Studies in Conservation

ISSN: 0039-3630 (Print) 2047-0584 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ysic20

Spherical Copper Resinate on Coromandel Objects:

Analysis and Conservation of Matt Green Paint

Lucia Burgio, Shayne Rivers, Catherine Higgitt, Marika Spring & Ming Wilson

To cite this article: Lucia Burgio, Shayne Rivers, Catherine Higgitt, Marika Spring & Ming Wilson
(2007) Spherical Copper Resinate on Coromandel Objects: Analysis and Conservation of Matt
Green Paint, Studies in Conservation, 52:4, 241-254

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/sic.2007.52.4.241

Published online: 19 Jul 2013.

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 241

Spherical Copper Resinate on

Coromandel Objects: Analysis and
Conservation of Matt Green Paint
Lucia Burgio, Shayne Rivers, Catherine Higgitt, Marika Spring and Ming Wilson

An unusual green pigment was found on a seventeenth-century kuan cai (Coromandel) lacquer screen at the Victoria and Albert
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Museum, London.The particles are perfectly spherical and translucent, with the appearance of green fish roe. Analysis revealed
that the pigment is a copper resinate, produced by reacting a copper salt with a resin, probably one from a Pinus species.The
binding medium for the pigment is proteinaceous.The unusual spherical morphology of the particles results from the method of
manufacture. A pigment with the same microscopic appearance was also found on two other Coromandel objects from the same
collection. In light or olive green areas, where the pigment is mixed with lead white, the paint is glossy and well preserved. In
contrast, in the dark green areas where the pigment was used alone, the paint is matt and powdery and there is significant paint
loss and abrasion.The problem of consolidation of the powdery paint, while still preserving the matt appearance of the surface, was
resolved by the use of immiscible solvents and consolidant.

INTRODUCTION morphology, which was used extensively on the screen.

Following extensive renovation, the Victoria and Albert
(V&A) Museum’s British Galleries opened to the public
in late 2001. These galleries illustrate the historical
progression of British art and design, showcasing
significant influences along with examples from the most
important designers and manufacturers. A small display
sets out examples of objects from China, Japan and
India alongside their British-derived counterparts, with
Chinese lacquer represented by a twelve-fold kuan cai
(Coromandel) lacquer screen (Figure 1). Conservation of
the screen was a challenging undertaking because of its
size and condition, and because little detailed technical
information on kuan cai was available. The V&A initiated
a technical study of the object, both to inform the
conservation treatment and to increase understanding
of this decorative form of Chinese lacquer. One of
the most interesting results of the examination was
the discovery of a previously unknown translucent
green copper resinate pigment with a striking spherical
Received October 2006
Figures 2 and 3 show details of areas of decoration from
the screen containing this pigment. In Figure 2 there
are several shades of light green paint, all of which are
hard and glossy, and which survive in good condition.
In contrast, the dark green paint of the underside of
the bladed leaves where this pigment was used alone
is powdery and matt, presenting particular problems in
the conservation treatment. Although minor losses are
apparent in the areas illustrated, some other dark green
areas have suffered more extensive loss (Figure 3). This
paper describes the identification of the pigment and
the paint binding medium, as well as the method used to
consolidate the matt green paint.
Historical context
The technique of kuan cai (‘cut colour’) lacquer was
unique to China and involved incising designs into a
lacquer surface and then decorating the resulting lacunae
with polychrome paint. Historical European terms used
to describe this technique include ‘Bantam work’ in
late seventeenth-century England and ‘Coromandel’ in

