achieve thermal
comfort [30,31]. As illustrated in Fig. 1(c), in the daytime, the relative
humidity is appropriate yet a lower temperature is needed. The tem­
perature at nighttime is lower than daytime, leading to a higher hu­
midity ratio (humidity content per kilogram of air) when the absolute
mass of moisture is constant in ambient air. This means that
Q. Xu et al.
dehumidification matters to achieve thermal comfort at night.
According to the aforementioned analysis, the FGC should generate
more cooling power in the daytime and be capable of dehumidification
at nighttime to better assist buildings in hot-humid climates in saving
cooling energy. To realize this function, the FGC is designed as a bilayer
structure. As depicted in Fig. 1(d), The upper layer is a porous radiative
cooling fiber. The porous structure can scatter sunlight and permit
moisture to get through. The bottom layer is a hygroscopic gel which is a
cellulose matrix loaded with calcium chloride (CaCl2). When the tem­
perature is above the deliquescence point, CaCl2 will absorb moisture
and exist in the form of a solution ultimately. At humid nights, due to the
existence of CaCl2 solution in the gel, the gel’s surface exhibits a lower
vapor pressure, enabling it to absorb moisture from the ambient. Driven
by the ion concentration gradient, the moisture is transported from the
surface and stored in the bulk gel. As the temperature becomes high in
the daytime, the ambient relative humidity decreases. Therefore, the
vapor pressure on the gel’s surface becomes higher than that of the
ambient, causing moisture to evaporate. The evaporated moisture
overcomes the transport resistance of the fiber and escapes into the
ambient. In addition, evaporation has been proven to improve the
cooling performance of radiative coolers in hot weather conditions [14,
16], The moisture sorption and desorption characteristics of the bottom
gel layer can be employed to enhance cooling performance in the day­
time and dehumidify in the nighttime.
2.1.2. Fabrication of the hygroscopic gel
Put 20 g of waste poplar powder in a 5 wt% sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution and heat for 5 h in a water bath at 80 ºC to remove
lignins and hemicellulose. After neutralizing with deionized water, the
as-prepared samples were bleached with acidified sodium chlorite
(NaClO2) solution at 90 ºC for 5 h to remove contaminants and then
neutralized with deionized water. The same procedures were carried out
5 times to obtain cellulose pulp. Then, the cellulose pulp and CaCl2 so­
lution were mixed and allowed to stand for 12 h. Subsequently, the as-
prepared suspension was poured into a circular mold with a diameter
of 6 cm and frozen under − 18 ºC for days. After freeze-drying, the hy­
groscopic gel can be obtained.
2.1.3. Fabrication of the FGC
First, put 3 g of PVDF-HFP powder into a solution composed of 14 g
of N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF), and 3.5 g of acetone (CO(CH3)2).
They were then heated in a water bath at 60 ºC and stirred thoroughly
for 40 min. Loaded in a syringe, the pre-suspensions can form a fiber on
the hygroscopic gel surface by electrospinning (15 kV 0.5 ml/h) at 30 ºC
to obtain the FGC.
2.2. Experimental methods
2.2.1. Characterizations
The optical characteristics of the PVDF-HFP fiber were measured by
UV–VIS–IR (Lambda 950, PerkinElmer) and Fourier transform infrared
spectrophotometer (FT-IR, Nicolet iS50). The morphology and micro­
structure of the PVDF-HFP fiber and gel were measured by scanning
electron microscope (SEM, ZEISS Gemini SEM 300). The Survey XPS
spectra of the gel and cellulose matrix were measured by Thermo Sci­
entific K-Alpha.
2.2.2. Measurement of dynamic sorption curve and sorption/desorption
cycling curve
The dynamic sorption experiments and sorption/desorption cycling
tests were conducted indoors. An environmental chamber (Sanwood
SMC-80-CC) was applied to maintain a space at the desired temperature
(with uniformity ± 1.5 ºC) and relative humidity (with uniformity ± 2%
RH). The environmental chamber maintains the temperature and rela­
tive humidity of a space by a PID control system. For the dynamic
adsorption test, set the temperature and relative humidity of the
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Next Energy 2 (2024) 100088
