Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

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Atmospheric Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosres

Mid-latitude atmospheric boundary layer electricity: A study by using a

tethered balloon platform
S.V. Anisimov , S.V. Galichenko *, K.V. Aphinogenov , E.V. Klimanova , A.A. Prokhorchuk , A.
S. Kozmina , A.V. Guriev
Borok Geophysical Observatory of Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth of RAS, 152742 Borok, Yaroslavl, Russia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, we used a tethered balloon equipped with an instrumented platform to examine the altitude dis­
Atmospheric boundary layer tribution of principal quantities of the lowest atmospheric region of the global electric circuit (GEC), radon
Fair weather atmospheric electricity volumetric activity, and aerosol particles concentration. Altitude soundings covered approximately 0.5 km of the
Global electric circuit
lowest atmosphere and were accompanied by simultaneous ground-based measurements. This method of spaced
Space charge
Balloon measurements
observations allowed us to analyze the spatial and temporal changes in electrical quantities of the atmospheric
boundary layer (ABL) more deeply than was possible before. Using successive balloon ascents and descents as
well as holding the platform at certain heights, long-lived space charge layers were discovered and the rate of
change of charge in atmospheric columns of various thickness was estimated. A charge density of small ions was
determined to be enclosed in a range from − 20 pC m− 3 to 30 pC m− 3 reaching the highest values with rare
exceptions directly at the earth’s surface. It was found that the electric field vertical profiles tend a decrease
during the day most pronounced in the lower 100 m. Similar behavior is also demonstrated by radon and aerosol
particle concentration profiles. Based on the results of soundings, columnar electrical resistance, electric po­
tential, and electromotive force acting in the ABL in fair-weather conditions are quantified. These estimates show
the significant contribution of the ABL to the GEC, which must be taken into account when considering it.

1. Introduction
Through the atmosphere in regions unperturbed by thunderstorms,
electrified clouds, or precipitations, a vertical downward electric current
flows of order 10− 12 A m− 2 caused by the potential difference of about
250 kV (Mühleisen, 1977) between the ionosphere and the earth’s sur­
face. The very possibility of this current flow is provided by the electrical
conductivity of the atmosphere due to its ionization mainly by cosmic
rays and natural radioactivity. Due to an exponential decrease in the
density of atmospheric air with height, the conductivity exponentially
increases with height (e.g. Rosen and Hofmann, 1981), changing by
about six orders of magnitude from the atmospheric surface layer to the
lower layers of the ionosphere. Continuous operation of the global
electric circuit (GEC) is supported by thunderstorms, quasistatic cur­
rents from clouds with a developed electrical structure, currents carried
by precipitation, and magnetospheric dynamo (Harrison and Bennett,
2007; Williams and Mareev, 2014). The role of generators operating in
fair weather conditions in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) most
interacting with the earth’s surface remains poorly studied. The spatial
distribution and changes over time of conductivity and space charge in
the ABL are strongly influenced by regional transport and mixing of air
masses containing aerosols and radioactive gas radon, exhaled from the
earth’s crust (Hoppel et al., 1986).
Understanding that the density of the vertical conduction current in
fair weather regions is determined by the resistance of the atmospheric
column, a significant part of which is formed in the ABL (e.g. Rycroft
et al., 2008), prompted researchers to study the dynamics of the altitude
distribution of conductivity and relevant variables determining it, such
as the concentration of aerosol particles and radon activity. To obtain
information on the GEC and electric current flow in the lower tropo­
sphere unavailable from ground-based observations, numerous airborne
measurements from a variety of different platforms were undertaken
and provided evidence of complicated evolution of the space charge and
the atmospheric electric field (AEF) altitude distributions closely related
to temperature and humidity profiles as well as aerosol dynamics
(Kraakevik, 1961; Moore et al., 1962; Bradley, 1968; Marshall et al.,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: svga@borok.yar.ru (S.V. Galichenko).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105355
Received 18 November 2019; Received in revised form 15 July 2020; Accepted 7 November 2020
Available online 9 November 2020
0169-8095/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S.V. Anisimov et al.
Fig. 1. (a) A map of the surroundings of the observation site, (b) field mills and conductivity sensors of ground measuring set, (c) tethered balloon with instrumented
platform in work, (d) a diagram of the instrumented platform.
1999; Markson, 2007; Nicoll, 2012; Nicoll et al., 2018).
The development of numerical models of electrical processes in the
ABL has been based mostly on the results of ground-based observations
(Anisimov et al., 2017c, 2018). In this connection, the necessity arises
for observational tests of theoretical estimates and acquisition of new
results, establishing the dependencies between the vertical distribution
of aerosol particles, radon, conductivity, AEF, and vertical electric cur­
rent density. Measurements with a tethered balloon system have several
advantages, which include a large carrying capacity, the ability to
control smoothly the height, and a long time of continuous operation
2
Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355
sufficient to analyze diurnal variation. In addition to the above, the
balloon carried equipment can be used for original and complex mea­
surements; examples of their implementation are given in Willett
(1981), Chauzy et al. (1991), Soula and Chauzy (1991).
This study is motivated by a gap in knowledge of the joint evolution
of altitude distributions of atmospheric electrical quantities in the ABL
and quantities responsible for the concentration of small ions, namely,
radon activity and aerosol particle concentration. The goal of this work
is to investigate the causes of variability of the AEF, conductivity, and
conduction current density in the evolving ABL, estimate the
S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Average weakening of
incoming solar flux
radiation

