INDO ARAB RELATIONS:

Arab World and India are two great nations and two pilgrimage centers. Both are holy places for the two nations in
their places. The Arians came to Punjab region of India from central Asia few thousand years ago and from there they
spread to Gangetic Valley. But Arab claimed that their relationship with India is not confined to few thousand years,
but they are related to it since their birth because this land is their father land. There are several narrations of Hadith
which stated, “When Adam was expelled from the heaven, he was dropped on worldly heaven that is called India.”

1. TRADE:
• India and Arab world are the two countries of the world which could be said as a neighbour. The ocean
bifurcated the two countries on which surface a long and spacious line connecting each other.
• Both countries are situated on two shores of the ocean. If one hand of this vast ocean is holding the Holy land of
Arabs, another hand is touching the feet of Aryawart of Hindus.
• Naturally the countries situated on the shore are involved in trade. The trade was the first relation which brought
the two nations together.
• Arab traders would come to the coastal area of India thousand years ago and would transport Indian goods to
Europe via Egypt and Syria as well as they would supply European goods to India, Indian Islands, China and Japan.
• Before the advent of Islam there were good relation between India and Arab peninsula and Indian goods were
very much in demand in Arab lands even some Indian were aware of Arabic and could talk in Arabic.

2. LABOUR:
• Apart from commercial relations there were manpower relations too.
• Sindh and Baluchistan were most of the time under the dominance of Iranian monarch. Arabs have mentioned
the two warrior tribes as Zat and Maid. Both are two famous tribes of Sindh.
• In 6th century A.D. when Iranian were defeated these brave Jatts were accepted in Islamic army with some
conditions and were respected by the commander of Islamic Army. During the Battle of Jamal, fourth caliph
Hazrat Ali trusted them and put the treasury of Basra under their supervision.
• Early records refer that Jatts were particularly well known in Arabia.

3. INDIA AND PROPHET MUHAMMED (PBUH):

• When the Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) embarked on his mission the relations between India and Arabia
strengthened especially in the field of social and religious affairs. An Indian raja is reported to have sent the
prophet a jar of ginger pickle which he himself tasted and shared also with his companions.
• It mentioned in the Hadiths that the distinctive features of Indian were known to him. Once a deputation of
some newly converted people of the tribe came to the prophet (PBUH). Seeing their faces, he remarked: “who
are these people who resemble the people of India.”

4. INDIA AND EARLY CALIPHS:

• Since India and the Indians were known to the Prophet Muhammed (PBUH)and Arabs, it was quite natural that it
attracts the attentions of the successors of prophet Muhammed (PBUH) known as caliphs.
• The people of Sarandip are reported to have sent a messenger to Arabia to collect direct information about the
Prophet Muhammed (PBUH). But when he reached Madina it was the period of the Caliph Umer and Prophet
Muhammed (PBUH) was already dead, even his first successor Caliph Abu Bakr was also dead.
• The first invasion occurred in 636 A.D. during the period of 2nd Caliph Umar as Arabs conquered Thana, which
was a small seaport, near Mumbai at the behest of Bahrain governor in 636.
• An Arab named Mughira has invaded Dibal the seaport of Sindh. All these invasions carried out to protect sea
routs.
• The 4th Caliph Ali has deputed permanently an Arab chief to take care of these areas in 660 A.D. 1st Ummayed
Caliph Mua’awiah has entrusted Muhallab with the duty of guarding the coast of Sind in 665 A.D.
5. REASONS BEHIND INVASION OF SINDH:
• It is said that during the period of Umayyad Caliph Walid, some Arab merchants, who were doing their business
in Sri Lanka, died. The king of Sri Lanka sent their women and children to Arab Lands by ship but on the way,
pirates plundered the ship in Diebal and took Muslim women and children as hostage.
• When governor of Iraq and eastern part of Umayyad Caliphate Hajjaj bin Yusuf came to know the incident, he
asked Raja Dahir to return these children and women. The king expressed his inability to return by saying that
they are not under his control.
• Hajjaj appointed his nephew Muhammad bin Qasim as head of the expedition of Sind in 712 A.D. He was just
seventeen years of age when he was entrusted with the task. Brave and resolute as a soldier, cool and cautious as
an administrator, he won the hearts of Indians by his integrity and by a genuine spirit of religious tolerance. With
an army comprising 6000 horsemen he achieved all his military objectives within three years and conquered an
area from the frontier of Multan to Kachh and up to frontier of Malwa. He established peace and stability in the
conquests and consolidated judiciary system there. As a result, he won the hearts of local population. He became
so popular in the local people that when he was recalled due to a change in political situation at home, local
people wept for him and erected statues of him.
• The contact between India and the Arab World, which was confined to the coastal areas and was limited mainly
to trade and commerce, after the invasion led to establishment of Arab rule in Sind and southern Punjab and
subsequently strengthened the political ties.

6. INTELLECTUAL CONTACTS BETWEEN INDIA AND ARAB:

• New era of intellectual and cultural relationships begun when Abbasid Caliphate established with its capital at
Baghdad in 750 A.D.
• It is worth mentioning that the translation works had been started during the Umayyad Caliphate. It is said that
during the Abbasid Caliph Abu Jafar Mansur, a deputation of scholars from Sind reached Baghdad. The Caliph
Abu Jafar Al-Mansur entrusted the task of the translation to his court mathematician Ibrahim Al-fazari with the
help of Pundit.
• The second book Aryabhatt was translated from Sanskrit into Arabic and named as “Arjina”. Third book rendered
into Arabic was known as “Arkan”.
• As for Indian medicine, many books were translated from Sanskrit into Arabic such as Shashrat, Charak, Nadan,
book of Pandit woman gynecologist Raosa etc.
• It is remarkable that An Indian Vaid Manka was invited to Baghdad for the treatment of Harun Al-Rashid. When
the Caliph recovered from his illness, he appointed Manka as superintendent of Translation bureau to supervise
the translation of Sanskrit works.

7. CONCLUSION:
Indo-Arab relations are generally attributed to the invasion of Sind by Muhammed Bin Qasim in 712 A.D. But it is a
totally wrong perception. Archaeological excavations across the two regions provide ample evidence that Indo- Arab
maritime and commercial ties go back to thousand years and the trade relations between the two regions as
mentioned above had been proved through Arabic books, Travelogue, Memoir, etc even before the advent of Islam.
Apart from this, Cheraman Jama Masjid built in 629 A.D. at the hands of Prophet Muhammed’s two Companions is a
tall proof that commerce and trade had played pivotal role in spreading Islam in India not the invasion and Indo-Arab
relations were not based on political antagonism but on friendly relationship.
TRADE RELATIONS:
• The Arabs have long known the land of India. The Indian subcontinent's relations with the Arabs have roots back
in the Sumerian era.
• In ancient times, there were commerce ties between Saudi Arabia, especially Yemen, Hadhramaut, Sindh and the
Malabar coast.
• Before the advent of Islam, the Arabs were living in Chul, Kalyan and Supara.
• In the era of the Agatha Sayyids, the Arabs lived in large groups on the Malabar coasts and the natives had
converted to their religions.
• Islam spread to India centuries before the Muslims invasion. Trade relations between the Arab world and India
were on the rise at that era.
• Travelers were commuting from both sides, and these relations and exchanges increased as a result. This made
the Indians be acquainted with the new religion Arabs had brought.
• Gradually, Muslim missionaries came to India and developed the new religion and were welcomed. There is
evidence that Islam arrived in the Indian subcontinent through merchants shortly after it was established on the
Arabian Peninsula.
• The first territories of the subcontinent to be exposed to this cultural transfer were the southern and western
coasts, especially such areas as Malaya, the Gulf of Kabila, Gujarat, Deccan, and Ceylon.
• During the time of Solomon, as mentioned in the Old Testament, Arab traders frequently used to visit the South
Indian coastal areas to buy spices. Some other Indian items like pan, chandan and coconut were also very
popular amongst Arab people.
• Horses, jewellery, and dates were among the prominent Arab items which had a huge demand in Indian markets.
• The Arab traders settled down along the coastal area of both Eastern and Western Ghats of South India. The
traditional commercial relations between these two regions should be understood with the fact that the
permanent settlements were built by Arab traders along the western coast of South India to facilitate a sustained
growth in the trade.
• In the pre-Islamic times, the barter system of trade was practiced on the southeastern coast of Arabian
Peninsula, where Indian items were exchanged with Syrian and Egyptian goods.