environment chamber as 28 ºC/40%RH, 28 ºC/60%RH, 28 ºC/80%RH,
and 28 ºC/95%RH separately first. Put the dry gel in the environmental
chamber after the temperature and relative humidity of the chamber are
stable. The mass change of the gel was recorded by a high-precision
electronic balance per minute (OHAUS PX224ZH/E). For the sorption/
desorption curves, change the temperature and relative humidity of the
environment chamber to 28 ºC/80%RH and 38 ºC/40%RH per 12 h
iteratively. The mass of the gel was also recorded by the high-precision
electronic balance.
3. Results and discussion
As shown in Fig. 2(a), FGC has two layers including a fiber as the
radiative cooler and a hygroscopic gel as the humidity controller and
evaporative cooler. Due to the pores being filled by the solution, the gel
is semi-transparent in the wet state. The surface scanning electron mi­
croscopy (SEM) image of the gel is presented in Fig. 2(b), revealing that
most of the pores on the gel surface have diameters exceeding 10 µm.
This suggests that the vapor pressure on the gel surface can be likened to
that of a pure CaCl2 solution. Additionally, the presence of these pores
increases the contact area between the gel and air, enhancing sorption
kinetics. Fig. 2(c) provides the SEM image of the gel cross-section,
demonstrating that the cellulose skeleton offers ample space for mois­
ture storage. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis (Fig. 2(d))
confirms the successful introduction of CaCl2, as evidenced by the ele­
ments Ca 2p, Cl 2p, and Cl 2 s located at around 346.6, 199.0, and
270.0 eV. From the EDS elemental mapping image shown in Fig. 2(b),
the Cl element is detected all over the gel surface, indicating the CaCl2 is
loaded widely on the gel surface. The Cl element was also detected
everywhere on the gel cross-section (Fig. 2(c)). Following the adsorption
of water molecules onto the gel surface, an ion concentration gradient is
established in the vertical direction, facilitating their absorption into the
gel interior. At constant temperature, the gel exhibits rapid and
continuous moisture uptake capacities under different relative
humidity.
As depicted in Fig. 2(e), the gel exhibits increased moisture absorp­
tion at higher relative humidity levels. After 15 h, the gel’s water uptake
(the same as water content, ratio of the mass of absorbed moisture and
mass of the dry gel) under relative humidity conditions of 40%RH, 60%
RH, 80%RH, and 95%RH was measured at 0.96 g/g, 1.39 g/g, 1.89 g/g,
and 2.45 g/g, respectively. It is noted that as the relative humidity in­
creases, the dehumidification load also increases. Such a moisture-
absorbing characteristic suggests that the gel’s dehumidification ca­
pacity aligns with the dehumidification requirements. To further
demonstrate the feasibility in practical application, a water sorption-
desorption cycling test was conducted under simulating temperature
and relative humidity of nighttime and daytime. 28 ºC /80%RH and 38
ºC /40%RH were selected to represent nighttime and daytime ambient
parameters because they are common air parameters in regions such as
the southeast part of China. As illustrated in Fig. 2(f), the water capacity
of the gel remains nearly unchanged even after ten cycles, demon­
strating the gel’s reliability in practical applications.
The upper layer of FGC is a porous radiative cooling fiber. The SEM
image of the fiber is shown in Fig. 2(g). The interwoven and stacked fiber
structure also forms connected holes, allowing water molecules to pass
through. According to the Mie theory (Note S2), the scattering efficiency
of fiber as the function of diameter is shown in Fig. 2(h). The micro-
nano-scale cylindrical fibers can effectively scatter sunlight. To ensure
high reflectivity, the thickness of the radiative cooling fiber was selected
as 1 mm [32]. Due to the abundant stretching and vibration of C-F bonds
on the surface, the fibers exhibit high emissivity in the mid-infrared
wavelength range [33]. As shown in Fig. 2(i), the reflectance of the
fiber in the solar wavelength range exceeds 96%, while its emissivity in
the atmospheric window exceeds 97%.
To investigate the cooling and humidity control performances of the
FGC, field tests were conducted. Cooling and humidity control
Q. Xu et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100088

