Impact of Postharvest Operations on Rice Grain

Quality: A Review
Chuan Tong , Haiyan Gao , Shunjing Luo , Lei Liu , and Jinsong Bao

Abstract: Postharvest operations, such as drying, storage, and milling, have been used to ameliorate the aging of rice
grains and to achieve and maintain desirable rice grain quality, and thus play a key role in determining rice commercial
quality and value. This review summarizes publications from the past decade and outlines the evidence supporting
attribution of grain quality changes induced by postharvest processes to changes in the physical properties and chemical
composition of the rice grain (starch, protein, lipids, and antioxidants). Rice drying mainly affects rice milling quality
as rice kernel fissuring that may occur during drying leads to head rice yield reduction. Rice grain aging occurring
during storage is inevitable and responsible for the changes in rice appearance, milling, eating, cooking, and nutritional
quality. As milling significantly changes the chemical composition of rice by removing protein- and lipid-rich bran layers,
milling can alter the aging process of rice and also affect rice appearance, eating, and sensory quality, but mainly affects
the nutritional quality. Therefore, drying methods, storage conditions, and milling methods warrant further research to
achieve and maintain the desired rice grain quality. This review may contribute to better understanding of the impacts
of postharvest processes on rice grain quality, and provide insights into potential improvements in these practices for rice
production and utilization in the whole rice industry.
Keywords: drying, milling, quality, rice, storage

Introduction Grigg, & Lanning, 2013). In addition to these factors, postharvest

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the predominant staple food in
diets for more than half of the population worldwide and is
pivotal for human nutrition, energy supply, and food security.
According to International Rice Research Inst. statistics, the
world production of paddy rice has reached 481 million tons
(http://ricestat.irri.org:8080/wrsv3/entrypoint.htm). However,
due to the seasonality of production, but the continuity of
consumption, most freshly harvested rice grains must be dried
and stored for an extended duration and subsequently processed
to milled rice (Figure 1). Stored rice grain not only provides
a year-round supply for intended applications for processing
industries and consumers, but also provides assurance against
unpredictable circumstances such as crop failures or need for
disaster relief supplies. It is well known that the variety and
preharvest factors such as cultural practices and environmental
conditions (e.g., elevated nighttime air temperature) have crucial
effects on rice grain quality (Figure 1; Bao, 2019; Siebenmorgen,
CRF3-2018-0215 Submitted 9/17/2018, Accepted 2/18/2019. Authors Tong
and Gao are with Food Science Inst., Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
Hangzhou, 310021, China. Authors Tong and Bao are with Inst. of Nuclear Agri-
cultural Sciences, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Univ., Huajiachi
Campus, Hangzhou, 310029, China. Author Luo is with State Key Laboratory of
Food Science and Technology, Nanchang Univ., Nanchang, 330047, China. Author
Liu is with Southern Cross Plant Science, Southern Cross Univ., Lismore, NSW
2480, Australia. Direct inquiries to authors, Jinsong Bao and Chuan Tong, (Emails:
jsbao@zju.edu.cn, chuantong@hotmail.com).
operations such as drying and storage conditions, and milling
processes also affect rice grain quality (Atungulu & Sadaka, 2019;
Atungulu, Kolb, Karcher, & Shad, 2019; Bao, 2019; Figure 1).
Drying is a postharvest operation significantly influencing rice
milling yield and overall quality through reducing moisture of
paddy rice to a suitable level. In general, the moisture content of
rice should be reduced from 14 to 22% at harvest to approximately
13% for storage to minimize respiration rates and mold growth,
as well as to inhibit fungi and insect growth (Mukhopadhyay &
Siebenmorgen, 2018a, 2018b). Drying produces abiotic stress
in rice kernels, which may result in kernel fissuring (Figure 2),
breakage during milling, and consequently lowering head rice
yield (HRY). HRY is defined as the mass percentage of rough rice
that remains as head rice after milling, and is a primary parameter
used to quantify rice milling quality (Siebenmorgen, Matsler, &
Earp, 2006).
Storage is an important step in rice postharvest process-
ing to prolong shelf-life and commercial value. Stored rice
is preferred over raw rice, because stored rice has better
milling quality and sensory quality, and an improved flavor as
comapred to raw rice (Saikrishna, Dutta, Subramanian, Moses, &
Anandharamakrishnan, 2018). Paddy rice (or rough rice), brown
rice, and milled rice (polished rice or white rice) are major types
that are stored. Rice aging denotes the changes in the chemical
and physical properties in rice grains, which inevitably occur
throughout the duration of storage (Zhou, Robards, Helliwell,
& Blanchard, 2002; Zhou, Yang, Su, & Bu, 2016; Figure 3). The


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doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12439 Vol. 0, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 1
Impact of postharvest operations . . .
Figure 1–The value chain of rice production and its effects on rice grain quality and commercial value. The postharvest operations discussed in this
review are highlighted with red arrow.
Figure 2–Rice kernel fissures based on X-ray and SEC micrographs and their effects on grain quality. Note: Redrawn based on Lan, Fang, Kocher, &
Hanna, (2012, 2002); Odek, Prakash, & Siebenmorgen, (2016); and Zhang, Yang, Howard, & Earp, (2003).
mechanism of rice aging is complex, but may result from increases
and/or decreases in activities and actions of numerous endogenous
enzymes including peroxidases, catalases, amylases, proteases, li-
pases, and lipoxygenases (Saikrishna et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2002;
Figure 3). The action of the enzymes in rice grains during storage
leads to structural changes of the cell wall and major components
(starch, protein, and lipids), then chemical changes, and finally
results in changes of rice grain quality (Figure 3). Various process-
ing actions such as drying and milling may alter the normal aging
process during storage. In both artificially accelerated and natural
aging, it has been found that the tendency in changes of some phys-
ical properties of stored rice including elongation ratio, whiteness,
volume expansion, water uptake, solids loss, and pasting properties
are similar, regardless of storage conditions (Soponronnarit, Chi-
awwet, Prachayawarakorn, Tungtrakul, & Taechapairoj, 2008).
However, the chemical changes in both accelerated and naturally
stored rice more likely depend on the storage conditions and rice
variety.
From outside to inside, rice grains are divided into husk, bran
layer, outer, middle, and inner endosperm layer. Unlike other
cereal grains, rice grains are mostly consumed in the form of
milled or white rice after removing the whole hull and bran
layers. Therefore, milling is a crucial operation transforming rice
grains into a suitable form for grain quality stability and for human
consumption (Tuncel & Yilmaz, 2011). In general, the processes
of rice industrial milling include two steps, removal of husk with
2 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 0, 2019
a dehulling machine to produce brown rice, and removal of the
outer layers and embryo to produce milled rice. Due to most of
the nonstarch nutrients such as minerals, vitamins, and enzymes
being located in the bran layers, they will be gradually lost during
milling or polishing operations, resulting in significant reduction
of nutritional value (Liu, Waters, Rose, Bao, & King, 2013). Rice
milling quality refers to the ability of the kernels to withstand
the rigors of hulling and bran removal without breaking (Pinson,
Jia, Jia, & Gibbons, 2018), and is significantly influenced by
genotype, cultural practices, environment, drying, and milling
processes (Kim & Lee, 2012). Different types of milling can
significantly affect physicochemical and functional properties of
milled rice (Loubes & Tolaba, 2014). It has been widely accepted
that degree of milling (DOM), a term describing the removal
of rice outer bran layers from brown rice, serves as a key factor
in determining rice milling quality, affecting HRY levels, rice
sensory, cooking, and textural qualities (Chen & Siebenmorgen,
1997).
Hence, appropriate postharvest processes are necessary to
achieve a more consistent and desirable quality of rice grains.
Nevertheless, the effects of these processes on rice grain quality
are complicated. Siebenmorgen and Meullenet (2004) have pre-
viously summarized the impact of drying, storage, and milling on
rice quality and functionality. In this review, we provide updated
research progress made in the past decade on the effects of drying,
storage, and milling on rice grain quality.