0.03
0.17
0.14
0.04
0.04
0.39
0.45
0.18

0.20
0.11
0.13
0.12
0.01
0.21
0.16
0.16
0.0
turbulent heat flux
[K × m/s]
kinematic
Minimum

− 0.014
− 0.013
− 0.022
− 0.019
− 0.022
− 0.009
− 0.003
− 0.020
− 0.005

− 0.030
− 0.002
− 0.007
− 0.009
− 0.004
0.002
0.001

0.001
turbulent heat flux
[K × m/s]
Maximum
kinematic

0.057
0.018
0.021
0.064
0.059
0.047
0.018
0.082
0.051
0.085
0.104
0.054
0.065
0.065
0.031
0.028
0.032
Temperature
variance

0.027
0.011
0.013
0.031
0.034
0.096
0.089
0.133
0.113
0.096
0.122
0.069
0.084
0.063
0.115
0.109
0,031
[К2]
velocity
Friction

[m/s]

0.121
0.087
0.090
0.086
0.097
0.088
0.065
0.061
0.067
0.076
0.124
0.089
0.071
0.128
0.050
0.055
0.120
kinetic energy
Turbulent

[m2/s2]
(10 m)

0.322
0.147
0.189
0.155
0.188
0.463
0.261
0.257
0.401
0.395
0.985
0.639
0.312
0.614
0.221
0.397
0.374
Fig. 2. Cropped archived images from sat24.com reconstructed from RGB
channels records of relevant instruments onboard «Meteosat» satellites. Red dot
on each image marks the location of the tethered balloon and ground-based
kinetic energy

observations.
Turbulent

[m2/s2]

0.284
0.107
0.145
0.128
0.174
0.163
0.071
0.064
0.062
0.114
0.258
0.220
0.094
0.308
0.040
0.070
0.067
(1 m)

distribution of space charge by the type of charged particles, and eval­

uate electromotive force (EMF) acting in the unperturbed fair weather
atmosphere above land mid-latitude. In order to provide simultaneous
high-resolution measurements of several quantities at a height, an
humidity
Relative

(10 m)

instrumented platform was designed and calibrated.

43.4
89.4
92.1
95.9
93.6
73.2
75.2
65.8
56.6
50.2
50.5
46.6
39.5
41.7
56.6
42.2
50.4
[%]

2. Measurement techniques and methodology

Range and average values of meteorological and turbulent parameters.

[m/s]
speed
(1 m)
Wind

1.17
0.79
0.88
0.46
0.59
0.93
1.02
1.05
0.44
1.04
1.08
1.37
1.17
1.20
1.20
1.28
1.23
The tethered balloon observations of electricity of mid-latitude ABL
maintained by synchronous work of ground-based information
measuring set were conducted in the summer-autumn seasons of
temperature

2017–2019. The work was carried out at the Borok Geophysical Ob­
Minimum

servatory site [58o04’ N; 38o14’ E] in an environment with a natural

19.7
11.9
14.2

17.8
20.5
21.0
13.9
16.4
17.2
21.8
19.4
17.6
16.4
16.0
14.8
[◦ C]

electromagnetic, radioactive and aerosol background. The observatory

4.9
7.4

is located in a flat farming area at a distance of more than 30 km from the

nearest city (Fig. 1a). The study mainly covered the daytime ABL in fair
temperature

weather conditions according to the criteria proposed by Harrison and

Maximum

Nicoll (2018). In short, these criteria impose restrictions on local

meteorological conditions, which can significantly disturb the atmo­
21.4
14.4
17.5
11.0
14.3
19.9
22.4
24.2
17.0
19.9
20.4
26.8
22.8
22.9
23.0
24.6
22.2
[◦ C]