Fig. 2. Characterization and performance of the FGC as humidity-controller and radiative cooler: (a) Photos of the FGC. (b) SEM images of the gel surface. (c) SEM
images of the cross-section of the gel. (d) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of the gel. (e) Dynamic sorption curves of the gel under different relative humidity. (f)
Water sorption-desorption cycling tests of the gel. (g) SEM images of the fiber. (h) Scattering efficiency of the infinite-long PVDF-HFP cylinder. (i) Reflectance/
Emissivity of the 1-mm-thick fiber in the AM1.5 solar spectra/infrared atmospheric window.

capabilities were tested separately at daytime and nighttime. The
experimental setups for humidity control are shown in Fig. 3(a). Two
chambers (28 cm × 16 cm × 18 cm) made of polystyrene foam were
covered with aluminum reflective films on the exterior. The samples
were placed above the opening of each chamber. The bottom of the
samples connects with the inside air. Polyethylene films covered the top
surface of the chamber to prevent direct moisture exchange between the
samples and the ambient air. The sides of the chambers featured square
vents with sides of 2 centimeters to allow natural moisture exchange
between the chambers’ interior and the external environment. Prior to
test, chambers and the samples were put in a room at 25 ºC and 45%RH
for a long time to reach moisture equilibrium. Subsequently, the vents
were sealed and the chambers were moved to the field. The control
group is the chamber with 1 mm-thick fibers (a pure radiative cooler).
After starting the data recording, the vents were opened. The relative
humidity in the chambers was recorded by humidity probes (with an
error of ± 2%RH). The setups for the cooling performance test are
shown in Fig. 3(b), the samples were put in polyethylene foam boxes
with grooves. The polyethylene film was not applied to demonstrate the
enhancement of cooling performance by evaporation. The temperature
was measured by K-type thermocouples (with an error less than ± 0.5
ºC) and was recorded with Keysight DAQ970A.
Figs. 3c and d depict the relative humidity in the chamber equipped
with FGC (FGC chamber) in comparison to the chamber equipped with
fiber (control group chamber). Before 5 a.m., during a period when
ambient relative humidity reached nearly 80%RH, it was observed that
the relative humidity in the FGC chamber exhibited a slower rate of
increase, maintaining levels lower than those observed in the control
group chamber. The relative humidity of the control group chamber had
already surpassed 65%RH, while the FGC chamber’s relative humidity
remained below 55%RH. Subsequent to 6 a.m., the ambient relative
humidity began to decrease rapidly and the relative humidity within the
control group chamber followed to decrease after about 1 h. However,
the FGC chamber exhibited no discernible decrease in relative humidity,
thus affirming the humidity control of the FGC. The ambient relative
humidity stayed below 45%RH from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. (the end of the
test). As shown in Fig. 3(d), the absence of FGC had a marginal impact on
the humidity differential between the ambient and the chambers during
daytime, both chambers maintained relative humidity levels between
about 50%RH and 55%RH. This can be attributed to the fact that the
surface vapor pressure of the FGC had already reached equilibrium with
the air inside the chambers with relative humidity between 50%RH and
55%RH. The relative humidity in the control group chamber, due to the
natural ventilation and the delay of moisture transfer, was also main­
tained within that range. Consequently, it is more appropriate to place
the FGC outdoors with lower relative humidity for regeneration during
the daytime to enhance its dehumidification performance at nighttime.
The cooling performance tests were conducted at noon on a hot day,
and the weather data is presented in Fig. 3(e). During the daytime, the
temperature was significantly high (over 40 ºC) (Fig. 3(f)). Before the

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Q. Xu et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100088