SOCIO – POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF INDIA AT THE

TIME OF TURKISH CONQUEST:

1. TRADE AND COMMERCE

• The economic situation, especially trade and commerce in the country during this period was a period of
stagnation and decline, a setback both of foreign trade and long-distance trade within the country, decline
of towns, and greater localism and regionalism. The virtual absence of gold coins till the tenth century is a
proof of this.
• After the rise of the Arab empire in the seventh century, the Arabs expanded the trade of the West to India,
Southeast Asia, and China. gold and silver continued to come to India in return for its favourable trade. That
is why India continued to be considered a country full of gold and silver, and hence an attractive prize for
foreigners to invade and trade with.
2. CONDITION OF SOCIETY
• The ministers, officials and feudal chiefs lived in great splendour. They aped the ways of the king in having
fine houses which sometimes were three to five storeys high. They used costly foreign apparel, costly jewels
and ornaments made of gold and silver to adorn their bodies. They maintained many women in their
households and had a train of domestic servants to look after them. They assumed high-sounding titles.
• While food stuffs were cheap, there were many poor people in the cities who could not get enough to eat.
The rate of the revenue demand from the peasant was one- sixth of the produce as before. However, there
were many additional cesses, such as grazing tax, tax on ponds, etc. The peasants had to pay these taxes
over and above the land-revenue. In addition, some of the grants gave the grantees the right to levy fixed or
unfixed, proper or improper taxes on the peasants. The peasants also had to render forced labour (vishti).
• Women were generally considered to be mentally inferior. Their duty was to obey their husbands blindly.
Women continued to be denied the right to study the Vedas. As for marriage, girls were to be given away by
their parents, between the ages of six and eight. The practice of sati was made obligatory.

3. RELIGION:
• Most of the Rajput rulers of the time were champions of Hinduism, though some of them also patronized
Jainism. They gave rich donations and grants of land to Brahmans and temples.
• Hinduism had about 9 crore gods.
• Ved and Upanishads were followed.
• Concept of rebirth.
• Brahmans were given many rights.

4. SOCIETY:
• The Rajput rulers stood forth as protectors of the privileges of the Brahmans and of the caste system
(Brahmans, kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudra). Thus, the system of charging a lower rate of land revenue for
Brahmans continued. Intercaste marriage was not allowed.
• Alcohol consumption was prevalent.
• Social evils such as sati and widow discrimination prevailed.
• Clothing was not modest.

5. EDUCATION:
• The Rajput rulers also patronized arts and letters. Many books and plays were written in Sanskrit during the
period under their partonage.
• Only Brahmans were allowed to study.
• Ujjain and Dhara, the capitals of the Paramara rulers, were famous centres for Sanskrit learning.
• The Jain scholars made significant contributions in this direction.
• The modern north Indian languages, such as Hindi, Bengali and Marathi began to emerge out of these
popular languages during this period.

6. ECONOMY:
• Trade and farming were the main sources of income. International trade were went about by the sea.
• Economy was agriculture based (farming) and Landlord system prevailed.
• Farmers did not own the land they cultivated. They gave ‘suud’ (loan) with 100 times interest rate. If unable
to pay, they became bonded labours for their landlords.

7. POLITICAL CONDITIONS:
After the death of Harash and before the Turkish invasion in the 11th and 12th centuries. Indian was not politically
united. It was not ruled by one single powerful ruler, but was divided into many petty kingdoms, which were
generally engaged in mutual quarrels and conflicts. Among them mutual jealousies and malice were widely prevalent
so much, so that they couldn't even unite to face the foreign invaders which posed a common danger to the whole of
the country. There was no mighty kingdom in the country that could bring about harmony and unity among that
small rulers and minor chiefs and lay the foundation of a powerful empire in the county. At the time of Mahmud
Ghaznavi’s invasion and at the end of 12th century there were several Rajput states in north India and similarly there
were many independent kingdom ruled by different dynasties in southern India. In northern India, except Rajputs
states, there were some Muslim state also which were ruled over the different Rajputs dynasties.

• The first of these was the kingdom of the Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
• The second were the Rathor Ghadwals with Kanauj as its capital. Personal and political considerations had
made him a determined rival to Prithviraj Chauhan.
• The third important kingdom was that of the Senas who ruled over eastern India. Their power was
declining rapidly.
• The Solankis of Gujarat was the fourth powerful house.
• By the end of the ninth century, the Abbasid caliphate was in decline. Its place was taken by a series of
states ruled by Islamized Turks.
• The
i. continuous incursion of the Turkish tribesmen from Central Asia
ii. mercenary character of the Turkish soldiers
iii. strife between different Muslim sects made the period a restless one.
• The break-up of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire led to a phase of political uncertainty in north India.

THE GHAZNAVIDS
➢ The ‘ghazis’ were soldiers who were a missionary as a fighter.
➢ Samanids were Iranians by descent, fought with non-muslim Turkish tribesmen.
➢ Among the Samanid governors was a Turkish slave, Alp-tigin, who, in course of time, established an
independent kingdom with its capital at Ghazni.
➢ It was in this context that Mahmud ascended the throne (998— 1030) at Ghazni.
➢ Mahmud is considered a hero of Islam by medieval Muslim historians because of his stout defence
against the Central Asian Turkish tribal invaders.
➢ While Mahmud played an important role in the defence of the Islamic states against the Turkish tribes
and in the Iranian cultural renaissance, in India his memory is only that of a plunderer and a destroyer of
temples. Mahmud is said to have made seventeen raids into India.

THE RAJPUTS
➢ With the break-up of the Pratihara empire, a number of Rajput states came into existence in north India.
i. Gandhara of Khandar {Ashoka, Shatriya, Jaypal (fought with Mahmud Ghaznavid)
ii. Harsh of Kashmir {independent rule}
iii. Chauhans of Ajmer & Delvi {Prithviraj Chauhan III got defeated by Mohammed Ghori}
iv. Gujjars of Gujarat
v. Sen & Pal of Bengal
➢ The most famous among the Chauhan rulers was Prithviraj III who ascended the throne at the young age
of eleven in or about 1177 but took the reins of administration in his hands when he was sixteen.

ESTABLISHMENT
• Towards the middle of 12th century, a new power rose to prominence, the Ghurid empire based in Ghur in north
west Afghanistan.
• The power of Ghurids increased under Sultan Allahuddin who earned the title of the world burner (jahan-soz)
because in the middle of the 12th century, he ravaged Ghazni and burnt it to ground in revenge.
• They could not expand in Central Asia, their only option was India.
• In 1173, Shahabuddin Muhammad (Muhammad Ghori) ascended the throne at Ghazni.
• IN NORTH INDIA: The Chauhans power was steadily growing.
• They defeated and killed a large number of Turks who tried to invade Rajasthan.
• Thus a battle between these two ambitious rulers was inevitable.

THE BATTLE OF TARAIN

➢ The First Battle of Tarain, was fought in 1191 between the invading Ghurid army led by Muhammad of
Ghori and the Rajput Confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan, near Tarain. The battle ended in decisive victory
for the Rajputs; however, Muhammad of Ghor managed to escape and returned to Ghazni.

➢ The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 between the Ghurid forces of Muhammad Ghuri and
the Rajput Confederacy of Prithviraj Chauhan. It took place near Tarain, which is 110 kilometres north
of Delhi. The battle ended in a decisive victory for the invading Ghurids and their successful penetration in
north Indian plain.
➢ The battle is regarded as a watershed event in Medieval India history as it led to the destruction of Rajput
powers for a while and laid the foundation of Muslim rule in North India, which led to the establishment
of Delhi Sultanate.

THE DELHI SULTANATE

1. SLAVE DYNASTY [1206-1290]

Qutub-ud-din-Aibak (Reign: 1206 – 1210)

➢ Qutub-ud-din-Aibak was born in Central Asia to Turkic parents. He was sold to a local Qazi as a slave and
raised in Persia.
➢ He eventually became a slave of Muhammad of Ghor (also called Muhammad Ghori). Aibak was able to
prove himself in the service of Ghori and was appointed to a military position.
➢ Ghori conquered Delhi in 1193 and returned to Khorasan leaving his Indian conquests to the care of Aibak.
➢ He annexed the region between the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. His lieutenant Bakhtiyar Khilji conquered
Bihar and Bengal. Aibak fought against the Rajput rulers who were resisting the Muslim invasions.
➢ After Ghori’s assassination in 1206, Aibak became the de facto ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. He was crowned
in Lahore, Pakistan whereto he moved his capital.
➢ Aibak was the first Muslim Sultanate ruler in northern India. The dynasty he established is known as the
Slave Dynasty or the Mamluk Dynasty.
➢ He built mosques in Delhi and other areas. The Quwwat-ul-Islam or Might of Islam Mosque is the earliest
surviving mosque in India and stands in the Qutb Minar enclosure in Delhi. Its foundation was laid by Qutb-
ud-Din Aibak. He was known as a generous king in times of peace and was honoured with the
title Lakhbaksh.
➢ He is most remembered for laying the foundation of the Qutb Minar in Delhi. It was named after a Sufi saint
Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. Qutb Minar was completed by Aibak’s successor and son-in-law
Iltutmish. It is a 240 ft tall tower. The construction was started in about 1192. The ground storey of the
Minar was constructed over the ruins of the Lal Kot which was built by the Tomars.
➢ He died in a polo accident in 1210 aged about 60. He was succeeded by his son-in-law Shams ud-Din
Iltutmish.
➢ His tomb is in Lahore.
Iltutmish (Reign: 1211 – 1236)

➢ Aram Shah was a weak ruler. It is not clear whether he was a son of Aibak or not. He was conspired against
by a group of nobles who invited Shamsuddin Iltutmish to be the ruler.
➢ Iltutmish was a son-in-law of Aibak. He ruled Ghurid regions of northern India.
➢ He was a Turkic slave born in Central Asia.
➢ Iltutmish was the greatest of the slave rulers of Delhi. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.