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 242 L. BURGIO, S. RIVERS, C. HIGGITT, M. SPRING AND M. WILSON
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Figure 1 Coromandel screen, V&A accession number 130-1885.
early eighteenth-century France [1, 2]. The front of the
kuan cai screen examined in this study is decorated with
a pastoral scene of animals and birds among trees and
flowers alongside waves topped with spindrift, while the
back is characterized by incised fan-shaped and square
cartouches inscribed with extracts from the works of
well-known poets, an allusion to the screen-owner’s
literary knowledge. Both front and back are bordered
with the ‘hundred antiques’ design depicting flower
vases, urns and animals such as dogs, terrapins, dragons
and phoenix.
The artistic quality of kuan cai can be judged by the
intricacy and conception of the overall design, while
craft skill is evident in the execution of the decoration.
Fine-lined and smooth-flowing curves are the most
technically difficult incised decoration to produce.
The large areas given over to the depiction of fine
bundles of coniferous needles and waves are testament
to the exceptionally high quality of this screen. The
polychrome decoration utilizes a wide range of colours
in combination with delicate glazes, which are used for
both pictorial detail and graduated shadowing. Matt
and gloss paint are juxtaposed to create an impression
of three-dimensionality in the design. The combination
of fine line incised work with matt muted colour in
the coniferous needle bundles, for example, causes the
overhanging tree greenery to recede within the design,
S T U D I E S I N C O N S E RVAT I O N 5 2 ( 2 0 0 7 ) PA G E S 2 4 1 – 2 5 4
while the more brightly coloured glossy areas, such as
the deer and flowers, advance into the foreground.
A limited range of pigmented lacquer was produced
prior to the nineteenth century, typically black, brown,
red and yellow [3]. There are two reasons for this limited
palette. First, the drying of lacquer occurs through
a combination of oxidation and enzyme-catalysed
(therefore pH-specific) cross-linking and many pigments
disrupt the curing process [4]. Second, pigments used in
combination with lacquer must have the ability to mask
the natural dark brown colour of this binding medium,
so it is not possible to make white lacquer, for example.
A wider range of colours, including the greens, whites,
and blues typical of kuan cai polychromy, are possible if
other binding media are used.
Texts on Chinese lacquer, historical documentary
sources and contemporary conservation literature give
little information on kuan cai, while the materials and
techniques used to create it rarely warrant more than a
single sentence (see for example [5]).Typical descriptions
of the polychromy technique refer to the use of oil as
the binding medium, or lacquer for certain colours,
although two authors refer to the use of water-based
colours [6, 7].
The sixteenth-century Chinese lacquerist Huang
Cheng listed kuan cai along with 90 other lacquering
techniques in Xiu Shi Lu (The Lacquering Handbook)
 SPHERICAL COPPER RESINATE ON COROMANDEL OBJECTS
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Figure 2 Glossy green paint on the Coromandel screen. The matt green
can be seen in some of the long thin leaves (note the paint losses in their
centre).
Figure 3 Matt dark green leaves on the Coromandel screen, showing
extensive damage. A few paler glossy leaves, still in perfect condition, can
also be seen and are marked with arrows.
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243
written between 1567 and 1572.1 Although this suggests
that incised polychrome lacquer was already being
made in the latter half of the sixteenth century, if not
earlier, kuan cai objects are generally attributed to the
Kangxi period (1622–1722). Describing polychrome
decoration, Huang Cheng states: ‘Kuan cai, some
colours are compatible with lacquer, some with oil.
Those compatible with lacquer should be applied using
the dry method, those compatible with oil should be
applied with lead powder. Some add gold and silver
to the palette, which makes it more beautiful’ [8,
paragraph 129]. Huang Cheng goes on to describe the
‘dry method’, in which lacquer was brushed onto an
intaglio area, followed by the application of powdered
pigments on top. In the ‘wet method’, pigments were
mixed with oil and brushed directly onto the surface.
The handbook, under the heading of ‘oil’, explains that
several colours such as sky blue, white and peach pink
cannot be obtained by mixing the pigment with lacquer
and therefore have to be mixed with oil. ‘Oil’ refers to
paulownia oil, obtained from the seeds of the paulownia
tree [8, paragraphs 16 and 97]. Water-based media are
not referred to in this text. Glues derived from cowhide,
staghorn and fish bladder are mentioned, though only in
reference to joining wood or bamboo pieces together to
form the substrate [8, paragraph 41].
While there is a substantial body of literature dealing
with general principles of the conservation of lacquer
[3, 9–11], there are very few references dealing with the
conservation of kuan cai (Coromandel) lacquer. Passing
reference to the restoration of kuan cai screens is made
by Skálová [12] and Piert-Borgers [13]. Bresinsky gives
a historical overview of the use of Coromandel and
Japanese lacquer in eighteenth-century French furniture
but does not address conservation issues [14]. Piert-
Borgers undertook the examination and limited analysis
of several Coromandel objects, including three screens
[7]. Breidenstein examined a gilded Chinese screen
and incorporated information on the materials and
techniques in the foundation layers [15], which may be
similar to those found on Coromandel screens.
OPTICAL MICROSCOPY
Samples taken from the glossy green areas on the screen
revealed that the uppermost layer contained lead white
1
In 1625 the lacquerist Yang Ming wrote commentaries to Huang’s
text, and further annotations to both texts were made by Wang
Shixiang [8].
 244 L. BURGIO, S. RIVERS, C. HIGGITT, M. SPRING AND M. WILSON
mixed with a translucent dark green spherical pigment
(see the Appendix and Figure 4). The spheres ranged
from approximately 2 to 100 µm in diameter. In the sam-
ples from the matt areas a thick layer composed of the
same translucent green spheres was always present, used
alone rather than with lead white, giving the appearance
under the microscope of green fish roe. The pigment in
these areas was very leanly bound and there were voids
between the spherical particles. In a few areas there
was a layer of malachite over the layer containing the
translucent green spherical pigment, and in these places
the matt green paint is in better condition (Figure 5).
The appearance and colour of the translucent
green pigment was typical of a copper-containing
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material. The shape of the particles might at first have
suggested that the pigment could be either emerald
green (copper acetoarsenite, the particles of which are
usually characterized by a spherical shape) [16] or so-
called spherical malachite (either synthetic or naturally
precipitated) [17–19]. However, the green pigment
found on the Coromandel screen was darker and more
translucent than either of these pigments, and was
isotropic when viewed in transmitted light between
crossed polars.
The green spheres seemed to partially dissolve
when heated in Cargille Meltmount to be viewed as
a dispersion, particularly at higher temperatures, and
their morphology was no longer visible (dispersions
were made in the temperature range 65–95°C). This
behaviour is not typical of emerald green or spherical
Figure 4 Photomicrograph of a cross-section of a sample from a pale,
glossy green area on the Coromandel screen, showing translucent, dark
green spheres of variable size embedded in a lead white matrix.
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malachite, and is more frequently observed when
preparing dispersions of copper-containing glaze paint
where verdigris has reacted with oil. In addition, emerald
green and spherical malachite yield distinctive Raman
spectra, unlike the green pigment from the Coromandel
screen (only fluorescence was observed with 514.5 and
632.8 nm excitation).
Other occurrences of a green pigment described
as resembling fish roe have been reported on Chinese
objects, but the pigment is either not discussed in
detail [20], or it is described, based on its microscopic
appearance rather than on analytical results, as a synthetic
form of malachite, ‘showing a white centre surrounded
by a shell of green’ [21].
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY AND
ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY ANALYSIS
The flawless geometrical shape of the particles and the
smoothness and perfection of their surface could be
appreciated fully only with the aid of a scanning electron
microscope (Figure 6). Cross-sections of samples from
the screen, from both matt and glossy green areas, were
analysed by energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) in
the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Unmounted
samples were also imaged with a tabletop scanning
electron microscope under conditions suited to the
examination of the topography and pigment particle
shape (see the Appendix). Perfect dark grey spheres of
variable diameter are visible in the SEM images, which
Figure 5 Photomicrograph of a cross-section of a sample from a matt
green area on the Coromandel screen showing a layer of malachite on top
of a layer of translucent, dark green spheres.
 SPHERICAL COPPER RESINATE ON COROMANDEL OBJECTS 245