Fig. 3. Field tests of cooling and humidity control performances of the FGC: (a) The experimental setups for the humidity control tests. (b) The experimental setups
for the cooling performance test. (c) The relative humidity curves of the ambient air, the chamber with the FGC, and the chamber with fiber. (d) The humidity-control
performance of the FGC. (e) Ambient conditions during the cooling performance test. (f) Temperature curves of ambient air, the FGC, and fiber. (g) The sub-ambient
temperature reduction of the FGC and fiber.

cooling performance tests, the FGC was put in an environmental
chamber at 95%RH for an extended period to store moisture. The tem­
peratures of both the FGC and the pure radiative cooler (only the fiber
layer) were nearly the same as the ambient air at the beginning. The
results, as shown in Figs. 3f and g, indicate that even when the ambient
temperature exceeds 40 ºC, the FGC can achieve 8.5 ºC sub-ambient
temperature reduction, which is 6 ºC lower than that of the pure radi­
ative cooler. As the moisture within the FGC gradually depleted and
with a decrease in ambient temperature and solar irradiation intensity,
the temperature of the FGC and the fiber tended to converge.
To demonstrate the enhanced energy-saving potential of radiative
cooling in hot-humid climates through the combination of radiative
cooling and humidity control, we developed an air conditioning window
based on the FGC design. The FGC can be installed like a piece of glass
plate in a movable window. The air conditioning window can be
configured for either dehumidification or cooling mode. At nighttime,
the window can be positioned as indicated in Fig. 4(a-i), allowing the
FGC to absorb moisture from the indoor air. The sealer is designed to
prevent the FGC from absorbing moisture from the outdoor air. In the
daytime when sunlight is strong, the FGC can be adjusted to another
position (Fig. 4(a-iii)), enabling both radiative cooling and evaporative
cooling simultaneously. Before investigating the energy-saving poten­
tial, it is necessary to determine the sorption rate and evaporation rate of
the FGC in dehumidification and cooling modes. As illustrated in Fig. 4
(b), the sorption rate decreases with the increasing water content, and
the equilibrium moisture content of the gel at a certain humidity is
reached when the sorption rate is zero. The FGC’s sorption rate here is
only the function of its water content and the ambient relative humidity.
The temperature of the air-conditioned zone in the simulation is near 24
ºC and changes slightly. Besides, the sorption rate curves are obtained
from the dynamic sorption test and the temperature was set near 25 ºC,
close to the temperature of the simulated zone. Thus, the impact of the
temperature is not considered. It is worth noting that aside from the
sorption rate, the volume ratio between the FGC and the controlled
space also affects the dehumidification performance because the mass of
FGC per unit mass of the indoor air occupied changes. This has been
considered in this model. The relationship between the evaporation rate
and water content, as depicted in Fig. 4(c), indicates that evaporation
only occurs when the water content in the gel exceeds the equilibrium
moisture content of the gel at the environmental humidity level. Once
the sorption and evaporation rates are determined, it is possible to
predict the energy-saving potential of the air conditioning window. The

5
Q. Xu et al. Next Energy 2 (2024) 100088

Fig. 4. Energy-saving potential of the FGC in building applications. (a) Schematic of the proposed air conditioning window. (b) Relationship between sorption rate
and the FGC’s water content under different relative humidity. (c) Relationship between evaporation rate and the FGC’s water content under different relative
humidity. (d) Building prototype for the EnergyPlus simulation. (e) The predicted FGC’s water content in July of Nanjing (initial water content is 1.2 g/g, which is the
balanced water content of the gel achieved under 60%RH. (f) The cooling energy-saving performance of the window with a fiber layer (daytime radiative cooling
only), the window with a gel layer (nighttime dehumidification only), and both. (g) The total cooling energy and cooling energy savings in different cities of hot-
humid climates.