Invasions & Policies:

➢ Iltutmish’s forces captured Bihar in the 1210s and invaded Bengal in 1225.
➢ During the first half of the 1220s, Iltutmish neglected Indus River Valley, which was contested between the
Mongols, the Khwarazm kings, and Qabacha. Post the decline of the Mongol and the Khwarazmian threat,
Qabacha took over the region, but Iltutmish invaded his territory during 1228-1229.
➢ He defended his empire against Mongol invaders and also resisted the Rajputs.
➢ In 1221, he stopped an invasion led by Genghis Khan.
➢ He completed the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar.
➢ He set up administrative machinery for the kingdom.
➢ He built mosques, waterworks and other amenities at Delhi, making it fit to be the seat of power.
➢ He died in 1236 and was succeeded by his daughter Razia Sultana as he did not consider his sons equal to the
task.

Razia Sultana (Reign: 1236 – 1240)

➢ Born in 1205 as Iltutmish’s daughter.

➢ Was given a sound education by her father.
➢ She was the first and last Muslim woman to rule over Delhi.
➢ Also known as Razia al-Din.
➢ Before ascending to the throne of Delhi after her father’s death, the reign was briefly handed over to her
half-brother Rukn ud-din Firuz. But after Firuz’s assassination within 6 months of his ascendency, the nobles
agreed to place Razia on the throne.
➢ She was known as an efficient and just ruler.
➢ She was married to Malik Ikhtiar-ud-din Altunia, the governor of Bathinda.
➢ She was reportedly killed by her brother’s forces.
➢ Her brother Muizuddin Bahram Shah succeeded her.

Ghiyas ud din Balban (Reign: 1266 – 1287)

➢ The next notable ruler after Razia.

➢ Ninth Sultan in the Mamluk dynasty.
➢ He was the wazir of the grandson of Iltutmish, Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud.
➢ Born of Turkish origins, his original name was Bahauddin.
➢ He was purchased as a slave by Iltutmish. He rose up the ranks quickly.
➢ He carried out successful military campaigns as an officer.
➢ After Nasir’s death, Balban declared himself the Sultan as the former did not have any male heirs.
➢ He carried military and civil reforms in administration which earned him the position of the greatest
Sultanate ruler after Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji.
 ➢ Balban was a strict ruler and his court was the symbol of austerity and strict obedience to the emperor. He
even demanded that people prostrate before the king.
➢ He laid out severe punishments to the slightest of offences by his courtiers.
➢ He had a spy system to keep his nobles in check.
➢ He introduced the Persian festival of Navroz in India.
➢ Punjab saw large-scale conversions during his rule.
➢ After his death, his grandson Qaiqubad succeeded him at the throne of Delhi.
➢ Qaiqubad died of a stroke in 1290 and was succeeded by his three-year-old son Shamsuddin Kayumars.
➢ Kayumars was murdered by Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji, thus ending the Mamluk Dynasty to replace it with
the Khalji Dynasty.

2. KHALJI DYNASTY

Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296)

➢ His real name was Malik Feroz Khilji
➢ He is remembered as a benevolent ruler. Thus also known as a ‘Saint ruler’
➢ The most important retaliation during his reign was of Sidi Maula, which was suppressed by him.
➢ Mongols attacked India under the leadership of Abdullah, whom he referred to as his son. Post this, a group
of Mongols in the leadership of Ulgu settled at Delhi. They were known as ‘New Muslims’
➢ Jalaluddin appointed Alauddin as the Iqtedar of Haasi and Kada. He was Jalaluddin’s nephew
➢ Alauddin was an extremely ambitious person. He sought permission to attack Gujarat and South India from
Jalaluddin. He attacked Milsa (Gujarat) in 1293 and Devgiri (Maharashtra) in 1294. Alauddin got excessive
wealth during this attack. This wealth should ideally have been submitted in the central treasury of the state;
however, he kept it with himself
➢ Upon enquiry, Jalaluddin was called by Alauddin to a place called Kada to submit the wealth. Jalaluddin was
however killed by Alauddin in Kada

• In 1296 A.D. Ala-ud-din Khilji succeeded Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji and ascended the throne.

Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.)

1. Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the North

➢ Ala-ud-din Khiliji’s generals namely, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan conquered Gujarat.
➢ He captured Ranthambore and killed Hamir Deva its ruler.
➢ He also captured Malwa, Chittor, Dhar, Mandu, Ujjain, Marwar, Chanderi and Jalor.
2. Ala-ud-din Khilji Invasions in the South

➢ He was the first Sultan who attacked South India.

➢ He sent his confidante and general Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south.
➢ Prataprudra-II of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava king of Devagiri, and Vira Ballala-III
the Hoysala king were defeated.
➢ He constructed a mosque in Rameswaram.
➢ The kingdoms of the south acknowledged the power of Alauddin Khilji and paid his monetary tributes.
3. The Mongol Invasion

➢ Ala-ud-din successfully resisted the Mongol invasion more than 12 times.

 4. Domestic Policies of Alauddin Khilji

➢ Ala-ud-din followed the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.

➢ He introduced four ordinances to prevent repeated revolts.
➢ He impounded pious grants and free grants of lands.
➢ He restructured the spy system.
➢ He banned social parties and wine.
➢ He introduced a permanent standing army.
➢ He started the system of branding of horses and descriptive roster of individual soldiers to inhibit
corruption.
➢ He fixed the prices of necessary commodities which were below the normal market rates.
➢ He strictly prohibited black marketing.
➢ Revenue was collected in cash and not in kind.
➢ He followed discriminatory policies towards the Hindus and imposed the Jizya, a grazing tax and a house
tax on the Hindu community.
5. Marketing System

➢ Officers called Diwan-i-riyasat were appointed in the offices called Shahana-i-mandi to standardize the
market.
➢ Merchants should have to register themselves in the office (Shahana-i-mandi) before selling their goods
at the fixed rates.
6. Successors after Ala-ud-din-Khilji

➢ Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-1320 A.D.)

➢ Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah (1320A.D.)
His successors were weak.

7. End of the Dynasty

➢ Ala-ud-din Khilji died in 1316 A.D.

➢ Successors of Ala-ud-din-Khilji were weak rulers.
➢ Eventually, in 1320 A.D. the Governor of Punjab Ghazi Malik led a group of nobles, conquered Delhi and
captured the throne.
➢ Ghazi Malik assumed the name ‘Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq’ at Delhi and founded the Tughluq Dynasty, a
dynasty of rulers.

i. Market Policy of Alauddin Khalji

Alauddin’s measures to control the markets were one of the most important policy initiatives. Since Alauddin
wanted to maintain a large army, he, therefore, lowered and fixed the price of the commodities of daily use.
i. Principle of Market Reform:

➢ The basic principle which Alauddin set for his market policy were division of market, price control and set
up market administration for proper regulation.
➢ Alauddin came very near to the Marxist principle that prices depend upon the social necessary labour and
labour time. But Marx was dealing with a free market which had grown up because of capitalism, industrial
competition etc. Whereas Alauddin had to impose the calculated price according to production cost in
medieval society.
ii. Division of Market:
After fixing the price of commodities Alauddin went for division of market. He divided the market broadly into
three categories.
a) The Central grain market or Mandi with subsidiary control shops in every mohallas of the city.
b) The Ser-i-adl, an exclusive market for cloths and luxury items.
c) Market of slaves, horses and cattles.

a) Mandi/Central Grain Market:

The prices per month prescribed by the government was as follows:
a) Wheat - 7,1/2 jital (1Jital = 2/3 of tola)
b) Barley - 4 jital
c) Rice - 5 jital
d) Pulses - 5 jital
e) Gram - 5 jital
During Alauddin's rule there was no famine in delhi and there was no rise in the prices of commodities.
b) Sher-i-Adl (Cloth market):
The Sher-i-Adl was like a supermarket for manufactured item. This market was also for the items purchased
from outside and overseas. The Sultan's ordinance proclaimed that all items ranging in price from 1 tanka
to 10,000 tanka should be brought to Sher-i-Adl and must be sold at fixed price. The items sold in the
market were cloths and luxury goods.
c) Market of Slaves or Horses:
Apart from these two markets there were markets where slaves and horses of different kind were sold. The
price of the commodities was fixed according to quality. He also eliminated middlemen and subjected the
brokers to intense supervision and ensure periodical personal review by the king.
iii. Impact of Market Policy:
a. Government was one who was benefitted.
b. They purchased grain from the farmers, at much lower than the official controlled rate.
c. Govt achieved its objective of maintaining a large standing army at very low salaries.
d. Became a source indirect taxation for the state.
iv. Impact on Merchants and Traders:
Price of commodity that too at a very low-price severe policy left no initiative for the trader and industry to
flourish.
v. Impact on Artisans, Manufacturers and Craftsman:
suffered an economic setback because reduction in price forced them to reduce the payment of raw material
and skilled labour.
vi. Impact on the farmers and the common people:
Most affected class were however the farmers or the cultivator the revenue regulation of the Sultan was meant
to crash the rich middlemen most of them resided out of Delhi and the price control theory was only prevalent in
Delhi and areas around it.
To ensure implementation, Alauddin appointed a superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi) who was assisted by an
intelligence officer. Any violation of the Sultan’s orders resulted in harsh punishment, including expulsion from
the capital, imposition of fine, imprisonment and mutilation.

