TAYLOR’S COLLEGE

CHEMISTRY (9701)
Chapter 4 : States of Matter

Solid
By: Mr. Chan M.H., Lucas
(Intellect 1; Table 1)
 Solids
• Most solids are crystalline

• The particles (atoms, molecules or ions) are arranged in

an orderly manner.

• In solids, the particles are held rigidly together by strong

attractive forces in a 3D structure called the lattice
structure

• The basic repeating unit of crystalline solid is called unit

cell
 Types of lattice structures

• Ionic structure
• Metallic structure
• Simple Molecular structure
• Giant molecular structure
 Ionic structure,
Sodium chloride, NaCl
• Each Na+ ion surrounded by 6 Cl- ions
• Each Cl- ions surrounded by 6 Na+ ions
• Coordination number of Na+ and Cl- ions in the crystal is
6.
• cubic structure
 Ionic structure,
Sodium chloride, NaCl
• Lattice particles – Cations & Anions
• Lattice forces - strong electrovalent bonds

• NaCl has a high melting (808oC) and boiling point

• Molten NaCl conducts electricity, solid NaCl doesn’t

• Can dissolve in water. Water can form electrostatic

bonds and pull the ions off the crystal

• http://www.avogadro.co.uk/structure/chemstruc/ionic/g-ionic.htm
 Ionic structure,
Sodium chloride, NaCl
 Ionic structure,
Magnesium oxide, MgO

• Has a structure similar to NaCl

• Each Mg2+ ions are surrounded by 6 O2- ions

• Each O2- ions are surrounded by 6 Mg2+ ions

• Ionic compounds are used as refractories (solids that

can resist high temperature w/o melting or decomposing)

• Magnesium oxide, MgO, (m.p. = 2800oC) is used to line

the inside of furnaces
 Metallic Structure
• Lattice particles – metal cations
• Electrons from the metal atoms are delocalised
• Lattice forces – metallic bond (forces of attraction are between the
delocalised electrons and the metal ions)
• Metal atoms are in a close-packed together (metals are usually very
dense)
• For example, in solid copper, each copper cations touches 12 other
cations. Coordination number of copper cations in solid is 12
 Metallic Structure (Properties)
• Copper metal conducts electricity
• Have very high melting and boiling point
• Metals are malleable because layers of atoms can slide
over each other w/o breaking the metallic bond. This
doesn’t happen in ionic or giant molecular crystals
• Metals are made much harder by alloying
• Copper is used in electric wires because it is a very good
electrical conductor
 Metallic Structure
(Coordination number)

http://genchem.chem.wisc.edu/lab/winss/metal_cells/face_centered_cubic
_metals/coordination_number.htm
 Simple Molecular Structures
• Lattice particles – small molecules
• Lattice forces (between molecules) in the crystal are
weak forces:
– Van der Waals forces (induced dipole-dipole)
– Permanent Dipole-dipole attraction
– Hydrogen bonding

• Melting and boiling point are low

• If the only forces between the molecules are Van der
Waals forces the m.p. and b.p. are related to
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
 Simple Molecular Structures,
Iodine
• Lattice particles – I2 molecules
• Lattice forces – Van der Waals forces
 Simple Molecular Structures,
Iodine
• Only the Van der Waals forces are broken during melting
and boiling. Therefore the m.p.(114oC) and b.p.(184oC)
of iodine are low.

• Iodine is almost insoluble in water, they can not form the

hydrogen bond between water molecules

• Most molecular solids can only dissolve in water if they

are able to form _____________with water (eg. Ethanol,
ammonia)

• Iodine does not conduct electricity

 Simple Molecular Structures,
Ice
• Lattice particles – water molecules
• Lattice forces – Hydrogen bonds
• Hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds are arranged
tetrahedrally therefore there’s a lot of empty space

_______
covalent bonding
hydrogen bonding
 Simple Molecular Structures,
Ice
• Density of ice is lower than in the liquid water.

• m.p. and b.p. are low but are higher than many other
molecular solids with similar size molecule.
 Giant Molecular Structures,
Diamond
• Lattice particles – atoms
• Lattice forces – strong covalent bonds
• Coordination number - 4
 Giant Molecular Structures,
Diamond (Properties)
• Very high melting point (3600oC)

• Very hard due to the strong carbon-carbon bonds and

the tetrahedral structure

• Does not conduct electricity

• Does not dissolve in water or organic solvent. Water

molecules cannot break the strong covalent bonds.

• Uses: Abrasives, cutting glasses, hard metals and alloys

 Giant Molecular Structures,
Graphite

• Lattice particles – Carbon atoms

• Lattice forces – Strong covalent bonds
• Graphite has a layer lattice
• Each carbon atoms forms covalent bonds with 3 other carbon
atoms using 3 of its electrons in the outer shell. (Forming a
hexagonal ring)
• The fourth electron is delocalised in a giant π bond that
extends over the whole layer
 Giant Molecular Structures,
Graphite (Properties)
• The C-C bond length in a graphite layer (143pm) is
shorter than the C-C bond length in diamond (154pm)

• The C-C bonds between the layers are longer (340pm).

• These bonds are weak Van der Waals forces – layers
can slide over each other. This makes them soft and
slippery suitable to be used in pencil and as lubricant
 Giant Molecular Structures,
Graphite (Properties)
• Very high melting point (about 3600oC), due to the
strong covalent bonds in the layers.

• A very good electrical conductor along the layers

because the delocalised electrons can move along the
layers. Used as electrodes.
Drawing the structure of Diamond & Graphite
 Difference between Diamond and Graphite

Diamond Properties Graphite

Each carbon atoms

4 surrounded by x 3
carbon atoms
Carbon atoms Hexagonal rings, layer
Tetrahedral
arrangement structure
Strong covalent bonds
Strong covalent bonds Bonding
& π bond

- Forces between layers Van der Waals

154.1 pm Bond length C-C 142.6 pm

no Delocalised electrons yes

High Melting point High

Doesn’t conduct
Electric conductivity Conducts electricity
electricity

High Density Low

hard Hardness Soft, slippery feel

opaque and metallic- to

transparent and brilliant Physical appearance
earthy-looking
insoluble in water and insoluble in water and
Solubility
organic solvents organic solvents
Abrasives, cutting Pencil nip, lubricant,
glasses, hard metals and Uses ribbons for typewriters
alloys and computer printers
 Giant Molecular Structures,
Silicon (IV) oxide, SiO2
• Lattice particles – silicon and oxygen atoms
• Each silicon atom is joined to 4 oxygen atoms by strong
covalent bonds
• Each oxygen atom is joined to 2 silicon atoms by strong
covalent bonds
Silicon atoms

Oxygen atoms
 Giant Molecular Structures,
Silicon (IV) oxide (Properties)
• Silica (SiO2) occurs commonly in nature as sandstone, silica sand or
quartzite.

• Properties:
– Has good abrasion resistance,
– electrical insulation (Does not conduct electricity )
– high thermal stability (SiO2 has a high melting point )
– insoluble in all acids with the exception of hydrogen fluoride (HF).

• It is the starting material for the production of silicate glasses and

ceramics.

• Silica is a fairly widely used ceramic material both as a precursor to

the fabrication of other ceramic products and as a material on its
own