relevant models and simulation methods can be found in Note S3 and
Note S4. Due to the limitations of EnergyPlus software, the evaporative
cooling behavior on windows is not allowed. Given that windows pri­
marily affect the cooling load through solar transmittance and thermal
conduction, the outer fiber layer of the air-conditioning window can
reflect more than 96% of solar radiation and has a much smaller area
compared to the whole building surface, the influence of evaporative
cooling is neglected here. The evaporation model is to predict the
regeneration performance of the FGC in the daytime.
We selected a manufactured housing provided by the U.S. Depart­
ment of Energy to conduct the simulation. The reason for choosing this
building is that manufactured housings are the most possible buildings
for the application of air-conditioning windows. First, manufactured
housings are easier to renovate than commercial buildings, making it
more economical to install air-conditional windows. Second, the man­
ufactured housings are more likely built in off-grid regions, rural re­
gions, or just built for short-term usage. Applying an air-conditioning
window would be a good choice when access to electricity is difficult.
The details of this building are illustrated in Fig. 4(d). Four windows
share the same dimension and the total window area is 10.28 m2 in this
building. All the windows would be set by installing the air-conditioning
window during the simulation. The moisture content of the FGC in July
was calculated, and the results are presented in Fig. 4(e). In the initial
days of July, the relative humidity continuously increased due to rain,
leading to a continuous increase in the moisture content of the FGC. On
typical days, owing to the variation in relative humidity, the FGC
effectively absorbs moisture within the room during the nighttime and
evaporates it into the outdoor air during the daytime. The results are
displayed in Fig. 4(f). On the design day, compared to the window with
only a fiber layer (only radiative cooling) or a gel layer (only dehu­
midification), the air-conditioning window can save more cooling en­
ergy. It is noted that radiative cooling also plays an important role in
reducing cooling energy consumption, which can save 17% more energy
compared to the original window (decrease from 20.50 kW⋅h to
16.84 kW⋅h). Integrating dehumidification can lead to an additional
11% energy savings compared to windows with only radiative cooling
capability, reducing energy consumption from 16.84 kW⋅h to
14.95 kW⋅h. The windows only have a gel layer that can reduce the
cooling energy from 20.50 kW⋅h to 18.44 kW⋅h. For the whole summer,
even if rainy days occur, the air-conditioning window can still save 4.7%

6
Q. Xu et al.
more cooling energy on average compared to the window only with a
fiber layer. Besides, to demonstrate that this strategy is also effective in
other cities in hot-humid climates, six cities were also selected to
conduct the simulation. As shown in Fig. 4(g), the air-conditioning
window can help all cities save energy. This strategy performs better
in cities where the relative humidity varies significantly between day­
time and nighttime (Singapore, 5.16%; Shanghai, 4.34%; Tianjin,
4.35%). Even for cities that have a more stable humidity level each day,
such as Hongkong, Mumbai, and Miami, the air-conditioning window
can also help save more cooling energy.
4. Conclusions
This work proposes a fiber-gel composite (FGC) integrating radiative
coolers with humidity-control materials to enhance the energy-saving
potential because reducing the latent cooling load is realized. In field
tests, the FGC successfully controlled the relative humidity of the
enclosed space below 60%RH at humid night and achieved 6 ºC more
sub-ambient temperature reduction than the pure radiative cooler via
evaporation in the hot daytime. Finally, an air conditioning window
based on the FGC was proposed, and the cooling energy consumption of
a building was simulated using EnergyPlus after incorporating the
window. The results indicate that applying the FGC to buildings can
achieve 11% more energy savings compared to using pure radiative
cooling materials. However, radiative cooling still plays an important
role in reducing energy consumption. There is still room for improve­
ment in this work, including applying a more accurate simulating
method, conducting a real-world energy-saving experiment, and
exploring other strategies to enable radiative coolers to manage hu­
midity, etc.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Q. X.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Manuscript Writing. Q. Z.:
Methodology, Formal analysis, Manuscript Writing. D. X.: Manuscript
Revision. J. X.: Instruments supporting, Manuscript Reviewing. D. Z.:
Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding Acquisition, Manuscript
Reviewing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China under grant number 52276178. The authors are thankful to
anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and feedback. J.X
acknowledges the support from the Youth Innovation Project Program of
Ningbo under grant number 2023QL048.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at doi:10.1016/j.nxener.2023.100088.
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