Tughluq Dynasty
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
• He became the Sultan of Delhi after his father's death
• The Sultan believed in the Divine Right theory of kingship.
• Following a liberal policy, he appointed officials irrespective of caste, creed, or religion. He did not
discriminate against his Hindu subjects.
• He undertook a policy of conquest and sent expeditionary forces to Khurasan, Nagarkot, Qarajal, Mewar,
Telingana, and Malabar. Diplomatic relations were established with many Asian countries.
• His empire was the most extensive one among the medieval Sultans.
• He constructed the Royal residence of Jahanpanah along with the Begumpuri mosque.
Experiments

1. Transfer of Capital
• The most controversial step was the so-called transfer of the capital from Delhi to Deogir
(Daulatabad).

REASONS: Deogir had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in south India.
Muhammad Tughlaq himself had spent a number of years there as a prince.
Previous attempts to bring the entire south India under the direct control of Delhi had led to serious
political difficulties.
Many Muslim nobles had tried to take advantage of this situation to proclaim their independence there.
Thus, To safeguard the capital from Mongol invasion and to have better control over south India

• Only the upper classes, such as the shaikhs, nobles, and ulema, were required to move to Daulatabad,
• while the rest of the population remained in Delhi.
• Official pressure was exerted on officials, saints and nobles to migrate.
• Liberal grants were also provided to them, and arrangements made for their stay
• He also built a road from Delhi to Daulatabad and set up rest houses on the way, as Deogir was 1500 km
away.

• Eventually, due to growing discontent and the realisation that it was difficult to control the northern
territories from the south, Muhammad bin Tughlaq decided to abandon Daulatabad as the capital.
Advantages
• Brought North and South India closer together by improving communications.
• Many people who had gone to Daulatabad, settled down there. They became the means of spreading in the
Deccan the cultural, religious and social ideas which the Turks had brought with them to north India.
• This resulted in a new process of cultural interaction between North and South India.

2. Token Currency
• Another controversial project undertaken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the introduction of “Token
Currency”.
• There was a shortage of silver in the world in the fourteenth century and India had to face the crisis.
Therefore, the Sultan was forced to issue copper coins instead of silver.
• He introduced a copper coin (Jittal) and ordered that it be accepted as equivalent to the tanka.
• The government could not prevent people from forging new coins which flooded the markets.
• According to Barani, the people began to mint token currency in their houses. However, the common
man failed to distinguish between copper coins issued by the royal treasury and those which were
locally made. Thus, the Sultan was forced to withdraw the token currency.

3. Khurasan & Qarachil Expedition were carried out to secure its frontiers and resolve boundary disputes,
however both failed.

4. Agrarian Reforms
• Muhammad Tughlaq launched a scheme to extend and improve cultivation in the doab. He set up a
separate department called diwan-i-amir-i-kohi.
• But it failed because the men chosen for the purpose proved to be inexperienced and dishonest.

5. Challenges of a Diverse Nobility

• With the downfall of the Chahalgani Turks and the rise of the Khaljis, the nobility was drawn from
Muslims belonging to different races.
• This diverse composition led to a lack of cohesiveness and loyalty among the nobles.
• The vast empire provided opportunities for rebellion and the establishment of independent spheres
of authority. Muhammad Tughlaq's harsh punishments further fueled this trend.
• As a result, his reign marked both the zenith of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of its
disintegration.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

The cousin of Muhammad Tughlaq, ascended the throne in 1351 and ruled until 1388. Although not a capable
military leader like his predecessors, the Sultan was a great builder of cities, monuments, and public buildings.

Achievements
Worked for the development of infrastructure in his kingdom.
1. Diwan-i-Khairat: Office for charity
2. Diwan-i-Bundagan: Department of slave
3. Sarais (Rest House): For the benefit of merchants and other travellers
4. Four New Towns: Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar
5. He constructed canals from:
Yamuna to the city of Hissar
Sutlej to the Ghaggar
Ghaggar to Firozabad
Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana

Taxes
Kharaj: Land tax which was equal to one-tenth of the produce of the land
Zakat: Two and a half percent tax on property realised from Muslims
Kham: One-fifth of the booty captured (four-fifth was left for the soldiers)
Other Taxes: The irrigation tax, garden tax, octroi tax and the sales tax

Rise to Power
• During Muhammad Tughlaq's reign, there were repeated rebellions across his empire, particularly in South
India. These uprisings were organised by local governors and caused significant strain on his armies.
• Muhammad Tughlaq's forces were further weakened by a devastating plague, resulting in the death of two-
thirds of his army.
After ascending to power, Firoz Tughlaq faced the challenge of preventing the disintegration of the Delhi
Sultanate. He pursued a policy of appeasement towards the nobles, army, and theologians while asserting
authority over easily manageable areas.
• He did not attempt to regain control over South India and the Deccan.

Policies

Administrative: His reign brought a period of peace and gradual development.

He implemented a decree allowing the succession of positions and iqta (land grants) to the sons, sons-in-law, and
slaves of deceased nobles.
He abolished the practice of torturing nobles and officials during account audits. These measures pleased the nobles
and minimised rebellions.

Military: He extended the principle of heredity to the army, allowing old soldiers to be replaced by their sons, sons-
in-law, or slaves. Soldiers were no longer paid in cash but instead received assignments on land revenue from
villages.

Religious: He aimed to appease the theologians by proclaiming himself a true Muslim king and emphasising that his
state was truly Islamic. To maintain the theologians' satisfaction, some were appointed to high offices, although the
judiciary and educational system remained under their control. He boycotted the practices in the kingdom, the
scholars deemed un-Islamic. Reimposed Jizyah.

Humanitarian: banned inhuman punishments such as cutting of hands, feet, nose, for stealing and other crimes
set up hospitals for free treatment of the poor, and ordered the kotwals to make lists of unemployed persons.
He provided dowries for the daughters of the poor.

Art and Culture

Firuz Tughlaq was the first ruler who took steps to have Hindu religious works translated from Sanskrit into
Persian, so that there may be a better understanding of Hindu ideas and practices.
Many books on music, medicine and mathematics were also translated from Sanskrit into Persian during his reign.
Fall of Tughluqs
The causes which led to the downfall of Tughluq dynasty are:- 1. The Annexation of the South 2. The Failures of
Muhammad Tughluq 3. The Weaknesses of Firuz Tughluq 4. Incompetence of the Successors of Firuz 5. The
Incompetence and Demoralization of the Nobility 6. Invasion of Timur.

Cause # 1. The Annexation of the South:

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq adopted the policy of annexing the conquered territories of the South. Muhammad Tughluq
led it to perfection. But this policy proved against the permanent interest of their empire. Due to lack of proper
means of communication and transport, it had been always difficult for every emperor of the North to keep the
South under his control for long.
India could not be united under one rule till modern times during the period of the British when means of
communication and transport became well-developed. That remained the fact in case of the Tughluqs also.
The South became independent during the later period of Muhammad Tughluq who himself had been primarily
responsible for its conquest. Thus, the conquest of the South by the Tughluqs brought no advantage to them. On the
contrary, it adversely affected the resources and the strength of the empire.

Cause # 2. The Failures of Muhammad Tughluq:

Muhammad Tughluq failed both in his foreign and internal policy. While Bengal and the South regained
independence and the hold of the Delhi Sultanate became weak over Gujarat and Sind, no significant territory could
be added to the empire permanently. The same way, all his schemes of reform failed miserably and brought
economic ruin to the empire.
Besides, his policies and severe measures resulted in widespread revolts at different places which taxed further the
energy and resources of the empire. Muhammad Tughluq, thus, failed to protect and consolidate even that empire
which he had inherited from his father. He bequeathed to Firuz a shrinking and bankrupt empire. Therefore,
Muhammad Tughluq was largely responsible for the downfall of his dynasty.