are particularly clear in the glossy green areas because of
the strong contrast with the lead white in which they are
embedded (Figures 7 and 8).
The EDX spectra confirm that the spherical green
pigment contains copper, although at a relatively low
level compared to the background, which is more
typical of copper salts of organic acids than other
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copper-containing pigments such as malachite. In the
backscattered images of some of the cross-sections there
is a more highly scattering feature in the centre of the
largest spheres (Figure 9), in which some chlorine was
detected in association with copper.

Figure 6 Tabletop electron microscope backscattered electron images of an unmounted sample from a matt green area on the Coromandel screen, at
two different magnifications.

Figure 7 SEM backscattered electron image of a cross-section of a Figure 8 Tabletop electron microscope backscattered electron image
sample from a pale, glossy green area on the Coromandel screen. of an unmounted sample from a glossy green area on the Coromandel
screen.

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 246 L. BURGIO, S. RIVERS, C. HIGGITT, M. SPRING AND M. WILSON

on a seventeenth-century Coromandel cabinet in the

Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst, Berlin [7].
A sample from a dark green area containing only
the copper resinate pigment was analysed by gas
chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) (see
the Appendix). The diterpenoid content of the sample
suggests that a conifer resin is present, probably
from a Pinus species (the diterpenoid region of
the chromatogram is shown in Figure 11 and the
components identified are listed in Table 1). It is not
possible to determine if the pine resin has a European
or Asian origin, but the absence of the methyl esters
of lambertianic (mass spectrum with base peak, B+ 121
and molecular ion, M+ 330) or merkusic (B+ 121, M+
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364) acids rules out certain East Asian Pinus species

such as P. armandii, P. wallichiana, P. koraiensis and P. sibirica
or P. merkusii [27, pp. 100–101]. The unusual degree of
Figure 9 SEM backscattered electron image of dark green spheres preservation of the resin components is undoubtedly
from the Coromandel screen. Two of the particles show the presence of a
related to the presence of copper in the pigment, which
nucleus, marked with arrows.
acts as an antioxidant. A sesquiterpene component was
also detected (B+ 161, M+ 204) but its identity cannot
readily be assigned, as a number of sesquiterpenes show
FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED MICROSCOPY similar mass spectral patterns. The sesquiterpene could
AND GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY–MASS be a component of the Pinus resin used in the copper
SPECTROMETRY ANALYSES resinate, or could represent the residues of some form of
oil of turpentine or other essential oil.
The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra obtained GC-MS analysis also gave some indication of the
from a sample of the matt green paint from the screen identity of the paint medium. The absence of saturated
(Figure 10) indicated the presence of a true copper fatty acids in the chromatograms argues against the
resinate [22, 23] and were in good agreement with use of an egg-based binder or a number of oils. The
those obtained from standard samples [24], as well as paulownia oil mentioned as a binder in the historic
samples produced at the National Gallery by heating literature contains only low levels of saturated fatty
verdigris with pine resin (based on a recipe in the De acids, which could be almost undetectable in a leanly
Mayerne manuscript, see [25]). The bands at 1696 and bound paint, but there was also no indication of the
1242 cm-1 are characteristic of resin acids, and the band
at 1607 cm-1 is characteristic of the copper–resin acid
interaction (asymmetric copper carboxylate stretching
frequency) [26].When the green particles were placed in
a diamond micro-compression cell, a few deeper blue-
green particles could be seen within the compressed
green matrix. These are presumably the residues of the
copper salt used to prepare the copper resinate (possibly
copper chloride, based on the EDX results), but attempts
to characterize this material by infrared microscopy
failed. Examination of a sample from a glossy pale green
area confirmed the presence of the same green copper
resinate pigment, mixed with lead white. Although no
information is given about the particle morphology,
a light green translucent pigment which gave a good
match with copper resinate reference spectra when
Figure 10 FTIR spectrum of a sample from a matt green area on the
examined by IR spectroscopy has also been reported Coromandel screen.