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Impact of postharvest operations . . .
Figure 3–Conceptual model of rice aging at cellular and molecular level. Note: Redrawn based on Zhou et al. (2015, 2016).
Effects of Drying on Rice Grain Quality
Different drying conditions such as temperature and mositure,
and drying methods such as conventional heated air drying and
microwave drying cause different velocities of water motion in the
grains, and lead to great variation in the temperature and moisture
between the surface and core of grains (Atungulu et al., 2016),
which can affect milling performance and quality.
Milling quality
Rice kernel fissures are stress fractures that develop in either
the inner or outer layers of the kernel endosperm, caused by
a combination of moisture, thermal, and mechanical stresses
(Figure 2; Sater et al., 2017). Rice kernel fissuring could happen
pre- and postharvest, particularly during the drying process.
Fissured kernel was more susceptible to breakage and HRY
reduction, due to the alterations in kernel structure and tensile
strength, bending strength, and fracture energy (Figure 3; Zhang,
Yang, & Sun, 2005), which consequently reduced commodity
value and economic returns for producers and processors. The
fissuring rates were greatest at low (10%) and high (90%) relative
humidity (RH), whereas fissuring was slight at 30% to 70% RH
(Siebenmorgen, Saleh, & Bautista, 2009). The increased drying
duration and decreased tempering time could increase percentage
of fissured kernels while higher tempering temperatures could
lower rice fissure generation (Dong, Lu, Liu, Koide, & Cao,
2010; Iguaz, Rodriguez, & Virseda, 2006). Cnossen, Jimenez,
and Siebenmorgen (2003) reported that the percentage of fissured
kernels decreased with increased tempering duration for a typical
drying timeframe, indicating a longer tempering time could be
required for preventing rice kernel fissuring. The glass transition
temperature (Tg ) concept has been proposed to explain trends
in fissure formation and drying rate (Cnossen & Siebenmorgen,
2000; Cnossen, Siebenmorgen, & Yang, 2002; Schluterman &
Siebenmorgen, 2007). Rice dried significantly faster above Tg
(in rubbery state) than below Tg (in glassy state). When rice
grains with intra-kernel moisture content gradients are exposed

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to temperatures above the Tg , fissures can occur, which result
in subsequent HRY reduction (Schluterman & Siebenmorgen,
2007). Rice drying with high temperature/low RH air conditions
results in low equilibrium moisture content, apparently causing
the surface of the kernel to transition from a rubbery to a glassy
state, and thus reduces the drying rate (Cnossen et al., 2002;
Cnossen, Siebenmorgan, Yang, & Bautista, 2001). Moreover,
formation of fissures may also be variety dependent. For example,
Dong et al. (2010) found fewer fissured kernels in long-grain
rice than short-grain rice. Therefore, proper rice drying and
tempering strategies based on various rice varieties should be
considered to reduce grain fissuring and maximize milling quality.
Monsoor, Proctor, and Siebenmorgen (2004) found that as
the drying conditions changed from mild (25 °C, 50% RH for
10 min) to more severe (65 °C, 20% RH for 30 min), rice mois-
ture content decreased from 16.4 to 21.1% to 13.2 to 16.6%,
and HRY decreased from 63.8 to 67.9% to 40.8 to 57.1%. Jaisut,
Prachayawarakorn, Varanyanond, Tungtrakul, and Soponronnarit
(2008) found a slightly lower HRY of rice grain dried with high
temperature (130 and 150 °C) than those dried in shade. Imoudu
and Olufayo (2000) observed that sun-drying on a concrete floor
tended to favor a greater milling yield with lower percentage of
broken grains than drying on a mat, probably due to the for-
mer method taking a longer time to attain the desired moisture
content. The glass transition temperature concept can be used to
optimize the drying conditions. There was negligible HRY reduc-
tion for rice kernels dried in the glassy state, whereas significant
HRY reduction occurred when rice kernels transitioned to the
rubbery state during drying (Mukhopadhyay & Siebenmorgen,
2018a, 2018b). As long as sufficient tempering at a temperature
above the Tg is allowed, high drying temperatures (up to 60 °C)
and high moisture removal rates can be used without reducing
milling quality (Cnossen et al., 2001, 2002).
Volumetric heating with microwave drying rapidly reduces
inter-kernel moisture, thereby minimizing rice fissuring and
maintaining rice milling quality (Atungulu et al., 2016). Olatunde
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Impact of postharvest operations . . .