Cause # 3. The Weaknesses of Firuz Tughluq:

Firuz, no doubt, succeeded in restoring economic prosperity to the empire and did many useful works of public
welfare. But, his imprudent generosity, laxity in administration, slave- system, policy of intolerance towards the
Hindus, restoration of the prestige and influence of the Ulema in matters of the state and neglect to build up military
strength of the empire went against the permanent interests of the state. Firuz, in fact, failed to restore the prestige
and power of the Delhi Sultanate which alone could provide it longer life.

Cause # 4. Incompetence of the Successors of Firuz:

Among the successors of Firuz, in fact, no one deserved to be the Sultan of Delhi. Firuz died at a ripe age of nearly 80
years and his two elder sons, who could be competent, died during his life-time. His third son Muhammed was a
pleasure-seeker and therefore, was devoid of his right to the throne.

Firuz nominated Tughluq Shah, son of his late eldest son as his successor. Prince Muhammad fought both against
Tughluq Shah and his successor Abu Bakr. He succeeded but conflicts between royal princes gave chance to nobles at
the court and governors of provinces to increase their power and influence at the cost of successive Sultans.
Thus, later Tughluqs proved incompetent and ineffective in matters of the state and Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud,
the last ruler of the dynasty met an ignoble death. During medieval age, the fate of the state was largely determined
by the character, personality and military strength of the Sultan. The incompetence of later Tughluqs, therefore, was
certainly very much responsible for the downfall of the empire.

Cause # 5. The Incompetence and Demoralization of the Nobility:

Nobles and provincial governors of later Tughluqs took advantage of incompetence of their rulers. Those who were
ambitious and competent established independent kingdoms out of the ruins of the empire and those who were
incompetent stuck to the court engaging themselves in corruption and luxuries. None of them proved competent
and whosoever was competent was disloyal to the Sultan and therefore, worked against the interest of the Delhi
Sultanate.
Cause 6: Mongol Invasions
The worst of the Mongol raids took place in 1398 under the leadership of Timur, a central Asian Turk, who
maintained that the Tughluqs were not good Muslims and therefore had to be punished.
The provinces of Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur took the opportunity to proclaim their independence.
Timur, having sacked Delhi, returned to central Asia, leaving a nominee to rule in the Punjab.

The Tughluq line ended but the Sultanate continued. Timur’s nominee captured Delhi and was proclaimed the new
Sultan, the first of the Sayyid dynasty was established.

Administration

Central Administration:
The central administration in the Delhi sultanate during the period of Ilbari Turks (slave dynasty) was
carried out mainly by trusted slaves who had helped the sultan to acquire the throne; or by the members of
the royal household and family.
• Sultan
Head of the State (khalifa) and administration with all military, administrative and legal powers.

• Diwani-Wizarat
Most important office after sultan, headed by the Wazir-e-Azam ( PM)
o He had under him a naib wazir.
o The wazir was a general supervisor of all departments in the royal court.
o Primary function: financial organisation of state, advice to the sultan, occasionally, led military
expeditions at the sultan’s behest.
• Supervising the payment to the army.
• Kept a check on land revenue collections
• Charitable donations such as waqfs and inams.

o Minor Departments under this office:

• Mustaufi-i-Mumalik: Auditor General, in charge of expenditure
• Mushrif-i-Mumalik: Accountant General, in charge of income
• Majmuadar: keeper of loans and balances from treasury
• Diwan-i-Waqoof: Jalaluddin Khalaji to supervise expenditure
• Diwan-i-Mustakhraj: set by Alauddin Khalaji to enquire into and realise areas of revenue
payments from the different parts of the empire
• Diwan-i-Amir Kohi: set under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, responsible for bringing uncultivated
land into cultivation through state support.

• Diwan-i-Arz
look after the military organisation of the empire.

o Ariz-i-Mumalik: headed diwan-i-arz

Ariz, and his office, maintained the royal contingents, recruited the soldiers, and ensured the
discipline and fitness of the army.
o Naib-Ul-Mulk: The Naib was the deputy of Ariz and was supposed to assist him in his
many administrative chores.

o Alauddin Khilji introduced the dagh (branding) and huliyah (description) system and cash payment
to soldiers.
o Firuz Tughlaq removed dagh and huliyah; however, Muhammad Tughlaq continued the dagh
system.
• Under Sikandar Lodi huliyah was referred to as chehrah

• Diwan-i-Insha: Headed by the Dabir-i-Khas, looked after the department of royal correspondence.
o The Dabir was the formal channel of communication between the centre and the other areas
of the empire and was also a private secretary to the Sultan.
 • Diwan-i-Riyasat: Important office during the reign of Alauddin.
o Function: registered all the supplies of commodities and maintained standards in the
markets [such as checking weights and measures, etc.].

• Diwan-i-Risalat: Ministry of External Affairs.

Exchanging communication with other kings, sending gifts, and announcing new territories conquered to the
Kings of neighbouring countries

• Sadr-Us-Sudoor: Presided by a learned Aalim, Religious head of country.

o All religious and educational instituions (masjids, madrasas) came under this
o Also handled all the awqaaf (property of waqf)

• Diwan-i-Mazalim: Headed by the Amir-i-Dad in the absence of the Sultan.

o His role was to supervise the qadis, kotwal (police) and muhtasib (Executive officer who
supervised and enforced public morals and public conveniences).

• Diwan-i-Qaza
Headed by Qaziul Mumalik or Qaziul Quzaat, Chief Justice of state,
Carry out justice and implement islamic shari'ah in kingdom

• Diwan-i-Bareed
Spy system and intelligence was a part of this
Headed by bareed-i-mumalik, who would report directly to sultan

• Small departments: the royal household [headed by the Wakil-i-Dar], court ceremonies [led by
the Amir-i-Hajib], royal bodyguards [under the Sar-i-Jandar].

Army Organisation:
• Barani, in his Tarikh-I-Firoz Shahi, discusses the army organisation.
• The contingents stationed at Delhi were called Hasham-i-qalb and included, among others, royal
slaves and guards.
• Provincial contingents were called hasham-i-atraf.
• Garrisons are mentioned in the time of Qutbuddin Aibak, which were placed under Kotwals.
• The central government directly paid soldiers in cash during the Khiljis and Tughlaqs. Sometimes
soldiers were also paid through itlaq (drafts).
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526-1857)
The political situation in northwest India was suitable for Babur’s entry into India. Sikandar Lodi had died in 1517,
and Ibrahim Lodi had succeeded him. Ibrahim’s efforts to create a strong, centralised empire had alarmed the
Afghan chiefs as well as the Rajputs. One of the most powerful of the Afghan chiefs was Daulat Khan Lodi, the
governor of the Punjab, who was almost an independent ruler. Daulat Khan attempted to conciliate Ibrahim Lodi by
sending his son to his court to pay homage. At the same time, he wanted to strengthen his position by annexing the
frontier tracts of Bhira, etc.
It was about 1520s that Babur received an embassy from Daulat Khan Lodi, led by his son, Dilawar Khan. They
invited Babur to India and suggested that he should displace Ibrahim Lodi since he was a tyrant and enjoyed no
support from his nobles. It is probable that a messenger from Rana Sanga arrived at the same time, inviting Babur
to invade India. These embassies convinced Babur that the time was ripe for his conquest of the whole of the
Punjab if not of India itself.

Babur – Zahiruddin Muhammad (1526-1530)

• Babur is the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
• He was a descendant of Timur (on his father’s side) and Genghis Khan (on his mother’s side).
• His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad.
• In 1494 at the age of 11, Babur became the ruler of Farghana (at present in Chinese Turkistan) succeeding Umar
Shaikh Mirza, his father.
• Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with Ibrahim Lodhi,
invited Babur to invade India.
• He undertook four expeditions to India to conquer it between the years 1519 and 1523.

Babur’s Military Conquests

• In 1504, Babur occupied Kabul.

• In 1524, Babur occupied Lahore but had to retreat to Kabul after Daulat Khan turned against him.
• In November 1525, Babur attacked and occupied Punjab again.
• On 21st April 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and quickly occupied Delhi and
Despite vast and superior troop Ibrahim Lodi lost in the battle due to Babur’s superior strategy and use of
artillery.
• The First Battle of Panipat marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in India.
• Babur conquered Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
• Babur announced himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.

FIRST BATTLE OF PANIPAT

The Battle

• The First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526) fought near a small village of Panipat( Haryana), this marked the
beginning of Mughal Empire in India.
• The battle was fought between the invading forces of Zahir-ud-din Babur and the last empire of the Delhi
Sultanate, Lodi Empire during the rule of Ibrahim Lodi.
The Military Force

• Babur’s forces numbered around 15,000 men with 20 to 24 pieces of field artillery.
• The fighting force of Ibrahim Lodi was around 30,000 to 40,000 men in total, along with at least 1000 war
elephants.
 • Babur’s army used guns which proved to be decisive in the battlefield but the Sultan lacked any field
artillery.