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 SPHERICAL COPPER RESINATE ON COROMANDEL OBJECTS 247

Table 1 Results of the analysis of a green sample from the Coromandel screen by GC-MS

Peak Retention time (minutes) Component m/z [M+, B+]

1 22.50 methyl seco-dehydroabietate type (bicyclic) 316, 284, 146, 101

2 22.71 methyl seco-dehydroabietate type (monocyclic) 316, 284, 146
3 23.51 methyl pimarate 316, 121
4 23.68 methyl sandaracopimarate 316, 121
5 24.04 methyl palustrate 316, 301, 241, 105, 91
6 24.11 methyl isopimarate 316, 241, 121, 105, 91
7 24.41 methyl dehydroabietate 314, 299, 239
8 24.96 methyl abietate 316, 256, 241, 121, 105
9 25.42 methyl 3- or 7-hydroxydehydroabietate (?) 330, 312, 237
10 25.53 methyl neoabietate 316, 135
11 26.12 methyl 3- or 7-hydroxydehydroabietate (?)a 330, 312, 237 (344, 329)
12 26.54 methyl 15-hydroxydehydroabietate (?) 330, 315, 312, 255, 237
13 27.20 methyl 7-oxodehydroabietate 328, 253
14 27.53 unassigned 345(?), 342(?), 330, 270, 253, 235, 149, 121
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15 27.60 unassignedb 358, 340, 283, 265, 225

16 28.13 unassigned 340, 280, 265, 227
17 30.06 unassigned 358, 313, 253
18 30.20 methyl 7-oxo-15-hydroxydehydroabietate (and dehydrated 344, 329 (326, 251)
species)c
19 30.24 unassigned 360(?), 358, 313, 253
20 30.68 unassigned 370, 355
21 31.49 unassignedd 356, 341, 338, 281, 278, 263, 238, 225, 197
The use of TMTFTH (3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyltrimethylammonium hydroxide) as the derivatizing reagent normally yields a single derivative for each
component and these are reported in the table. However, the results obtained here suggest that minor quantities of some additional components are being
formed, much as are seen with the more alkaline reagent, tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH). In addition, a few components show signs of some
dehydration occurring during the run and co-elution: perhaps reflection problems with the injector system or the GC column [28].
a
Two species appear to be co-eluting. The minor component elutes too early to be the methyl 7-oxo-15-hydroxydehydroabietate but might be a methoxy
version of methyl 15-hydroxydehydroabietate [29].
b
This may be the methylated enol-form of methyl 7-oxo-15-hydroxydehydroabietate [29].
c
Two species appear to be co-eluting. The minor component appears to be the dehydrated form of methyl 7-oxo-15-hydroxydehydroabietate.
d
Two species are possibly co-eluting here. One species may yield 356/341 and the other 338/225/263.

38]. A proteinaceous or polysaccharide-based binder is

Figure 11 Chromatogram of a sample from a matt green area on the
Coromandel Screen.
presence of unsaturated fatty acids in which paulownia
[30, p. 234] and other drying oils are rich (no residual
unsaturated fatty acids and no oxidative degradation
products such as azelaic acid were detected) [29, pp. 36–
therefore more likely, a conclusion supported by the fact
that the green spheres have not ‘dissolved’ and lost their
distinctive morphology as might have been expected in
a resin-, oil- or lacquer-based binder.
No bands assignable to a polysaccharide binder
could be seen by FTIR microscopy. Where the pigment
was used alone, the very strong bands associated with
the copper resinate pigment masked the regions of
the spectrum where absorbances associated with a
proteinaceous binder would be expected, although
shoulders at around 1650 and 1550 cm-1 in the spectrum
for the sample containing the green pigment mixed
with lead white were suggestive of a protein binder.
To remove the pigment interference, a sample of the
matt green paint was extracted with hot water and the
dried extract examined. The IR spectrum (not shown)
confirmed the use of a protein-based binding medium
(probably animal glue).
No descriptions of the manufacture of a pigment such
as that on the screen have been found in accounts of