spheric electric field from its normal average value in the absence of
such conditions. In our case, balloon measurements were carried out in
1440:1545
0555:0755
0415:0805
0410:0925
0425:1010
1500:1800
1530:1920
1040:1920
1500:2000
1000:1700
0900:1300
1000:1630
0900:1800
0900:1800
0900:1900
0900:1700
0900:1300
Local time

absence of thunderstorm, precipitation, or significant cloudiness, which

one may characterize as a presence of rare cumulus clouds, which
(LT)

weaken the locally measured density of the incoming solar radiation flux
by no more than 50% during the observational period. Fig. 2 contains
17.08.17
18.08.17
22.08.17
31.08.17
01.09.17
04.09.18
05.09.18
06.09.18
12.08.19
16.08.19
17.08.19
20.08.19
21.08.19
29.08.19
10.09.19
11.09.19
12.09.19

information on cloud conditions during several balloon flights obtained

Table 1

Date

from «Meteosat» family geostationary satellites provided by archive at

3
S.V. Anisimov et al.
Fig. 3. Diurnal series of pyranometer output (blue dots) and direct horizontal
irradiance model (red curve). Vertical yellow lines mark timestamps corre­
sponding to the timestamps of satellite images shown in Fig. 2.
sat24.com. In the morning and evening hours when the fog was forming,
the balloon was not raised, although ground-based observations
continued uninterruptedly. On the observation days, no significant
disturbances of geomagnetic activity were noted which could affect the
results in any noticeable way. Details of background meteorological
conditions and turbulent parameters that characterize days when flights
were made are described in Table 1.
2.1. Ground instrumentation
The ground-based instrumental set was equipped with four electro­
static field mills, two air electrical conductivity sensors, two aerosol
particle counters, a radon monitor, and two meteorological digital sta­
tions installed at heights of 1 m and 10 m above the earth’s surface. The
underlying surface at the measurement site is vegetation comprised of
low grasses (Fig. 1b). The atmospheric electric field (AEF) (vertical
component of the electric field vector) was measured with electrostatic
field mills having a sensitivity of 1 V m− 1 across the full range ± 10 kV
m− 1. Measurements of positive and negative electrical conductivities
were made with bipolar air conductivity sensors based on a Gerdien
condenser design. The sensor is a version of the differential ion mobility
spectrometer (Smirnov et al., 2004) modified for continuous autono­
mous operation in environmental conditions. The sensitivity of the
conductivity sensor is 10− 16 S m− 1 and the lower limit of measured ion
mobility is 0.8 cm2 V− 1 s− 1. The sensors were placed at heights of 0.35 m
4
Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355
and 1.3 m above the ground. Electric full-scale observational data were
registered by the data collection system with a sampling rate of 10
samples per second (SPS). The meteorological temperature profiler
“MTP-5” was used to determine temperature profiles up to 1000 m with
the 50-m resolution at 5-min intervals. The r.m.s error of the tempera­
ture profiler varied from 0.2 ◦ C at the device installation level to 1.2◦ С at
1000 m. Two ultrasonic meteorological units METEO-2H provided
measurements of air temperature and full wind velocity vector at a
sampling rate of 10 SPS. It also can evaluate several important charac­
teristics of atmospheric turbulence at a rate of 1 sample per minute.
These parameters include turbulent fluctuations of temperature and
three wind components, friction velocity, turbulent kinetic energy
(TKE), mean dissipation rate of TKE, vertical turbulent heat flux, and the
Obukhov length. The volumetric activity of radon (222Rn) in the air was
measured in 2017 and 2019 by radon monitor AlphaGUARD PQ2000
with a data sampling rate of 6 measurements per hour, a sensitivity that
is not less than 1 c.p.m. (counts per minute) for 20 Bq m− 3, and mea­
surement range is 2–2 × 106 Bq m− 3. In 2018, radon monitor Radon
Scout PMT (SARAD Inc., GmbH) with a data sampling rate of one
measurement per second and sensitivity of 22 c.p.m. for 1000 Bq m− 3 in
the range 2–107 Bq m− 3 was used for the same purpose. Aerosol mea­
surements were performed using TSI AeroTrak 9306-v2 and TSI Aero­
Trak 7301-02F particle counters (TSI Inc., USA). The instruments were
placed at a height of 0.35 m above the ground. AeroTrak 7301-02F is
capable of determining aerosol size distribution, offering four separate
registration channels with the following ranges: 0.3–0.5 μm, 0.5–1 μm,
1–5 μm, 5–25 μm. Aerosol sampling was performed at an air intake flow
of 2.83 L min− 1. Cloud cover was estimated by daily average flux density