Result

• The Mughal forces of Babur, the Timurid ruler of Kabulistan, defeated the much larger ruling army of
Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi.
• The victory enabled Babur to lay the foundations for the Indian Mughal Empire.
• Ibrahim Lodi died on the field of battle, abandoned by his feudatories and generals (many of whom were
mercenaries)
• Most of them changed their allegiance to the new master of Delhi.

HUMAYUN (1530-1540, 1555-1556)

• Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
• Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire.
• Six months after his succession, Humayun besieged the fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand, gained a decisive
victory over Afghans at Douhrua and drove out Sultan Mahmood Lodhi from Jaunpur, and even
defeated Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. His victories, however, were short-lived due to the weakness of his
character.
• Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal
• Humayun divided the empire among his brothers, but this proved to be a great blunder on his part.
• Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar.
• Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal respectively.
• Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor.
• But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there.
• In the east, Sher Khan became powerful. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle of Chausa, held in
1539, Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there.
• Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers.
• In 1540, in the Battle of Bilgram or Ganges also known as Battle of Kanauj, Humayun was forced to fight with
Sher Khan alone and after losing his kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years.
• In 1952, during his wanderings in deserts of Sindh, Humayun married Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of
Sheikh Ali Amber Jaini, who had been a preceptor of Humayun’s brother Hindal.
• On November 23, 1542, Humayun’s wife gave birth to Akbar.
• Amarkot’s Hindu chief RanaPrasad promised Humayun to help him to conquer Thatta
• However, Humayun could not conquer Bhakker or secure. Thus, he left India and lived under the generosity
of Shah Tahmashp of Persia.
• Shah of Persia agreed to help Humayun and lend him a force of 14,000 men on a condition to confirm
to Shia creed, to have the Shah’s name proclaimed in his Khutba and to give away Kandhar to him on his
success.
• In 1545, with Persian help, Humayun captured Kandhar and Kabul but refused to cede Kandhar to Persia.
• Humayun sought help from the Safavid ruler.
• Later, he defeated his brothers Kamran and Askari.
• In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne.
• After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
• Humayun was kind and generous, though he was not a good General and warrior.
• He also loved painting and wrote poetry in the Persian language.
AKBAR THE GREAT (1556-1605)
Akbar was the greatest of the Mughal emperors of India. He reigned from 1556 to 1605 and extended Mughal power
over most of the Indian subcontinent. To preserve the unity of his empire, Akbar adopted programs that won the loyalty
of the non-Muslim populations of his realm. He reformed and strengthened his central administration and centralized
his financial system and reorganized tax-collection processes. Although he never renounced Islam, he took an active
interest in other religions, persuading Hindus, Parsis, and Christians, as well as Muslims, to engage in religious
discussion before him. Illiterate himself, he encouraged scholars, poets, painters, and musicians, making his court a
centre of culture.

POLITICAL CAREER:

• His father, Humayun driven from the throne of India in a series of decisive battles by the Afghan, Sher Shah Suri.
After more than 12 years of exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, though he held it for only a few months
before his death in 1556.
• Akbar succeeded his father the same year under the regency of Bairam Khan, a Turkoman noble whose zeal in
repelling pretenders to the throne and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army helped greatly in the
consolidation of the newly recovered empire.
• When order was somewhat restored, Akbar took the reins of government into his own hands with a
proclamation issued in March 1560.
• It is speculated that Bairam Khan attempted to dethrone or murder Akbar when he came of age or led an army
against his loyalists. Akbar, suspicious of Khan's ambitions and loyalties, encouraged him to perform
a pilgrimage to Mecca, and there had him killed by an agent.
• On November 5, 1556, 50 miles north of Delhi, a Mughal army defeated Hindu forces of General Hemu at the
Second Battle of Panipat, granting the throne of India to Akbar.
• When Akbar ascended the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly comprised the Moghul Empire was
still under his control, and he devoted himself to the recovery of the remaining provinces. He expanded the
Moghul Empire to include Malwa (1562), Gujarat (1572), Bengal (1574), Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), and
Kandesh (1601), among others.

Religious Policy under Akbar

Akbar laid the foundation of an empire based on equal rights to all citizens, irrespective of their religious beliefs.
After marrying Jodha Bai of Amber, he abolished jizya and the pilgrim tax. The liberal principles of the empire were
strengthened by bringing able Hindus into the nobility. For instance, Raja Todar Mal rose to the post of diwan and
Birbal who was a constant companion of Akbar.

• Akbar was deeply interested in religion and philosophy. At first, Akbar was an orthodox Muslim. He held in
high esteem the leading qazi of the state, Abdun Nabi Khan, who was Sadr-us-Sadur. Gradually he moved
away from the path of narrow orthodoxy.
• In c. 1575 CE, Akbar built a hall called Ibadat Khana or the Hall of Prayer at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri
wherein he invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism
and used to conduct religious discussions with them. Some of the scholars were –
• Dastur Maharji Rana – Parsi (of Navsari)
• Hira Vijaya Suri – Jain saint of Kathiawar
• Purushottam Das – Hindu
• Aquaviva and Monserrate – Christian (sent by the Portuguese on Akbar’s request)
• In c. 1582 CE, Akbar discontinued the debates in the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness, the representative
of each religion denounced the other and tried to prove that his religion is the best.
• In c. 1579 CE, Akbar also issued a declaration or mahzar which was called “Decree of Infallibility” by which he
asserted his religious powers. He was entitled to choose any of the interpretations of the holy book, Quran, if
there were a difference of opinion among the ulamas.
 • In c. 1582 CE, he set up a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi/Tawhid-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism) which believes in
one God and Sulh-i-Kul i.e, equal toleration and respect to all religious sects. It contained the good points of
various religions. The Tawhid-i-Ilahi was an order of the Sufistic type. It, however, virtually died with the
death of Akbar.

Akbar’s Navratnas

Nine of the courtiers were known as Akbar’s navratnas (nine jewels).

1. Abul Fazl
a. He authored Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.
b. He led the Mughal army in its war in Deccan.
c. On the orders of Prince Salim, he was killed by Bir Singh Bundela.
2. Faizi
a. He was a great Persian poet.
b. Brother of Abul Fazl.
c. Under his supervision, the Mahabharata was translated into the Persian language.
d. He also translated Lilavati (a work on mathematics) into Persian.
3. Tansen
a. He served as a great musician in the court of king Ramachandra who titled him “Tansen”. He was
born as Tanna Mishra.
b. Akbar gave him the title of “Mian”.
c. It is believed that he could bring fire and rain through singing the ragas Deepak and Megh Malhar
respectively.
4. Raja Birbal
a. His original name was Mahesh Das.
b. Akbar gave him the title of “Raja” and “Birbal”.
c. He died on the northwest frontier fighting the Yusuf Shahis.
5. Raja Todar Mal
a. He was the head of the revenue system. He introduced standard weights and measures.
b. He had earlier worked under Sher Shah Suri.
c. Akbar honoured him with the title of “Diwan-i-Ashraf”.
6. Raja Man Singh
a. One of the trusted generals of Akbar.
7. Fakir Aziao Din
a. He was one of the chief advisors of Akbar.
b. He was a Sufi mystic.
8. Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
a. Son of Bairam Khan.
b. He was a great poet. He translated Baburnama into Persian.
9. Mirza Aziz Koka
a. Also known as Khan-i-Azam or Kotaltash.
b. Foster brother of Akbar.
c. He was also appointed Subedar of Gujarat
Art and Architecture

• During the reign of Akbar, many indigenous art styles were encouraged which led to the common use of
sandstone. Akbar built a series of forts, the most famous of which is the fort at Agra (in red sandstone). His
other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad.
• Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra. Many buildings of Gujarati and Bengali styles are found
in this complex. The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it is called Buland
Darwaza (176 ft high), built in c. 1572 CE to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. Other important
buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Jodha Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal with five storeys.
• He built his own tomb at Sikandra (near Agra) which was completed by Jahangir.
• Akbar built a temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.
• He also built Jahangir Mahal in Agra Fort.
• Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts. He invited many painters from
different parts of the country to his court. Both Hindus and Muslims joined in this work. Baswan, Miskina
and Daswant attained great positions as Akbar’s court artists.
• Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in miniature form.
• Many other Indian fables became miniature paintings in the art studio established by Akbar.
• Historical works like Akbarnama also remained the main themes of Mughal paintings.
• Hamzanama is the most important work which consisted of 1200 paintings. Indian colours such as peacock
blue, Indian red began to be used.
• Akbar patronised Tansen of Gwalior who composed many ragas. It is believed that he could bring rain and
fire through singing the ragas Megh Malhar and Deepak, respectively.
• The Persian language became widespread in the Mughal empire by the time of Akbar’s reign. Abul Fazl was a
great scholar and historian of his period. He set a style of prose writing, and it was followed for many
generations. Many historical works were written during this period. They include Ain-i-Akbari and
Akbarnama by Abul Fazl. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under the
supervision of Abul Faizi (brother of Abul Fazl). Utbi and Naziri were the other two leading Persian poets.
From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were attached to the Mughal court. The most famous Hindi poet was
Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana – the Ramacharitmanas.