and Atungulu (2018) showed that volumetric heating with mi- pyrroline (2-AP), and lower amounts of the off-flavor compounds,
crowave drying could induce a shift in rice microstructure and n-hexanal and 2-pentylfuran for rough aromatic rice.
in turn impact rice milling characteristics. Ding et al. (2016) re-
ported another promising drying method, infrared radiation dry- Effects of Storage on Rice Grain Quality
ing (IRD), as having greater drying rate, with better milling quality The changes of rice grain quality during storage are strongly
than traditional air drying. Paddy rice drying with high temper- associated with endogenous enzymatic reactions on starch, pro-
ature, for example, at 130 °C or 150 °C, may increase the HRY, teins, and lipids (Figure 3). Such changes are also dependent on
which may be due to partial gelatinization of starch (Soponronnarit storage conditions (temperature, humidity, and duration) and rice
et al., 2008). type (paddy, brown, or polished rice). These changes in physical
and chemical properties occurring during storage are affected by
Appearance quality the aging process (Figure 3). In particular, storage temperature
Rice color is one of the important parameters to evaluate milled and duration are significantly correlated to HRY and result in
rice grain quality and is related to the appearance quality of milled great changes in rice physicochemical properties and functionality
rice. Rapid drying of rough rice with high-temperature air could (Figure 3).
increase milled rice yellowing and HRY, but the extent of im-
pact could be moisture dependent (Ambardekar & Siebenmorgen, Appearance quality
2012). Dillahunty, Siebenmorgen, and Mauromoustakos (2001) Rice color darkening phenomenon often occurs during
reported grain color degradation and yellowing when drying at storage. Ziegler et al. (2017) reported a decrease in lightness (L∗ )
temperatures > 50 °C for longer than 12 hr. value with an increase in a∗ and b∗ values of all brown, black, and
red rice grains with increased storage temperature and duration,
Cooking, eating, and sensory quality regardless of color of rice grains. Hayashi and Yanase (2016) also
The drying process can also affect rice eating and sensory qual- found that red rice often changed to a darker reddish-brown hue
ity. Eating quality can be predicted by apparent amylose content, during postharvest storage, as a result of changes occurring in
pasting viscosities (such as tested by rapid visco-analyzer, RVA), pre-existing chemical species, especially the decreasing polyphe-
and textural properties of gels or cooked rice (Bao, 2012). Jaisut nol contents and oxidative degradation of proanthocyanidin
et al. (2008) showed a greater hot paste viscosity (HPV, 330.6 to pigments. Jungtheerapanich, Tananuwong, and Anuntagool
381.9 vs. 255.6 RVU), setback (SB, 65.6 to 96.4 vs. –23.1 RVU) (2017) demonstrated a decrease in whiteness of rice stored at
and pasting temperature (PT, 82.8 to 83.5 vs. 77.6 °C) but lower ambient temperature (30 °C) for 9 months. Park, Kim, Park, and
peak viscosity (PV, 234.2 to 265.0 vs. 278.7 RVU), and breakdown Kim (2012) found that the greater the storage temperature (30 and
(BD, 63.1 to 88.4 vs. 135.6 RVU) of brown aromatic rice dried 40 °C), the lower the whiteness of normal rice during storage.
at 130 °C than at ambient temperature. Ondier, Siebenmorgen, However, Ahmad et al. (2017) demonstrated that the L∗ value
and Mauromoustakos (2010) found the PV and cold paste viscos- of milled Catahoula rice increased with increasing storage tem-
ity (CPV) of low-temperature (26 to 34 °C) and low-RH (19% peratures (30 to 60 °C). Wongpornchai et al. (2004) also did not
to 47%) dried rice were similar to those under controlled condi- observe great variation in the values for whiteness for milled aro-
tions, indicating great potential of drying with low-temperature matic rice under different storage times. The decrease in whiteness
dehumidified air for increasing drying rate of rough rice without and increase in yellowness of the rice grain during storage was
adversely affecting rice eating quality. Dillahunty et al. (2001) in- considered to be related to Maillard-type nonenzymatic brown-
dicated that exposure to drying temperatures >55 °C for longer ing (Sirisoontaralak & Noomhorm, 2007; Zhou et al., 2002).
than 12 hr dramatically lowered PV. These changes may due to the formation of carbonyl and amino
Cooking quality can be indirectly predicted by gelatiniza- compounds from breakdown of glycosidic and peptidic linkages
tion temperature (GT), and thermal properties (Bao, 2012). Fan, through Maillard reaction (Sirisoontaralak & Noomhorm, 2007).
Marks, Daniels, and Siebenmorgen (1999) found that predrying Further researches are needed to clarify whether Maillard reactions
and/or drying treatments had significant (P < 0.05) effects on occur during rice ageing. The mechanism of kernel postharvest
the retrogradation onset (To ) and conclusion (Tc ) temperatures discoloration found during storage may also include fungal in-
of gelatinized rice. However, Ondier, Siebenmorgen, and Mau- volvement as well as changes within the kernel owing to moisture
romoustakos (2013) reported that thermal properties were not content, temperature, and storage duration (Haydon & Sieben-
affected by drying treatment (60 to 80 °C and 13% to 83% RH). morgen, 2017).
Ding et al. (2016) found that compared with heated air drying,
IRD reduces 76.3% of water uptake, and 14.5% of volume expan- Milling quality
sion ratio of the cooked rice, respectively. The GT, enthalpy, vis- The aging kinetics of paddy rice varieties stored at ambient tem-
cosity, and changes in hardness and microstructure of cooked IRD perature (30 °C) for nine months showed that aging would result
rice were also reduced, possibly due to the slight denaturation of in an increase in HRY (Jungtheerapanich et al., 2017). Ranalli,
protein and annealing of starch caused by IRD (Ding et al., 2016). Howell, and Siebenmorgen (2003) studied the effects of controlled
Champagne et al. (1997) found that flavor attributes included ambient treatment on rice quality and found a slight increase in
sewer-animal, haylike-musty, corn, sour-silage, and waterlike- HRY as storage duration increased. Although the extent of in-
metallic and were significantly affected by drying conditions for crease (about 2%) in HRY was smaller than laboratory storage
rough rice. However, no trend was observed toward an increase cases (approximately 10%), the influence of rice storage duration
or decrease in flavor attributes intensities with increased drying on HRY was significant (Ranalli et al., 2003). The increase of
temperatures (18 to 60 °C) (Champagne et al., 1997). Similarily, HRY may be due to more agglomeration of starch granules (So-
Wongpornchai, Dumri, Jongkaewwattana, and Siri (2004) showed ponronnarit et al., 2008), thus enhancing the endurance of the rice
that drying at lower temperature (30 °C) appeared to provide kernels during milling (Jungtheerapanich et al., 2017). However,
higher concentrations of the key aroma compound, 2-acetyl-1- Manski, Matsler, and Siebenmorgen (2005) did not find significant

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Impact of postharvest operations . . .

differences in HRY of stored medium and long rice grains at any Eating quality and starch physicochemical properties
storage temperatures after harvest. Some reports showed that the amylose content of stored rice
declined with storage time (Patindol, Wang, & Jane, 2005; Ziegler
Cooking quality et al., 2017), which may be attributed to possible degradation
Changes in storage conditions could also influence rice cooking of starch under the action of amylolytic enzymes (Ziegler et al.,
quality (Table 1 and Figure 2 and 3). A significantly longer cook- 2017). However, other studies on stored rice by SEM could not
ing time for red (Finocchiaro et al., 2007) and brown rice (Ziegler provide evidence suggesting significant effects of storage on con-
et al., 2018), and a reduction in cooking time for black rice (Ziegler tent of total starch, amylose, and amylopectin, as well as the
et al., 2018) after six months of storage were found. The increase mean size range and shape of starch granules (Chen et al., 2015;
in cooking time of stored rice is a result of interactions among Noomhorm, Kongseree, & Apintanapong, 1997; Teo et al., 2000;
components such as amylose–amylose, amylose–amylopectin, and Tran et al., 2005). Sodhi et al. (2003) indicated that greater amylose
starch–protein that hamper the water absorption ability of rice content could provide more advantages for inter- or intramolecu-
grains and subsequently increase the time required for starch gela- lar interactions of starch with other components in rice, whereas
tinization (Ziegler et al., 2018). The mechanism of reduction in the amylose–lipids complexes led to stored rice that was harder
cooking time during storage for black rice could be attributed and less prone to disintegration.
to the natural occurrence of protein and starch breakdown by The molecular level features of rice starch are also closely associ-
endogenous enzymatic attack, which facilitates water intake and ated with the changes of storage conditions. Patindol et al. (2005)
starch gelatinization (Ziegler et al., 2018). evaluated the effects of storage conditions on rough rice starch fine
GT, as another parameter that influences rice cooking qual- structures. They observed a decreased amylose/amylopectin ratio,
ity such as cooking time, is dramatically affected by rice storage shortened amylopectin average chain length, and shift in chain
temperature and duration (Table 1). Zhou et al. (2016) suggested length distribution to shorter branch chains, indicating significant
that the mechanism of these storage-induced changes in rice ther- changes in starch fine structure under elevated storage temper-
mal properties may be due to the changes in cell wall structure ature (38 °C). Moreover, analysis of hot-water soluble fraction
and protein properties during storage (Figure 3). Zhou, Robards, demonstrated that the leaching of starch components, particularly
Helliwell, and Blanchard (2010) found that starch isolated from amylose, decreased in stored rice under high temperature (37 °C;
rice stored at high temperature (37 °C) showed a greater peak Zhou, Robards, Helliwell, & Blanchard, 2007).
temperature (Tp ) and Tc compared with lower temperature The chain length distribution of rice amylopectin also changed
(4 °C) storage. Meanwhile, SEM showed a coarser morphology over time under different storage conditions. Huang and Lai (2014)
of cooked rice stored at high (37 °C) than low temperature (4 °C) reported a slight increase in the percentage of short chains (DP 6
temperature, suggesting a more limited water absorption of stored to 15) but a decrease in the percentage of medium and long chains
rice (Zhou et al., 2016). (DP 16 to 50) over time in stored waxy rice. Patindol et al. (2005)
Teo, Abd. Karim, Cheah, Norziah, and Seow (2000) observed reported an increase in relative percentage of DP 6 to 12 chains
that, compared with isolated starch, the rice flour stored at 25 to both in medium and long rice grains stored at 21 and 38 °C for
45 °C for 14 weeks showed a considerably lower enthalpy of gela- nine months, which may due to the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch.
tinization (H) and rate of retrogradation, which may attribute These changes in starch fine structure could be attributed to starch
to the effects of other components in the flour. Fan et al. (1999) degradation under endogenous α-amylase hydrolysis.
found that rice stored at 38 °C exhibited greater H (9.0 to Rice storage could result in significant changes in pasting profile,
9.8 J/g) than did rice stored at 4 °C (7.8 to 8.6 J/g) and 21 °C (8.3 and a consistent increase in PV of waxy or non-waxy rice flour
to 9.0 J/g), suggesting a significant effect of storage temperature has been observed (Park et al., 2012; Teo et al., 2000; Zhou et al.,
on GT characteristics. Sodhi, Singh, Arora, and Singh (2003) fur- 2016). Such increase in PV is dependent on storage temperature
ther evidenced that both transition temperatures (To , Tp , and Tc ) and duration, and occurs to a greater extent at greater storage
and H of stored rice flour decreased with increased storage time, temperature (Park et al., 2012), with 30% to 50% increase in PV for
which may be due to the lessened effect of starch-oryzenin inter- rough rice stored at 20 and 37 °C for three months (Perdon, Marks,
actions so that the starch is more readily gelatinized (Sodhi et al., Siebenmorgen, & Reid, 1997). Haydon and Siebenmorgen (2017)
2003). Storage may alter the structure and properties of oryzenin reported that PV increased with increasing storage temperature
such as the formation of intermolecular covalent disulfide cross and duration up to 27 °C but decreased at 40 °C after six-week
links (Sodhi et al., 2003; Teo, Abd Karim, Cheah, Norziah, & storage.
Seow, 2000), leading to less oryzenin interacting with starch. Furthermore, rice BD decreased while SB increased with stor-
With increased storage time of milled rice, the water uptake and age regardless of storage temperature (Park et al., 2012). In contrast,
gruel solid loss would be decreased on one hand, which may be Haydon and Siebenmorgen (2017) observed an increase in rice BD
attributed to the decrease in α-amylase activity, protein solubility, and decrease in SB with storage at 20 to 27 °C. Such contrary re-
and the formation of amylose–lipid complex (Sodhi et al., 2003). sults may be due to the varietal difference of rice grain studied.
On the other hand, the elongation ratio of cooked rice (kernel For example, Thanathornvarakul, Anuntagool, and Tananuwong
length of cooked rice divides by that of uncooked raw rice) also (2016) reported that low amylose (9% to 11%) rice had a greater
increased, which may be attributed to the amylose content of PV and BD, but lower pasting time than high amylose (23-25%)
milled rice (Sodhi et al., 2003). Additionally, Huang and Lai (2014) rice stored at 39.2 °C and 43.1% RH. Similarly, Teo et al. (2000)
found a greater starch swelling power for stored waxy rice with reported that there was no apparent effect of storage on the pasting
more long branch chains (degree of polymerization, DP > 67). behavior of the isolated starch in the stored non-waxy rice flour.
They hypothesized that the high swelling degree of starch granules Huang and Lai (2014) later found that the viscosity of starch iso-
during gelatinization was due to the hydrolysis of amylopectin lated from stored waxy rice increased with the storage temperature
and small cluster generation by the endogenous α-amylase during and duration. Teo et al. (2000) had also postulated that modifi-
storage. cation in structure and properties of protein components, rather