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 248 L. BURGIO, S. RIVERS, C. HIGGITT, M. SPRING AND M. WILSON
Coromandel craftsmanship. The term ‘copper resinate’ is
more commonly encountered in the context of Western
European easel painting, where it has traditionally been
used for green translucent copper-containing glazes,
although recent work has shown that these glazes in
fact generally consist of verdigris which has wholly or
partially reacted and dissolved in the oil binding medium.
A small amount of varnish was sometimes added to these
glazes, so that some ‘copper resinate’ can be present, but
formed through reaction with the resin on ageing of the
paint rather than by deliberate reaction [22, 23, 31].
The unusual morphology of the copper resinate
particles on the Coromandel screen suggests that it did
not simply result from the reaction of a copper pigment
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with an organic binding medium but is a deliberately
manufactured copper resinate pigment. It seems likely
that the molten copper resinate mix was quenched
in water and that the spherical green particles then
separated out of the emulsion as the copper resinate
cooled and solidified. Such a method of production
would account for the shape and the variable size of
the pigment particles. Where the copper resinate has
not been mixed with lead white, the lean proteinaceous
binder does not fill the voids between the large pigment
particles, explaining why the paint appears rather matt
and is very powdery and brittle. The lighter green areas
contain the same pigment and also have a proteinaceous
binding medium, but contain lead white, which fills the
voids between the green particles giving a glossier, more
durable paint.
CONSERVATION
In contrast to the gloss painted areas, which were largely
intact, areas of matt painted decoration were powdery
and friable and had suffered significant losses, as is
typical of matt paints with their high ratio of pigment
volume to binder volume [32, p. xxxix]. Adhesive failure
had occurred both within the paint layer, which is
0.5–1.5 mm thick, and at the interface with the white
preparation layer. SEM images showed that this paint had
a rough surface, was poorly bound and contained large
voids. This paint presented a particular challenge, since
any conservation treatment that alters these properties
will cause a marked change in the appearance of such
paint, due to a reduction in the diffuse reflection of light
from the surface of the paint [33, p. 164].
Both the front and rear of the screen had been
varnished in the past, probably in an attempt to unify the
appearance of wax repairs and the adjacent lacquer. The
semi-matt varnish was characterized by thick, uneven
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brush marks. White accretions along the edges of many
incised areas were identified as paraffin wax [34]. The
varnished surface had a greenish-white autofluorescence
under ultraviolet (UV) illumination, which is consistent
with several Western natural resin varnishes. By contrast,
photo-degraded black oriental lacquer frequently
exhibits a muted orange autofluorescence [35]. These
factors, combined with the solubility characteristics,
suggested the presence of a wax–resin varnish.
Although alcohols and ketones would usually be used
to remove this type of varnish, contact with such solvents
often causes blanching in photo-degraded oriental
lacquer. The more light-damaged the lacquer and the
longer it is exposed to these solvents, the more likely it
is that significant blanching will occur [36]. Solvent tests
on the varnish demonstrated that aromatic hydrocarbon
solvents caused sufficient swelling to allow removal of
the varnish from the lacquer using a combination of
solvent and mechanical action.
Solubility tests on the matt green copper resinate
paint were undertaken using small samples viewed
under 100–200× magnification. The pigment was
readily soluble in ethanol and acetone and insoluble in
deionized water, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon
solvents. The overlapping solubility parameters of
pigment and varnish combined with the friability of the
paint layer meant that no attempt was made to remove
the Western varnish from the matt paint. However, it was
still necessary to consolidate the matt paint decoration
without further altering its appearance.
The aims of the consolidation treatment for the
matt paint on the screen were to introduce enough
consolidant to prevent further loss of pigment, ideally
without altering the appearance of the paint, and to allow
for the possibility of future re-treatment without damage
to the paint or adjacent lacquer. Common approaches
for the consolidation of matt paint include reducing the
concentration of consolidant, using multiple applications
of very dilute consolidant solutions (sometimes less than
1%) or using a nebulizer [37] or ultrasonic mister [38];
increasing penetration of consolidant into the paint layer
by means of a slow-evaporating solvent [39] or a vapour-
saturated atmosphere [40]; the use of additives such as
matting agents in the consolidant and experimentation
with traditional materials in new ways, for example
funori, an alginate used in Japanese conservation [37, 41,
42]. Several methods and materials were tested, including
ParaloidTM B72 in dilute solutions and in the slow-
evaporating aromatic solvent diethylbenzene, a range of