The closing years of Akbar's reign were troubled by the misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in their youth, the
third, Salim, who succeeded him as Emperor Jahangir (ruled 1605 until 1627), was frequently in rebellion against his
father. He died in Agra on October 27, 1605. His body was deposited in a magnificent mausoleum at Sikandra, near
Agra.

JEHANGIR (1556-1605)
Nur-ud-Din Muhammad Salim (31 August 1569 – 28 October 1627), known by his imperial
name Jahangir (‘Conqueror of the World'), was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605 until his death in
1627. He was the third and only surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar I and his chief empress, Mariam-uz-Zamani,
born to them in the year 1569. He was named after the revered Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti.

• He succeeded the throne on Thursday, 3 November 1605, eight days after his father's death. Salim ascended
to the throne with the imperial grand title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Badshah Ghazi, and thus
began his 22-year reign at the age of 36.
• Jahangir, soon after, had to fend off his own son, Prince Khusrau Mirza, when the latter attempted to claim
the throne.
• Jahangir considered his third son, Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) as his favourite son.
• From the time of his marriage with Mehr-un-Nissa, later known as Empress Nur Jahan, Jahangir left the
reins of government in her hands and appointed her family and relatives to high positions. Nur Jahan had
complete freedom of speech near Jahangir.
 • In October 1616, Jahangir sent Prince Khurram to fight against the combined forces of three rebel kingdoms
of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.
• Using the rugged terrain of the Deccan to this advantage, Khurram launched a rebellion against Jahangir in
1622. This precipitated a political crisis in Jahangir's court. Khurram murdered his blind older brother,
Khusrau Mirza, to smoothen his own path to the throne.
• Jahangir ordered Mahabat Khan, one of Jahangir's most loyal high generals, to crush Prince Khurram's
rebellion in the Deccan. After a series of victories by Mahabat Khan over Khurram, the civil war finally ended
in October 1625.
• Jahangir was famous for his "Chain of Justice". In contemporary paintings it has been shown as a golden
chain with golden bells.
• In his memoir Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri he has written that he ordered the creation of this chain for his oppressed
subjects to appeal to the emperor if they were denied justice at any level.
• "Darshan" tradition was adopted by mughal emperors from Hindu religio-political rituals as a theatrical
event before their subjects.
• Jahāngīr, a heavy drinker and opium eater—until excess taught him comparative moderation—encouraged
Persian culture in Mughal India. He possessed a sensitivity to nature, an acute perception of human
character, and an artistic sensibility, which expressed itself in an unmatched patronage of painting. Mughal
painting reached a high level of elegance and richness during his reign.

SHAH JAHAN (1628 -1658)

• Shabuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan ruled the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent from 1628 until 1658.
• The name Shah Jahan comes from Persian meaning "King of the World."
• He stood as the fifth Mughal ruler after Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir. While young, Akbar favored him.
• Even while a child, many pointed him out as the successor to the Mughal throne after the death of Jahangir. He
succeeded to the throne upon his father's death in 1627.
• Considered one of the greatest Mughals, his reign has been called the Golden Age of Mughals.
• Like Akbar, he eagerly expanded his empire. The destruction of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar (1636), the loss of
Kandahar to the Persians (1653), and a second war against the Deccan princes (1655) stood out as the chief
events of his reign.
• In 1658, when he fell ill, his son Aurangzeb confined him in the citadel of Agra until his death in 1666.
• Shah Jahan erected many splendid monuments:

i. the Taj Mahal at Agra built, as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, by far the most famous.
ii. The Pearl Mosque at Agra and the palace and great mosque at Delhi also commemorates him.
iii. The celebrated Peacock Throne
iv. He founded Shahjahanabad, now known as 'Old Delhi'.
v. Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas in the fort of Delhi,
vi. The Jama Masjid,
vii. The Moti Masjid and
viii. The Taj.
ix. The Palace of Delhi has been proclaimed by many as the most magnificent in the East.
x. Red Fort
xi. the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore
xii. sections of the Lahore Fort (such as Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion),
xiii. and his father's mausoleum.

• His political efforts encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts—such as Lahore, Delhi,
Agra, and Ahmedabad—linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports. He moved the capital from
Agra to Delhi.
• Under Shah Jahan's rule, Mughal artistic and architectural achievements reached their zenith. Shah Jahan
engaged in prolific building with a highly refined aesthetic.
• His son Aurangzeb led a rebellion when Shah Jahan became ill in 1657 C.E. (1067 AH) and publicly executed his
brother and the heir apparent Dara Shikoh. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb
declared him incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort.

AURANGZEB

Abu Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (November 3, 1618 – March 3, 1707),
usually known as Aurangzeb, but also sometimes as Alamgir I (Alamgir means world conqueror), was
the ruler of the Moghul Empire from 1658 until 1707. He was and is a very controversial figure
in Indian history. Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb led a remarkably austere and pious life. Strict
adherence to Islam and Sharia (Islamic law)—as he interpreted them—were the foundations of his
reign. He backed up his faith with action, abandoning the religious tolerance of his predecessors,
especially Akbar the Great.

Enforcement of Islamic law

• His Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, a 33-volume compilation of these edicts, established the precedent for civil
law based on Sharia, which has influenced Islamic governments to the present day.
• Under Aurangzeb, Mughal court life changed dramatically. According to his interpretation, Islam did
not allow music, so he banished court musicians, dancers, and singers. Further, based on Muslim
precepts forbidding images, he stopped the production of representational artwork, including the
miniature painting that had reached its zenith before his rule.
• Aurangzeb gave up the Hindu-inspired practices of former Mughal emperors, especially the
practice of “darshan,” or public appearances to bestow blessings, which had been commonplace
since the time of Akbar.

Expansion of the empire

• From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in nearly constant warfare. He built up a
massive army, and began a program of military expansion at all the boundaries of his empire.
• But the combination of military expansion and political intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he
succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and treasure. And as the empire
expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker.
• With so much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political influence waned, and his provincial
governors and generals grew in authority.

Defamation
• The britishers tried to defame him mainly by these clauses.
• That he demolished temples mainly in Varanasi and Mathura. In his defense it was demolished as there were
women and princesses trapped there and were being wrongly treated.
• He put hindu rulers at high posts and believed in rawadari (togetherness)
• Another narrative states that he closed hindu pathshalas. The reason for doing so was that hindu religious
teachings was being given even do it was attended by both muslim and hindu students.

Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury as a trust of the citizens of his empire and that it
should not be used for his personal expenses. But his constant warfare drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy as
much as the personal profligacy of earlier emperors had done.

Aurangzeb's personal piety is undeniable. He led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim precepts
with his typical determination, and even memorized the Qur'an. He knitted haj (pilgrimage) caps and copied out the
Qur'an throughout his life and sold these works anonymously. He used the proceeds, and only these, to fund his
modest resting place.
Muslim Personalities
02 January 2024
11:42
Introduction (1238-1325)
• Muhammad Nizamuddin Auliya was an Indian Sunni Muslim scholar and a Sufi saint of the Chishti Order
• His full name was Mohd bin Ahmad bin Daniyal
• AKA Mahbub-e-Ilahi , Sultan-ul-Mashaikh
• He was born in Badaun, Uttar Pradesh in 1238 AD, his forefathers had come from Ghazna.
• His predecessors were Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, and Moinuddin Chishti, who were
the masters of the Chishti silsila in the Indian subcontinent.

Early Life
• After the death of his father, he came to delhi w his mother at the age of 5.
• He got the highest educational degree of his times, started receiving very tempting job offers from royal
courts but he denied all and joins the mission of great Sufi Saint Baba Farid as a disciple to learn and serve
the mankind.
• At the age of 20, Baba Farid have Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia his khilafat.
• Baba Farid also advised him to lead an ascetic life and gave him blessings in these beautiful words: “O
Nizamuddin, you will be a tree under whose shadow the people will find rest."

Teachings
Nizamuddin Auliya, like his predecessors, stressed love as a means of realising God. For him his love of God implied a
love of humanity.
The 14th century historiographer Ziauddin Barani claims that his influence on the Muslims of Delhi was such that a
paradigm shift was effected in their outlook towards worldly matters. People began to be inclined towards mysticism
and prayers and remaining aloof from the world.
He never differentiated between social and religious status.
His character was built upon the essential teachings of Islam and principals of Sufism which mean ‘Peace’ in their
true religious sense. His strong character shook the bottoms of seven powerful kingdoms of India for 100 years in
defending the cause of truth. He raised his voice and fought the battles of truth and justice, courageously whenever
any of the mighty kings of Delhi, intoxicated by temporal powers, deviated from the path of righteousness and
justice.