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 Table 1–Changes in the physicochemical properties of rice flour under different storage conditions.

Pasting properties Thermal properties Textural properties

Storage Storage
temperature period PV HPV CPV BD SB H Hardness Adhesiveness
Impact of postharvest operations . . .

Reference Variety (°C) (month) (RVU)a (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) To (°C) Tp (°C) Tc (°C) (J/g) (g) (g/s) Cohesiveness
Chen et al (2015)b Nanjing 46 23 0 182.5 78.4 169.0 99.9 3.0 – – – – – – –
3 193.1 84.4 180.9 108.0 –4.3 – – – – – – –
6 201.6 88.4 182.6 106.0 –13.9 – – – – – – –
9 197.7 79.9 179.9 109.0 –13.8 – – – – – – –
12 213.3 91.1 184.1 111.7 –14.6 – – – – – – –
15 218.8 96.7 190.5 122.0 –28.3 – – – – – – –
18 168.7 62.5 142.7 105.8 –35.1 – – – – – – –
Park et al. (2012) Japonica cultivar 4 0 156.5 – – 142.8 109.4 – – – – 1587 471 0.36
1 145.0 – – 131.6 92.5 – – – – 1716 195 0.26
2 163.0 – – 122.0 101.1 – – – – 1735 167 0.24
3 284.6 – – 112.8 140.4 – – – – 1831 139 0.25

6 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 0, 2019

4 235.9 – – 81.0 160.0 – – – – 1952 102 0.25
20 0 156.5 – – 142.8 109.4 – – – – – – –
1 314.5 – – 130.6 118.6 – – – – 1617 163 0.24
2 166.4 – – 125.7 127.9 – – – – 2068 118 0.26
3 282.1 – – 106.3 163.8 – – – – 2103 71.3 0.27
4 298.0 – – 105.8 158.4 – – – – 2146 55 0.28
30 0 156.5 – – 142.8 109.4 – – – – – – –
1 307.7 – – 100.6 112.9 – – – – 1735 121 0.27
2 157.0 – – 89.4 125.5 – – – – 2289 93 0.28
3 277.3 – – 77.1 143.4 – – – – 2399 49 0.30
4 390.3 – – 78.6 144.0 – – – – 2582 47 0.32
40 0 156.5 – – 142.8 109.4 – – – – – – –
1 273.4 – – 106.3 111.8 – – – – 1906 108 0.27
2 145.8 – – 94.6 107.0 – – – – 2479 88 0.30
3 299.3 – – 70.7 146.2 – – – – 2581 30 0.31
4 322.2 – – 66.1 201.9 – – – – 2866 33 0.34


(Continued)

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Table 1–Continued.

Pasting properties Thermal properties Textural properties

Storage Storage
temperature period PV HPV CPV BD SB H Hardness Adhesiveness
Reference Variety (°C) (month) (RVU)a (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) (RVU) To (°C) Tp (°C) Tc (°C) (J/g) (g) (g/s) Cohesiveness
Zhou et al. (2007, 2010) Koshihikari Fresh 12 – – – – – 61.2 67.7 73.1 7.4 – – –

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists®

4 12 – – – – – 61.0 67.7 73.1 7.5 – – –
16 – – – – – – – – – 373 4.1 0.37
Impact of postharvest operations . . .

37 12 – – – – – 61.6 68.4 75.9 8.5 – – –

16 – – – – – – – – – 891 2.5 0.47
Kyeema Fresh 12 – – – – – 73.5 77.9 81.9 10.3 – – –
4 12 – – – – – 73.6 78.0 81.9 10.3 – – –
16 – – – – – – – – – 354 4.0 0.38
37 12 – – – – – 74.1 78.9 85.4 11.1 – – –
16 – – – – – – – – – 685 2.9 0.47
Doongara Fresh 12 – – – – – 69.4 74.2 79.1 8.7 – – –
4 12 – – – – – 69.4 74.3 79.2 8.8 – – –
16 – – – – – – – – – 561 1.7 0.40
37 12 – – – – – 69.9 75.0 82.1 9.4 – – –
16 – – – – – – – – – 872 1.0 0.46
Sodhi et al. (2003) Basmati–370 Room 12 – – – – – 68.7 74.1 80.0 5.3 270 – 51 N
(N/cm)
temperature 24 – – – – – 66.3 73.1 79.8 5.7 660 – 137 N
(N/cm)
Sharbati 12 – – – – – 74.7 79.6 85.5 7.8 190 – 36 N
(N/cm)
24 – – – – – 66.8 74.6 84.6 6.5 242 – 74 N
(N/cm)
Teo et al. (2000) Makmur 77 25 0 – – – – – 47.2 56.5 65.7 0.9 – – –
0.5 – – – – – 45.9 54.5 65.7 1.1 – – –
1 – – – – – 16.9 55.2 67.6 1.2 – – –
1.5 – – – – – 50.1 57.6 70.6 1.1 – – –
35 0 – – – – – 47.2 56.5 65.7 0.9 – – –
0.5 – – – – – 56.6 63.1 71.5 0.8 – – –
1 – – – – – 56.9 64.9 79.7 1.1 – – –
1.5 – – – – – 59.4 67.5 81.1 0.9 – – –
45 0 – – – – – 47.2 56.5 65.7 0.9 – – –
0.5 – – – – – 65.7 73.7 85.7 1.0 – – –
1 – – – – – 68.7 81.3 90.5 1.1 – – –
1.5 – – – – – 68.2 82.1 93.8 0.8 – – –
o p c
a Abbreviations: PV, peak viscosity; HPV, hot paste viscosity; CPV, cool paste viscosity; BD, breakdown; SB, setback; T , onset temperature; T , peak temperature; T , conclusion temperature; H, enthalpy of gelatinization.
b Data were recalculated. 12 cP = 1 RVU.