cellulose ethers, and the use of fumed silica as a matting
agent. All were unsuccessful, providing either insufficient
 SPHERICAL COPPER RESINATE ON COROMANDEL OBJECTS
adhesion or darkening the matt green paint. However,
during informal discussions of this consolidation problem,
colleagues from the V&A sculpture conservation studio
referred to their use of immiscible solvents to prevent the
penetration of aqueous cleaning agents into uncoated
porous plaster surfaces during cleaning [43]. Typically
the plaster surface was wetted with a hydrocarbon
solvent (white spirit) which acted as a barrier to prevent
water-soluble dirt being carried further into the porous,
water sensitive plaster surface as the surface was cleaned
with a dampened swab. The use of immiscible solvent
combinations has been reported for aqueous cleaning
of paintings (hydrocarbon solvent layer/ammonium
hydroxide–water solution [44]) and paper objects with
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water-sensitive media (cyclododecane barrier layer [45]).
There is only a single anecdotal reference to the use
of immiscible solvents for consolidation of matt paint
(footnoted as Futernick, personal communication):
‘sensitive flaking paint has been successfully adhered
with acrylic emulsions while the paint was saturated
with toluene… the toluene was allowed to dry, leaving
the flaking paints still porous but adhered’ [32, p. lvi].
These experiences with porous materials prompted
consolidation tests following a similar approach.
An acrylic dispersion, PrimalTM WS24 (5% solids),
and isinglass 5% w/v were tested. First, drops of a
hydrocarbon solvent (white spirit) were applied to the
friable paint from a pipette, followed by application of
the consolidant, drawn off by capillary action from a
fine sable brush touched to the surface. Once dry, the
treatment was evaluated by brushing lightly over the
surface with a dry sable brush while observing the effect
under low magnification. No loose pigment particles
were observed when isinglass was used, but 5% PrimalTM
WS24 was insufficient to secure the pigment. In both
cases, the appearance of the surface was unchanged.
After further successful trials, isinglass was selected
as the consolidant for the matt painted areas of the
Coromandel screen. Some collagen-derived adhesives
can offer long-term stability if natural contaminants are
minimized, relative humidity fluctuations limited and
high light levels avoided [33, p. 165].
The most likely explanation for the effectiveness of
the treatment is simple displacement. Isinglass used on
its own as a consolidant forms a thin layer on the surface
that saturates and darkens matt paint. Pre-wetting the
surface with a hydrophobic solvent such as white spirit
prevents this. As the isinglass is applied, the white spirit is
displaced and forms a layer at the surface of the paint, on
top of the isinglass. The hydrophobic white spirit layer
acts as a barrier that repels the isinglass and prevents it
S T U D I E S I N C O N S E RVAT I O N 5 2 ( 2 0 0 7 ) PA G E S 2 4 1 – 2 5 4
249
forming a coherent film on top of the pigment particles.
By the time the white spirit has evaporated, the isinglass
has gelled below the surface. The low concentration of
isinglass provides sufficient adhesion within the paint
layer without filling the voids and darkening the paint.
Consolidation of the fr iable matt paint using
immiscible solvents facilitated the rapid treatment of
substantial areas of matt paint on the Coromandel
screen. These vertical surfaces have suffered no further
loss in the years since the screen was redisplayed at the
V&A in a gallery where relative humidity ranges from
32 to 57%. Two other matt painted objects, a small
eighteenth-century Chinese polychrome sculpture and
a nineteenth-century Japanese ceiling panel, have also
been treated successfully using this method.
CONCLUSION
The green areas of the Coromandel screen contain
a translucent dark green pigment with an unusual
spherical particle form. It was identified using FTIR
microscopy and GC-MS as copper resinate, which had
been deliberately prepared as a pigment using resin that
was probably from a species of pine. This is the first
time to the authors’ knowledge that a pigment of this
description, which was used extensively in the green
areas on the screen, has been reported. A pigment with
the same microscopic appearance has also been found on
two other Coromandel objects, a casket and a cabinet
dating from the late seventeenth century, which were
sampled for comparison (Figure 12). It seems likely that
further analysis of Coromandel objects will uncover
more examples of its use.
The paint was glossy, hard and well preserved where
the spherical green pigment was used in admixture with
lead white, and matt and porous where it was not. The
binding medium was identified as proteinaceous in both
cases, which contradicts historical sources that document
the materials and techniques used to create Coromandel
lacquer. Consolidation of the matt paint was achieved
without altering the appearance of the paint using a
combination of the immiscible materials white spirit and
isinglass.
APPENDIX – EXPERIMENTAL
Optical microscopy
Samples were embedded in clear casting polyester
resin, polished and examined under visible and UV
illumination with a Leica Aristomet microscope and a
 250 L. BURGIO, S. RIVERS, C. HIGGITT, M. SPRING AND M. WILSON