Impacts on Kings of his Time

However, despite remaining completely detached from the political life of his times, his towering personality had an
ennobling effect on the masses as well as the royalty.
1. Sultan Gyasuddin Balban- he was the staunch devotee of Baba Farid (spiritual master of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia)
2. Sultan Moizuddin Kaikabad- he had a great regard for Hzt Nizamuddin Aulia.
3. Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji- he was devotee of Hzt Nizamuddin Aulia and was fond of him. It was his great wish to
meet the saint personally but it was never fulfilled as Hzt Nizamuddin Aulia never allowed him. Very often he used to
send the saint presents and gifts but everything was distributed among needy people on the same day
4. Sultan Alauddin Khilji- after coming to power, some of his courtiers tried to misguide him with the idea that Hzt
Nizamuddin’s influence was increasing due to the allegiance of great scholars, princes and the public as his devotees.
But later he also become a devotee of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia and asked him to pray on many occasions.
5. Sultan Qutubuddin Khilji- he was 3rd son of Allauddin khilji. Murdering his other brothers and captured the
throne of Delhi. Because his brothers were devotee of Hzt Nizamuddin Aulia, therefore he carried a grudge against
the saint also which, later on, turned into an open enmity.
6. Khusro Khan: He sent 500000 tankas to Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia, which was distributed among needy on the
same day by Hzt Nizamuddin Aulia.

Shaikh Sarhindi (the reformer of the second millennium)

• He was born on 26 May, 1564 A.D at Sirhind.
• His influence in the Sub-Continent has been too great.
• He was successful in neutralizing the work of Akbar. He is considered more than a wali, rather a renovator
(mujaddid) of religion who projected Islam, at the turn of its second millennium.
Early Life
• He received his early education from his father shaykh Abdul Ahad
• His father's teachers include: Abdul Quddus Gangohi, Qazi Bahlol, Shaikh Yaqub Kashmiri
• Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi completed contemporary Islamic education at 17 yrs and became a mureed of a
great Naqshbandi Alim Khawaja Muhammad Baqi Billah.
• Due to the having great abilities, Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi had got Naqshbandi status in just 2.5 month.

Reforms (Khidmaat)
He noticed that kings themselves are not practicing Islam, rather mixing it with other religions. He even blamed the
scholars as they were not raising voice against them. He called them Ulema-e-Suu (Ulemas of worldy greeds).
His attempts resulted in reformation of Kings, Ministers, Scholars and the general Public.
1. Akbar's Din-e-Ilahi
• He challenged the cult of Din-e-llahi.
• Wrote letters to the court nobles, ulemas and asked them to rise against bidah (innovation)
• Some of the courtiers complained to Jahangir against him saying "He is against sijdah and is a 'Baaghi' to your
kingdom". The Shaikh was summoned to the court. As he did not prostrate to the king, he was imprisoned at
the Gwalior fort.

2. Refused Sajdah-e-Tanzeemi
• Shah Jahan sent Qazi Abdul Rahman to him in Gwalior prison, to request him to offer prostration to the
emperor and beg for mercy of the emperor. The Qazi had taken many volumes of the great jurists who had
justified sajdah in such a situation in order to save one's life.
• The Shaikh rejected the plea and said that Islam does not allow to prostrate any one other than Allah, the
Almighty called Sajdah-Ibadat
• After 3 years, He was freed. It is said that Jahangir ha a dream of Prophet Muhammad to release the Shaikh.
• The Shaikh was released and was brought to the imperial court.

Impact on Mughal Court

Jahangir influenced by Sirhindi’s sincerity and devotion to Islam. The Shaykh was given an audience emperor and
there he placed following demands before him:
1. prostration (Sajidah) before the emperor should be abolished.
2. the permission to slaughter cows should be given.
3. the religious innovations should be ceased.
4. the office of the Qadi and the dept of the Ihtisab should be restored (so mosques in need of repair be
renovated)

Jahangir's reformation
• Shaikh found unique opportunity to preach King and the courtiers.
• Read out the Quran to him, explained its messages, discussed the principles of faith.
• explained the rules of the Shari’ah.
• Jahangir became conscious of his duties as a Muslim sovereign and “he took greater interest in the future of
Islam than his father.

Impacts on Shah Jahan

When Shah Jahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi. The peacock throne was placed in Diwan-e-Khams of the Red
Fort. The emperor fell on the floor prostrating to Allah Almighty, he said. "Bear witness, O my courtiers that I profess
that am a humble slave of Allah Almighty".

Conclusion
• This was the result of the untiring efforts of the theologians particularly Shaikh Ahmad Faruqi Sarhindi that
the Mughal dynasty again came in the fold of Islam.
• The Shaikh died in 1624 A.C.
• He left bright imprints of his steadfastness on Islam. He was undoubtedly the greatest reformer of his time,
the renovator of the second millennium.
Art and Architecture
1. Jama Masjid
35 stairs, 3 domes, 2 tall minarets of 130 ft, 4 small minarets. Made of red stone

2. Allahabad Qila (261 mts length): Huge boundary besides the bands of Yamuna and Ganga
3. Akbari Fort & Musuem: Salim (Jahangir) used to live there. Now its used to display Mugul artefacts
and weapon.
4. Akbarabadi Masjid: destroyed by the english in 1857, Shah Abdul Qadir Gilani who wrote the first
Urdu translation of Quraan.
5. Akbar Mausoleum: Started by akbar in 1665 completed by Jahangir, 119 acres.
6. Jahangiri Mahal
Was built for Jahangir's rajput wives
Red sandstone + Whilte Marble

10. Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir (1619) and Lahore (1641-42))

• 658 mts NS, 258 mts WE
• 3 portions: increasing in height, layers
• Farah baksh, Faiz baksh and Hayat Baksh
• Ranked by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites
• Fruit bearing plants, Shahi hammam,
• It had a huge boundary + 4 domes,
• The expenditure was 6 Lakh.
• 12-dari, it had 12 paths

IMPORTANT ARCHITECTURE

Fatehpur Sikri (1569-74)

This was the new capital city made by Akbar and was a new era of Indo-Islamic architecture.
Described as ‘frozen moment in history’ as the buildings represented a unique combination of Hindu and
Persian style.

Main Monuments
▪ Buland Darwaza (1576): built to commerate Akbar’s victory over Gujrat. It is a 40 meters red
sandstone structure and largest gateway of the world.
▪ Salim Chisti’s tomb (1581): Jaali work in white marble and inscription of Quranic verses on the walls.
▪ Panch Maha: five storied structure inspired by Persian windcatcher
▪ Jodha Bai’s palace or Mariam-uz-Zamani’s palace
▪ Ibadat Khana-meeting with leaders of different religion for discussions.
▪ Hiran Minar- built in the memory of Akbar’s favorite elephant. Served as lighthouse for travelers.

Taj Mahal 1630–49

• by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal
• Its construction took 22 years and required 22,000 laborers and 1,000 elephants, at a cost of 4.5
crore rupees.
• It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square platform and consists of a symmetrical
building
• The porch is red but the marble of Taj Mahal bldg is white, It has 4 rivers running on each side.

Feature
• Calligraphy
Red Door on the outside has the inscription of Surah Fajr, Inside Surah Yasin is described
Selection of ayat includes description of Jannah, Day of Judgement, Lord's Mercy
• Jaali work is lace-like and carvings on marble were finely done. The ayahs are not painted rather
carved in the marble.
• Pietra dura works: Beautiful inlay work with precious multicolour stones),
 • Charbagh style gardens, use of water in premises for decoration and foresightening technique.
• The rose and jasmines depicts the message of love of Shah Jahan to wife, the general public and his
Lord.

Architects: Ahmad Ali Lahori, Esa Shirazi, Mabramat Khan and Abdul Haq Shirazi
• Badshahnama says Shah Jahan himself designed the Taj Mahal keeping in mind the descriptions of
Jannat in Quraan
• Different architects, masons and engineers were employed from different parts of the world to
showcase Persian, Hindi and Turkish styles,
• The stone were gotten from Italy (Marble which remains cold) and Rajasthan (mabrana),
• It took 10 years to construct the masjid, guest house, garden and small rooms and 10 years to
construct the main building of white marble
• The minarets are tilted to 1 degree so incase of earthquake they done fall on the dome.

Red Fort (1639)

• He shifted his capital city from Agra to Delhi
• He built it in his new capital at Shah Jahanabad, the 7th city, now Old Delhi.
• Red Fort is an irregular octagon with its walls, gates, and a few other structures constructed in red
sandstone
• Marble used for the palaces.
• It is noted for its special buildings Diwan-i-aam and Diwan-i-khas.
• Peacock throne was placed here.
7. Shahi Pul/Akbari/Mughul Pul in Jaunpur above Gomti river
8. Sheesh Mahal by Shah Jahan
9. Fatehpuri Masjid by Shah Jahan' wife