Vol. 0, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 7

Impact of postharvest operations . . .
than starch, was primarily responsible for the changes in pasting
properties of milled rice flour during storage.
In general, cooked rice hardness increased while adhesiveness
decreased with increased storage temperature (Park et al., 2012;
Zhou et al., 2007), which may be due to the reduced hydration
process of starch granules in stored rice grains (Zhou et al., 2007).
However, Sodhi et al. (2003) found that the textural properties
such as packability, hardness, cohesiveness, extrudability, and
chewiness of cooked non-waxy rice all increased during aging,
which eventually led to the reduction in stickiness. Interestingly,
the variations in hardness were different for cooked colored rice
under different storage conditions (Table 1). For brown rice, the
hardness was slightly increased dependent on storage temperature,
while it remained unchanged throughout the storage period for
black and red rice (Ziegler et al., 2018). The cohesiveness of
cooked rice stored at greater temperature also increased compared
to storage at lower temperature, which may be associated with
the increase in resistance to the hydrothermal disruption of starch
granules and the content of insoluble material (Park et al., 2012).
The differences in textural properties of cooked rice during stor-
age may be mainly the result of changing starch physicochemical
properties and formation of amylose–lipid complexes.
Nutritional quality
Storage conditions may cause changes in composition, such
as for proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides, which comprise the
nutritional quality in a broad sense. Nutritional quality or health
benefits of whole grain rice (brown rice) have attracted more
attention by breeders, processors, and consumers recently.
Polysaccharides. Tran et al. (2005) reported significant reduc-
tions of 37.1% to 52.1% and 26.4% to 64.7% in the content of
disaccharides (sucrose) and polysaccharides (raffinose), as well as
significant increases of 33.1% to 79.9% in the content of monosac-
charides and 54.0% to 107.1% in the content of glucose and fruc-
tose, in brown rice stored for six months at room temperature
(15 to 18 °C). Similarly, Cao, Wang, Chen, and Ye (2004) investi-
gated the changes in sugar profile during rice storage. They found
there was a decreasing trend for the content of sucrose (from 0.750
to 0.176 mg/g) and maltose (from 0.401 to 0.163 mg/g) in milled
rice, but an increasing trend for fructose (from approximately 0 to
0.246 mg/g) and glucose (from 0.192 to 0.249 mg/g). Decrease
in the disaccharide (sucrose and maltose) contents and increase in
the monosaccharide fructose were found during the whole storage
period of paddy rice, indicating that the hydrolysis of disaccharides
continue during rice storage (Cao et al., 2004). The monosaccha-
ride glucose content decreases first and then increases in the later
stage of storage, indicating the glucose may bond together to form
macromolecules. It was reported that the lipid peroxidation and
sugar hydrolysis were coupled to the Maillard reactions during seed
storage (Murthy et al., 2003). Thus, the Maillard reactions may oc-
cur to lower monosaccharides such as glucose during rice storage.
Protein and amino acids. Rice proteins can be divided into four
categories: albumin, globulin, prolamin, and glutelin. Dhaliwal,
Sekhon, and Nagi (1991) found less water soluble proteins and
free amino acids after 12 months storage in dried paddy rice com-
pared to a lot stored immediately after harvest, although proteolytic
activity was lower in the dried samples. Tran et al. (2005) found
a reduction in free amino acids such as glutamic acid and aspartic
acid of japonica, hybrid, and indica brown and milled rice stored at
room temperature, which may directly influence the umami taste
of cooked rice. Recently, Shi, Wu, and Quan (2017) evaluated the
changes in the major storage proteins, particularly in prolamin and
8 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 0, 2019
glutelin, during rice storage at 49 °C under 85% RH. They found
that the content of carbonyl compounds in rice prolamin and
glutelin increased from 333.6 to 787.7 nmol/ng and from 432.2
to 1160.0 nmol/ng, respectively, as storage time increased. These
results indicated a significant oxidation of prolamin and glutelin
during rice storage. A trend toward increased proportion of high
molecular weight proteins (> 225 kD) during storage was ob-
served for rice aged at elevated temperature (Thanathornvarakul
et al., 2016). Such increase in molecular weight of proteins dur-
ing storage may result from oxidation of sulfhydryl group, which
creates disulfide bridges and other cross-linking reactions within
protein molecules (Thanathornvarakul et al., 2016; Zhou, Wang,
Si, Blanchard, & Strappe, 2015).
Lipid and volatile lipid oxidation products. The processes in-
volved in the hydrolysis of lipids to produce FFA and the oxi-
dation of lipids to produce hydroperoxides could be responsible
for changes occurring in lipid profile during storage (Saikrishna
et al., 2018). The lipids and lipolytic enzymes are mainly present
in the outer layers of the rice grain and hence more likely to be
disturbed during processing and storage. The amount of free fatty
acids would rise due to the increase of the activities of lipase and
lipoxygenase during rice storage (Zhou et al., 2002; 2016). Zhou,
Robards, Helliwell, and Blanchard (2003) found rice storage at
37 °C resulted in some minor but statistically significant changes
in the fatty acid profile. The stored brown rice showed a no-
table reduction in the amounts of oleic and linoleic acids, whereas
milled rice stored at 37 °C for four and seven months showed a
decrease in linoleic acid content (Zhou et al., 2003). Similarly, Ah-
mad et al. (2017) found that the contents of lipid slightly decreased
during 31 days of storage. Similarly, Sodhi et al. (2003) reported
that the free fatty acids were significantly increased from approxi-
mately 0.66% to 0.80% as storage time increased from one to two
years. Liu, Li, Chen, and Yong (2017) determined the changes in
fatty acid value, peroxide value, and carbonyl value of brown rice
stored under different conditions, and reported that these values
were significantly increased with storage time and temperature.
Loss of desirable volatile compounds and decrease in volatile
lipid oxidation products in aged rice have always been found,
greatly affecting palatability as well as consumer acceptability. The
degree of lipid peroxidation had a close relationship with volatile
compounds occurring in storage. Wongpornchai et al. (2004)
showed that as storage time increased, the concentrations of the key
aroma compound, 2-AP decreased whereas the off-flavor com-
pounds, n-hexanal and 2-pentylfuran increased in aromatic rice.
Tananuwong and Lertsiri (2010) found an increase in hexanal,
2-pentylfuran, 1-octanol, and 4-vinyl guaiacol but decreases in 2-
AP and geranyl acetone for organic rice after two months storage.
Suzuki et al. (1999) found that the hexanal, pentanal, and pentanol
content of stored brown rice were also markedly increased during
storage at 35 °C, and the increase for lipoxygenase-3-less rice just
a fifth to a third that of normal rice, suggesting an important role
of lipoxygenase in the formation of desirable or undesirable flavor
and aroma. Furthermore, rice storage at low temperature (15 °C)
could be better to slow the formation of volatile lipid oxidation
products and retain desirable odorants, maintaining the desirable
rice aroma (Tananuwong & Lertsiri, 2010).
Effects of Milling on Rice Grain Quality
Milling as a mechanical procedure to yield milled rice results in
significant variations in rice grain quality characteristics. Different
methods, milling conditions (duration, temperature) and DOM
have great effects on milled grain quality.