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Figure 12 Photomicrograph of a cross-section of a sample from a matt green area on the Coromandel cabinet (V&A accession number FE.39-1981)
showing a layer of green spheres. Image width: approximately 0.8 mm.
Leica Laborlux 12 ME microscope. Dispersions were
prepared using Cargille Meltmount (refractive index:
1.662) as the dispersing medium and a hotplate, the
temperature of which was set between 65 and 95°C.
(The pigment discoloured slightly when heated at
100ºC in water.)
SEM-EDX
Polished carbon-coated cross-sections were examined
at 25 kV using a Cambridge Instruments S200 SEM
equipped with a backscattered electron detector and
energy dispersive X-ray analyser (Oxford Instruments
INCA 300 EDX system). An Hitachi tabletop scanning
electron microscope TM-1000 operating at 15 kV was
also used to produce backscattered electron images of
unmounted samples of the spherical green pigment
(working distance ~5 mm, chamber pressure ~50 Pa).
FTIR microscopy
Spectra were acquired using a Nicolet 710 Series FTIR
spectrometer with a NicPlan infrared microscope, fitted
with a mercury-cadmium-telluride (MCT) Type A
detector (cooled with liquid nitrogen). Measurements
were made in transmission mode, using a Spectra-Tech
Reflachromat Cassegrain ×15 objective. 128 scans
were made at a resolution of 4 cm-1 with Happ-Genzel
apodization. Both spectrometer and microscope were
purged with water- and CO2-free air. Samples were
placed between the windows of a Spectra-Tech micro-
compression diamond cell.
S T U D I E S I N C O N S E RVAT I O N 5 2 ( 2 0 0 7 ) PA G E S 2 4 1 – 2 5 4
GC-MS
The paint samples were placed in 1 mL tapered reac-
tion vials and treated with microlitre quantities of 5%
methanolic TMTFTH (3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyltri
methylammonium hydroxide). The vials were sealed
and heated at ~70ºC for about five hours. Each sample
was centrifuged before 1 µL of the supernatant was
injected. Thermolytic methylation was accomplished,
under moderate conditions, upon injection into the
GC injection port at a temperature of 270ºC. Analysis
was carried out on a Trio 2000 quadrupole mass
spectrometer coupled to a Hewlett-Packard 5890 Series
II gas chromatograph. 30 m × 0.32 mm bore BPX5-
coated silica capillary column with 1 µm film thickness
(5% phenyl (equiv.) polysilphenylene-siloxane stationary
phase), injector temperature 250ºC, helium carrier,
column head pressure 48 kPa, splitless mode, column
programme: 70ºC (for one minute) and then ramp at
10ºC per minute to 300ºC (held for 105 minutes), line
temperature 290ºC. Mass spectrometer conditions: 70 eV
electron impact, source temperature 210ºC, scan range
40–600 Daltons, scan time 1 s, interscan time 0.1 s.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr Daffydd Griffiths,
Institute of Archaeology, UCL for providing access to
SEM-EDX facilities at the early stages of this research
in 2001; to Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation for
kindly making available instrument time on a TM-1000
tabletop microscope; to Julie Arslanoǧlu, Sarah Medlam
 SPHERICAL COPPER RESINATE ON COROMANDEL OBJECTS
and Julia Hutt for discussions on Coromandel lacquer; to
Edgar Mantz, Barbara Schertel and Nanke Schellmann
for assistance with German texts. Rian Kanduth and
Alice Kleyboldt contributed to the conservation of the
screen.
MATERIALS
ParaloidTM B72 and PrimalTM WS24: Conservation Resources,
1 Pony Road, Cowley, Oxford OX4 2RD, www.conservation
resources.com.
Clear casting polyester resin: Alec Tiranti Ltd, 27 Warren Street,
London W1T 5NB, UK.
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Cargille Meltmount: McCrone Ltd,. McCrone House, 155a
Leighton Road, London NW5 2RD, UK.
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AUTHORS
L UCIA B URGIO graduated in chemistry from the
University of Palermo, Italy, in 1996. She completed a
PhD degree in chemistry at University College London
in 2000 with a thesis on the analysis of pigments
on art objects using Raman microscopy and other
techniques. After a few months working at ENEA
(New Technologies, Energy and Environment Agency)
in Italy, she joined the Science Section, Conservation
Department, at the Victoria and Albert Museum in
2000. Her research interests include the analysis of
pigments and other artists’ materials (including lacquer)
on museum objects, and the application of scientific
techniques to art and cultural heritage issues. She is
currently senior object analysis scientist at the Victoria
and Albert Museum as well as honorary research fellow
at University College London. Address: Science Section,
Conservation Department,Victoria and Albert Museum, South
Kensington, London SW7 2RL, UK and Christopher Ingold
Laboratories, University College London, 20 Gordon Street,
London WC1H 0AJ, UK. Email: l.burgio@vam.ac.uk
SHAYNE RIVERS graduated from the Royal College of
Art/V&A Conservation Programme in 1998 with an
MA in furniture and decorative surfaces conservation.
Since 1999 she has been a senior conservator at the
Victoria and Albert Museum, London. She is co-editor
and a principal contributor to the Conservation of
Furniture, published in 2003 as part of the Butterworth-
Heinemann Museology Series. In recent years her
primary research interest has been the conservation of
oriental lacquer. Address: Furniture Conservation, Victoria
and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London SW7 2RL
UK. Email: s.rivers@vam.ac.uk
 SPHERICAL COPPER RESINATE ON COROMANDEL OBJECTS 253

CATHERINE HIGGITT graduated in chemistry from the
University of York in 1994 and completed a PhD degree
in chemistry at the same institution in 1998. After one
year working for the Historic Scotland Conservation
Centre in Edinburgh, she joined the Scientific
Department at the National Gallery in London in 1999,
working with Raymond White. Here she specialized
in the study of natural organic materials in old master
paintings using spectroscopic, chromatographic and
spectrometric methods. The study described in this
paper was undertaken while she was senior organic
analyst at the National Gallery. At the beginning of 2007
Catherine moved to the British Museum to take up the
post of head of the Science Group. Address: Department
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Institute in Cambridge in 1991. She joined the Scientific
Department in the National Gallery in 1991. Her
principal interests are the study of historical painting
technique and materials, particularly pigments, and
research into the mechanisms of their deterioration.
She is currently senior scientific officer at the National
Gallery. Scientific Department, The National Gallery,
Trafalgar Square, London WC2N 5DN, UK. Email: marika.
spring@ng-london.org.uk
MING WILSON, Chinese by birth, has an MA degree from
the School of Oriental and African Studies, London
University. She joined the Victoria and Albert Museum
in 1994 and is now a senior curator in the Asian
Department, where she is responsible for the collection

of Conservation, Documentation and Science, The British

Museum, Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG, UK.
Email: chiggitt@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk
MARIKA SPRING graduated in natural sciences, specializing
in chemistry, from the University of Cambridge in
1988, and completed a postgraduate diploma in the
conservation of easel paintings at the Hamilton Kerr
of Chinese decorative arts. Her recent publications
include Rare Marks on Chinese Ceramics (1998), Souvenir
from Canton, Chinese Export Paintings from the V&A (2003)
and Chinese Jades (2004). Address: Asian Department,
Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London
SW7 2RL, UK. Email: m.wilson@vam.ac.uk

Résumé — Un pigment vert inhabituel a été trouvé dans un paravent laqué kuan cai (Coromandel) du XVIIe siècle du
Victoria and Albert Museum, à Londres. Les particules sont parfaitement sphériques et translucides et ont l’apparence d’œufs de
poisson. Les analyses ont montré que le pigment est un résinate de cuivre produit par la réaction d’un sel de cuivre avec une résine,
probablement de l’espèce Pinus. Le liant pour ce pigment est protéinique. La morphologie sphérique inhabituelle des particules est
due à la méthode de fabrication. Un pigment d’apparence semblable a aussi été trouvé sur deux autres objets Coromandel de la
même collection. Dans les zones vert clair ou vert olive, où le pigment est mélangé avec du blanc de plomb, la peinture est brillante
et bien conservée. En revanche, dans les zones vert sombre, où le pigment est utilisé seul, la peinture est mate et pulvérulente et
on observe des lacunes et des zones d’abrasion. L’emploi de solvants non miscibles entre eux et d’un consolidant a permis de
consolider la peinture pulvérulente tout en préservant l’aspect mat de la surface.

Zusammenfassung — Auf einer kuan cai (Coromandel) Lacktafel des 17. Jahrhunderts aus dem Besitz des Victoria
and Albert Museum, London wurde ein ungewöhnliches Grünpigment gefunden. Die Partikel sind perfekt sphärisch und
durchscheinend und haben das Aussehen von grünen Fischrogen. Analytisch konnte das Pigment als Kupferresinat bestimmt
werden, das durch Reaktion eines Kupfersalzes mit einem Harz, wahrscheinlich aus einer Pinus – Species, entstanden ist.
Das Bindemittel des Pigmentes ist proteinisch. Die ungewöhnliche sphärische Morphologie des Pigmentes ist Ergebnis des
Herstellungsprozesses. Ein Pigment des gleichen mikroskopischen Aussehens wurde auf zwei anderen Coromandel Objekten
derselben Sammlung gefunden. In den hellgrünen bzw. olivgrünen Bereichen, wo das Pigment mit Bleiweiß ausgemischt ist, ist
die Malschicht glänzend und gut erhalten. Im Gegensatz dazu sind die dunkelgrünen Bereiche, in denen das Pigment alleine
verwendet wurde, matt und abgepudert und ein Malschichtverlußt sowie Abrieb ist feststellbar. Das Problem der Konsolidierung
der pudernden Malerei unter gleichzeitigem Erhalt des matten Oberflächencharakters wurde durch die Verwendung von
unmischbaren Lösungs- und Konsolidierungsmitteln.

Resumen — Un pigmento verde inusual fue identificado en un panel de laca kuan cai (Coromandel), del siglo XVII,
perteneciente al Victoria and Albert Museum, Londres. Las partículas son perfectamente esféricas y translúcidas, con la apariencia
de huevos de pescado verdes. Los análisis revelaron que el pigmento es un resinato de cobre producido por la reacción de la sal

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 254 L. BURGIO, S. RIVERS, C. HIGGITT, M. SPRING AND M. WILSON

de cobre con una resina, probablemente una de la especie Pinus. El aglutinante para este pigmento es proteínico. La inusual
morfología de las partículas es fruto del proceso de elaboración. Un pigmento con la misma apariencia microscópica se detectó en
otros dos objetos Coromandel de la misma colección. En las áreas claras o de color verde oliva, donde el pigmento está mezclado
con blanco de plomo, la pintura es brillante y está bien presentada. Por el contrario, en las zonas de verde oscuro, donde el
pigmento se ha empleado puro, la pintura se presenta mate y pulverulenta con abundantes pérdidas y abrasión. El problema de
la consolidación de la pintura pulverulenta manteniendo la apariencia mate se resolvió con el uso de disolventes inmiscibles y de
consolidante.
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