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists®
Impact of postharvest operations . . .

Figure 4–Rice grain and bran layers under different degree of milling (DOM). Note: Rice grain were dehusked using a Satake rice machine (Satake
Corp., Japan) and then milled to different degree by rice milling machine HM-3200 (Haomai Technologies, Harbin, China) in the laboratory. 1, Paddy
rice; 2, brown rice; 3, milled rice after 55s milling time; 4, milled rice after 110s milling time; 5; milled rice after 180s milling time; 6, husk; 7–9, rice
bran collected after 55, 110, and 180 s milling time.

Appearance quality Milling quality

Obviously, milled rice had significantly greater L∗ value than
brown rice (Rodrı́guez-Arzuaga, Cho, Billiris, Siebenmorgen, &
Seo, 2016), and the lightness increased with increasing DOM
(Monks et al., 2013; Figure 4). Choi, Seo, K. Lee, S. Lee, and
J. Lee, 2018a, 2018b) observed that the L∗ , a∗ , and b∗ values
were significantly greater as DOM increased in black rice, re-
gardless of cultivars. Nonetheless, the degree of whiteness of
milled rice tended to increase while b∗ values decreased as sur-
face lipid content decreased. Zhong et al. (2013, 2014) also eval-
uated the effect of DOM on color of raw rice, and found that
a∗ and b∗ gradually decreased while L∗ value increased with
the increase of DOM. Such DOM-induced decrease in a∗ and
b∗ of raw rice were due to the progressive removing of red
and yellow pigments during milling process that highly concen-
trate in rice bran and endosperm periphery (Rodrı́guez-Arzuaga
et al., 2016) Milled rice kernel thickness significantly affected
grain whiteness and transparency because of the predominant
effects of the thinner kernel fractions (Chen & Siebenmorgen,
1997).
Fissures alter kernel structure and kernel tensile strength, ulti-
mately resulting in kernel breakage and HRY reduction. Milling
temperature has an effect on the HRY (Mohapatra & Bal,
2006; Pan, Khir, & Thompson, 2013). High milling temper-
ature led to increased fissured grain rates and decreased HRY
(Mohapatra & Bal, 2006; Pan et al., 2013). An over-milling could
cause low HRY without any further improvement in the white-
ness or DOM, whereas an under-milling could result in high
HRY with darker appearance in the milled rice. Study on the me-
chanical strength distributions of brown rice kernels showed the
breaking force of grain milling was significantly correlated with
kernel thickness, but not significantly related to kernel width or
length (Siebenmorgen & Qin, 2005).
Eating and sensory quality
Milling processes could influence amylose content and starch
physicochemical properties, indicating that the cooking and eating
quality may be affected by milling. The amylose content in deep-
milled rice was greater than regular-milled rice (Lyon et al., 1999).


C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 0, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 9
Impact of postharvest operations . . .
For broken rice induced from fissuring during milling, PV, CPV,
and SB decreased significantly with decreasing size of brokens
(Mukhopadhyay & Siebenmorgen, 2017). Literature reports have
shown a close relationship between DOM and pasting properties of
milled rice. Perdon, Siebenmorgen, Mauromoustakos, Griffin, and
Johnson (2001) found that PV increased with rice DOM linearly
and the rates of increase were greater for medium-grain than long-
grain cultivars, but there was no consistent or a highly significant
effect of DOM on CPV. Tran, Suzuki, Okadome, Homma, and
Ohtsubo (2004) showed an increase in PV (306 vs. 477 RVU),
CPV (277 vs. 367 RVU), and BD (164 vs. 265 RVU) as rice
DOM increased from 0% to 20%. Exposure of rough rice to
elevated temperatures during milling results in a significant increase
in PV, CPV, and SB, which was probably attributed to the increase
in protein surface hydrophobicity induced by exposure to high
temperature (Saleh & Meullenet, 2015).
DOM has been shown to greatly affect rice textural charac-
teristics through its effect on starch structure and the content of
other nonstarch polysaccharides (Mohapatra & Bal, 2006). A sen-
sory descriptive analysis of cooked rice showed that milling effects
were significant for textural parameters such as adhesiveness, co-
hesiveness of mass, uniformity of bite, and starchy mouth-coating
(deep > regular) (Lyon et al., 1999). Through comparing the tex-
tural properties of different rice varieties with high, intermediate,
and low amylose content, Mohapatra and Bal (2006) observed that
the instrumental hardness of cooked rice decreased while cohe-
siveness and adhesiveness increased as the DOM increased. Similar
results of lower adhesiveness in less milled rice grains were further
confirmed by Kohyama, Sodhi, Sasaki, and Suzuk (2014). Ahmad
et al. (2017) found that as the rice milling intensity increased,
cooked rice kernels absorbed more water and became softer more
easily. Tran et al. (2004) found that the hardness and stickiness of
cooked rice had tendency to decrease with increased DOM (0 to
20%), which agreed with results of Park, Kim, and Kim (2001),
who demonstrated that with increasing DOM, adhesiveness of
cooked rice increased, whereas hardness and chewiness decreased.
On the contrary, Monks et al. (2013) did not find large differences
in hardness and adhesiveness among the rice samples milled to
different degrees (8% to 14%). Saleh and Meullenet (2015) found
a 5.4 and 8.1 N decrease in instrumental firmness of cooked rice
across cultivars and milling degree, but slight increase in sticki-
ness when milling temperature increased from 10.0 to 13.3 °C.
However, some other investigators found little to no effect of
milling degree on textural characteristics of cooked milled rice
using fixed water-to-rice ratios (Billiris, Siebenmorgen, & Wang,
2012). Therefore, DOM should be carefully considered and con-
trolled for acceptable physicochemical properties and desired eat-
ing quality during rice milling.
DOM has been widely found to influence flavor attributes of
cooked rice. Choi, Seo, K. Lee, S. Lee, and J. Lee (2018b) quanti-
fied the changes of volatile compounds in raw/cooked black rice
according to milling degrees. Eight major odor-active volatiles in-
cluded guaiacol, 4-vinylphenol, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, ben-
zaldehyde, p-xylene, 2-butylfuran, 2-pentylfuran, and calamenene
were significantly lower with increased DOM (0 to 10.5%) in
both raw and cooked black rice. Liu and Yang (2011) found a 30%
decrease in the amount of total headspace volatiles from brown
rice to milled rice caused by milling effect. In particular, the largest
groups of volatiles, aldehydes and alcohols, decreased 20% and
15% during rice milling, respectively. Park et al. (2001) revealed
the “puffed corn flavor,” “raw rice flavor,” “wet cardboard flavor,”
and “hay-like flavor” of cooked rice were lower with increased
10 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 0, 2019
milling from 8% to 14%. Similarly, Billiris, Siebenmorgen, Meul-
lenet, and Mauromoustakos (2012) showed significantly greater
intensities of feedy, nutty, burlap, and woody flavor while lower
intensities of sulfury, starchy, and metallic flavor in brown rice
than milled rice. Champagne et al. (1997) also demonstrated that
the DOM significantly affected the intensities of “corn,” “grain-
starchy,” and “waterlike-metallic” flavor attributes in cooked rice.
Deep-milling would result in small increases in the intensities of
dairy and floral but a small decrease in popcorn flavor of rice with
12% moisture, whereas the intensities of dairy and floral decreased
slightly in rice with 15% moisture. These results indicated that
the effects of DOM on rice flavor were possibly dependent on
moisture, variety and location (Champagne et al., 1997).
Nutritional quality
Sugars and polysaccharides. In addition to starch, nonstarch
polysaccharides of rice are affected by DOM. The yields of non-
starch polysaccharides from brown rice were 3% to 4%, greater
than those from milled rice (Lai, Lu, He, & Chen, 2006). Tran
et al. (2005) reported that the content of free sugar would be
highest at 90% milling degree. More recently, Lim et al. (2017)
thoroughly examined the alteration of rice composition due to
milling using metabolomics approach, and found that the num-
ber of sugars (such as d-fructose, d-galactose, and d-glucose) and
sugar alcohols (such as d-arabitol, d-mannitol, and d-glucitol) sig-
nificantly decreased with increased DOM. Waxy rice showed a
greater content of xylose but significantly lower arabinose than
non-waxy rice (Lai et al., 2006).
Protein and amino acids. The rice proteins were mostly con-
centrated in the outer endosperm (9% < DOM < 15%), and
decreased when the DOM (Lamberts et al., 2007; Lyon et al.,
1999; Tran et al., 2004) or milling time increased (Olatunde &
Atungulu, 2018). In general, the deep-milled rice showed lower
total protein content (6.76 compared to 7.36%) than regular-
milled rice (Lyon et al., 1999). Olatunde and Atungulu (2018)
found a reduction in protein content from 8.3% to 5.9% as milling
duration increased from 0 to 60 s. Similarly, Liu, Zheng, and Chen
(2017)) showed a 13.1 to 13.9% decrease in the content of crude
protein (from 8.92 to 9.57 g/100g to 7.75 to 8.24 g/100g) with
increased DOM (from 0 to 15%). Tran et al. (2004) showed that
the content of proteins for Nipponbare decreased from 7.45 to
6.54% with increased DOM (0 to 20%). Furthermore, Paiva et al.
(2014) observed that black rice had greater decrease (10% com-
pared to 2.5%) in protein content than red rice when just 4%
DOM was applied, which may be due to the thin bran layer in
red rice.
For amino acid composition, Liu, Li, et al. (2017) found that the
content of total amino acids in milled Chinese rice decreased from
66.6 to 70.9 mg/g (DOM = 0%) to 65.2 to 66.5 mg/g (DOM ࣈ
9%) and 60.4 to 62.9 mg/g (DOM ࣈ 15%), and almost all detected
individual amino acids decreased as DOM increased (Table 2). Lim
et al. (2017) reported a similar gradual reduction in l-proline of
Korea short/medium grain rice caused by increasing DOM.
Lipid and fatty acids. The concentrations of various lipid-
related components in rice have been reported to closely re-
late with milling process. SEM revealed that brown rice ker-
nels had large contours of linear protuberances and depressions
running lengthwise along the kernel surface rich in lipid, from
which Wood, Siebenmorgen, Williams, Orts, and Glenn (2012)
developed a method based on the amount of lipid remaining on
the kernel surface to evaluate rice milling quality. Their results
demonstrated a progressive decrease in amounts of lipid remaining

C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists®
Impact of postharvest operations . . .

Table 2–Typical changes in the composition of rice with different degree of milling (DOM).

Variety X2 T15
DOM (%) 0 9 15 0 9 15
Lipid (g/100g) 2.43 1.16 0.60 2.86 1.15 0.60
Protein (g/100g) 8.92 8.10 7.75 9.57 8.68 8.24
Ash (g/100g) 1.67 0.70 0.56 1.35 0.48 0.34
Free amino acid (mg/g)a Asp 7.81 7.39 6.95 8.75 8.60 8.37
Thr 1.51 1.29 1.12 1.56 1.52 1.49
Ser 3.52 3.07 2.74 2.71 2.69 2.68
Glu 12.50 12.10 11.20 12.20 11.90 11.40
Gly 3.30 2.97 2.73 2.64 2.60 2.55
Ala 3.89 3.49 3.20 3.55 3.36 3.22
Val 4.02 3.83 3.50 3.52 3.52 3.53
Met 1.19 1.14 0.96 1.74 1.62 1.47
Ile 3.03 2.94 2.75 3.25 3.26 3.24
Leu 6.68 6.41 6.06 6.51 6.37 6.19
Tyr 2.71 2.64 1.62 1.72 1.57 1.17
Phe 3.36 3.16 2.98 4.13 4.05 3.98
His 2.51 2.28 2.12 1.73 1.64 1.59
Lys 2.99 2.62 2.42 2.48 2.49 2.48
Arg 6.13 5.69 4.86 5.14 5.06 4.63
Pro 4.49 4.25 4.14 3.89 3.98 3.98
Cys 1.24 1.19 1.09 1.04 0.97 0.87
TAA 70.90 66.50 60.40 66.60 65.20 62.90
EAA 22.80 21.40 19.80 23.20 22.80 22.40
NEAA 48.10 45.10 40.70 43.40 42.40 40.00
Elements (mg/kg) Mg 437.42 188.64 118.90 439.03 180.20 69.63
Ca 148.85 105.29 87.67 160.71 126.78 63.57
Mn 24.59 11.53 8.77 20.66 8.69 5.53
Zn 16.09 14.52 13.33 22.05 15.26 14.39
Fe 22.66 12.96 8.72 19.64 9.73 4.85
Cu 1.88 1.42 1.11 1.58 1.06 0.85
Pb 0.33 0.18 0.16 0.33 0.15 0.13
Se 27.74 24.02 20.41 24.80 20.62 17.96
Note: Adapted from Liu, Li, et al. (2017).
a Abbreviations: TAA, total amino acids; EAA, essential amino acids; NEAA, nonessential amino acids.

on the surface of the kernel after successive milling, indicating that
the lipid was not solubilized and redistributed over the kernel as
a result of milling treatment (Wood et al., 2012). Liu, Li, et al.
(2017) showed that the content of crude lipid decreased from 2.43
to 2.86 g/100g to 0.60 to 0.60 g/100 mg with increased DOM
from 0 to 15% (Table 2). Monks et al. (2013) found a 65.23% de-
crease in the content of rice lipid as a function of milling, even at
8% DOM. Perdon et al. (2001) observed a reduction in total and
surface lipid contents (SLC) with increased DOM. Siebenmorgen
et al. (2006) compared the SLC of different cultivars and hybrids
under various milling time, and found lower SLC levels of hybrids
than those of cultivars. Chen, Siebenmorgen, and Du (1999) re-
ported that commercial milling systems had great influences on
SLC in long- and medium-grain rice. The SLC varied signifi-
cantly across kernel thickness fractions, and was influenced more
by DOM level than by grain thickness. In particular, the thinnest
kernel fraction (<1.49 nm) had greater SLC (1.01%) than other
kernel fractions (>1.49 nm; 0.78 to 0.82%) at the low DOM lev-
els (Chen, Siebenmorgen, & Griffin, 1998). These similar results
observed in different investigations were expected, due to rice
lipids being predominantly located in the outer bran layer that
could be progressively removed during milling. Milling of differ-
ent rice samples to attain comparable DOM levels by controlling
varying durations may be necessary (Siebenmorgen et al., 2006).
However, the level of fatty acids also decreased with reduction in
lipids while fatty acid profile did not change with an increase in
the DOM (Monks et al., 2013). Different milling methods could
significantly affect the content of lipid. It has been reported that
the wet-milled flour tended to have lower lipid content compared
to dry-milled rice flour (Leewatchararongjaroen & Anuntagool,
2016), but the effects of various milled rice temperatures on SLC
were not significant (Saleh & Meullenet, 2013).
In addition to surface lipid, other nutritious lipid components
have also been found to be influenced by DOM. Ha et al. (2006)
found that as the DOM increased in short-grain rice, the levels
of γ -oryzanol, squalene, and octacosanol decreased significantly,
whereas there were no significant differences in the relative per-
centages of the sterol isomers. Simultaneously, the total tocol con-
tents decreased from 37.67 mg/kg (brown rice) to 21.75 mg/kg
(5.6% DOM), 16.92 mg/kg (8.0% DOM) and 11.58 mg/kg (9.6%
DOM; Ha et al., 2006). It was noteworthy that the concentra-
tions of phospholipid groups (including lysophosphocholine 14:0,
16:0, 18:0, 18:1, 18:2, and 18:3) increased nonlinearly with milling
(Lim et al., 2017), which may be because phospholipid combined
with starch to form amylose–lipid complex distributed in rice
endosperm (Tong, Liu, Waters, Huang, & Bao, 2015).
Minerals. The milling or polishing also had significant effects
on nutritional aspects of milled rice since most of the minerals
are concentrated in the aleurone layers. Numerous studies have
suggested a considerable loss for rice grain macro- and micro-
elements, especially Zn and Fe (Liang et al., 2008; Liu et al.,
2017b; Prom-u-thai et al., 2007). Liang et al. (2008) observed
that the levels of phytic acid and Zn in all short-, medium-, and
long-grain samples decreased with prolonged rice milling. Ren,
Liu, Wu, and Shu (2006) found up to 36% loss of Zn caused by
rice milling. Similarly, 24% to 60% and 10% to 58% reduction in
grain Fe and Zn, respectively, on milling have also been found in
another 15 Thai rice genotypes (Saenchai, Prom-u-thai, Jamjod,
Dell, & Rerkasem, 2012). The loss of selenium (Se) content in
rice increased significantly as the milling time become longer,
as the Se is mainly incorporated with proteins in outer-layers
(Liu, Cao, Bai, Wen, & Gu, 2009). Liu, Li, et al. (2017) ob-
served considerable losses for Mg, Mn, Fe, and Pb during milling
(DOM = 9%; Table 2). These results indicated that the variation


C 2019 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 0, 2019 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 11
Impact of postharvest operations . . .
in the loss of elements were both associated with the DOM and
rice genotypes.
DOM also has large negative effects on ash contents in milled
rice since ash reflects the mineral content of the bran layers of
rice caryopsis (Heinemann, Fagundes, Pinto, Penteado, & Lanfer-
Marquez, 2005; Liu, Li, et al., 2017; Singh, Singh, Kaur, & Singh
Bakshi, 2000). Liu, Li, et al. (2017) showed a decrease of 66.5%
to 74.8% for ash content from 1.35 to 1.67 g/100g to 0.34 to
0.56 g/100 mg with increased DOM from 0 to 15% in two milled
Chinese rice varieties (Table 2). Singh et al. (2000) observed an
increase in ash loss of four Indian rice cultivars as the milling
time increased. A similar result was also reported by Heinemann
et al. (2005), who reported a mean decrease of 61.15% in the
ash content between brown and milled rice. Monks et al. (2013)
reported a significant reduction of 42.86% in ash content from
milling Brazilian rice (8% to 14%). Paiva et al. (2014) observed
that the rice ash content decreased from 3.7% to 0.6% with 12%
DOM. Interestingly, red rice showed lower mass loss than black
when milling, but a greater percentage of ash loss, which may
indicate that the ash content was larger and more concentrated in
the bran of red rice (Paiva et al., 2014).
Others. Three well-known classes of antioxidant compounds,
namely γ -oryzanols, tocols, and polyphenols, are mainly present
in rice visible testa and embryo after dehulling, and are vulner-
able to the DOM. Analyses of milled rice color indicated that
the color pigments were uniformly distributed in the middle
and core endosperm, and the level of pigments decreased from
grain surface to the middle endosperm with increasing milling
(Lamberts et al., 2007). Tuncel and Yilmaz (2011) observed
an approximately 84% reduction of γ -oryzanols of brown rice
when becoming milled rice due to the whitening and polishing
steps.
Choi et al. (2018a) evaluated the effect of DOM of black rice
on phenolic profiles. They found that as DOM increases, the to-
tal phenolic contents, total flavonoid contents, antioxidant activity,
phenolic acid levels, and anthocyanin levels decreased significantly.
In detail, the content of free phenolics such as gallic acid, sy-
ringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside
and peonidin-3-O-glucoside, and bound phenolics such as vanillic
acid, were all significantly reduced, and positively correlated with
antioxidant activity (DPPH) but negatively correlated with grain
appearance parameters (L∗ , a∗ , and b∗ values; Choi et al., 2018a).
Liu et al. (2015) reported an average decrease of 21.1%, 42.6%,
and 55.6% of total phenolic content, and corresponding reduction
of 37.4%, 84.0%, and 92.8% in the total antioxidant activity value
as DOM increased from 0 to 2.67, 7.25%, and 9.6%, respectively.
In detail, the content of individual phenolic compounds, includ-
ing quercetin and coumaric acid, were simultaneously decreased
with increasing DOM (Liu et al., 2015). DOM also caused a con-
sistent decrease in the hydroxycinnamic acids content, especially
in ferulic and sinapic acid (Finocchiaro et al., 2007) and a signifi- Science and Technology, 75, 386–392.
cant loss in the folic acid content (Monks et al., 2013). Compared
with brown rice (188 μg/100g), the folic acid content decreased to
52.2 μg/100g (72.23% reduction) when milling rice at 8% DOM,
and 29.0 μg/100g (44.44% decrease compared to 8% DOM) when
milled to 10% DOM (Monks et al., 2013).
Conclusions
Postharvest processes are critical to produce high-value rice In J. S. Bao (Ed.), Rice Chemistry and Technology (4th ed., pp. 473–515).
grains and significantly influence rice grain quality. Based on this
review, it is certain that various drying and storage conditions, technology: Rice storage and cooling conservation. In J. S. Bao (Ed.), Rice
milling methods, and DOM have significant impacts on rice grain Chemistry and Technology (4th ed., pp. 517–555). Duxford, UK: Elsevier Inc.
12 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 0, 2019
quality (appearance, cooking, eating, nutritional quality, and oth-
ers). Drying processes can affect rice kernel fissure formation, and
mainly affect the milling quality. Milling at different DOM results
in differential loss of major nutrients, macro- and micro-elements
in particular, and so milling strongly affects the nutritional quality
of rice. Rice aging is a complicated process during storage. Ag-
ing affects rice grain chemical composition and physicochemical
properties, so all aspects of rice grain quality will be affected.
The exact mechanisms for the effects of drying, milling, and
storage on rice grain quality remain unclear. It is believed that the
mechanism for the change of grain quality is similar to and as com-
plex as that for rice aging. The physical and chemical changes of
rice grain structure and composition during storage are attributable
to the actions of numerous endogenous enzymes, finally leading
to the changes in quality. Postharvest processing actions such as
drying and milling may alter the normal aging process and cause
changes in grain quality.
Although numerous studies have been published concerning
the effect of postharvest processing on rice components and qual-
ities, the information related to the impact of drying, storage, and
milling technologies on human health benefit related traits (such as
vitamins and antioxidant activities) is still limited. For rice storage,
priority should be given to understanding the mechanism of aging
so that technologies could be developed to stabilize lipid, protein,
and starch for producing milled rice with stable and consistent
quality. For rice milling, further investigation should be focused
on the optimization of suitable milling methods for different rice
varieties. Due to greater hardness of cooked brown rice, light
milling techniques may be developed to supply milled rice with
greater nutritional values.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the National Key R&D
Program of China (2017YFD0401103-6; 2016YFD0400104), the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (31701639), and
the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities at
Zhejiang Univ., China (2016XZZX001-09). Authors sincerely
thank Prof. Harold Corke and the anonymous reviewers for their
comments and corrections of the grammar.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest
Authors’ Contributions
All five authors researched, wrote, and edited the review.
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