of incoming solar radiation measured by pyranometer “Kipp & Zonen
СMP3” by a weakening of incoming solar flux radiation in the following
way. The weakening is defined as (Im − ISF)/Im given that ISF < Im,
where Im is the model value of direct horizontal solar irradiance (DHI),
ISF is the measured incoming solar flux radiation registered by the
pyranometer. The model of DHI is based on the model of Meinel and
Meinel (1976) for direct normal irradiance but additionally accounts for
Sun-Earth distance variation and solar zenith angle variation. To
calculate Im an improved expression of Kasten and Young (1989) is used
accounting for the Earth’s surface curvature. Fig. 3 presents measured
ISF and calculated curves for 4 days selected for further analysis. Fig. 4
shows the average weakening of incoming solar flux radiation measured
by pyranometer along with results of the analysis performed by an al­
gorithm executed at the «Earth observation portal» (http://www.eume
tsat.int/) to identify cloud layers, cloud type, and coverage.
2.2. Balloon instrumentation
A helium-filled balloon made of PET (polyester) fiber material was
used to drive the balloon-carried platform (Fig. 1c). The balloon is about
75 m3 capacity, 10 m length, and 4 m maximum diameter. The maximal
balloon load for 5 m/s horizontal wind is 25 kg. The base of the balloon-
carried platform is made of light-weight aluminum alloy and fixed by
aramid fiber rope at a distance of 15 m from the balloon. There was used
an electric winch for the balloon altitude set. The winch is equipped with
500 m light-weight aramid fiber rope. The balloon-carried platform was
connected to winch and balloon aramid fiber ropes through PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) insulators to prevent electrical charging. The
balloon-carried platform (Anisimov et al., 2017a) was equipped with
two electrostatic field-mills, the polar air electrical conductivity sensor,
radon monitor, aerosol particle counter, meteorological unit, barometric
altimeter, GPS receiver, and autonomous controlling system. A sche­
matic diagram of a platform with sensors is shown in Fig. 1d. A Li-Ion
accumulator battery with about 600 Wh capacity powered all equip­
ment. Electrostatic field mills on the balloon-carried platform are used to
measure the AEF and they are fixed on a 2 m-length girder with opposite
directions. The field mills have an ±100 kV m− 1 measurement range.
The accuracy of the AEF measurements is 0.15 V m− 1 at 0.01 Hz signal
S.V. Anisimov et al.
Fig. 4. Average weakening and two cloud analysis (CLA) fields from «Earth observation portal» (http://www.eumetsat.int/) plotted over the range of balloon
observation dates. Short CLA description is available at https://navigator.eumetsat.int/product/EO:EUM:DAT:MSG:CLA-IODC. Average weakening is computed over
the entire duration of the balloon flights. Interpolated cloud coverage is obtained from corresponding values at the CLA’s nodes, nearest to the observation site.
frequency and 1 V m− 1 at 0.5 Hz signal frequency. The air electrical
conductivity sensor designed for installation on the platform to be
powered by batteries has a ±160 fS m− 1 measurement range and 0.1 fS
m− 1 accuracy. Aerosol particle concentration was measured using the
TSI AeroTrak 9306v2 aerosol counter. Radon volumetric activity was
measured by RadonScout PMT. A GPS receiver was applied to syn­
chronize measurements in time with the ground-based measurement set.
The balloon-carried platform height above the ground was measured by
a barometric altimeter with ±5 cm accuracy. The meteorological unit on
the balloon-carried platform measured air temperature with 0.1◦ С ac­
curacy and relative humidity in a range of 20–100% with 5% accuracy.
All equipment of the balloon-carried platform (excluding RadonScout
PMT and TSI AeroTrak) has digital interfaces and is connected to an
autonomous controlling system based on Raspberry PI computer and
Debian GNU/Linux operating system. Data acquisition software collects
measurement data with 1 SPS rate.
The balloon-carried platform was launched during field campaigns
of 2017–2019 years 46 times with a total time of about 630 flight hours.
There were two measurement techniques used. The first one was applied
for observation of aeroelectric profiles. This technique consisted of a
periodical change of balloon-carried platform height during the mea­
surement time. The second one was applied for observation of variations
of quantities under investigation at fixed heights. In this case, the plat­
form was held at a certain height where continuous measurements were
taken. Balloon ascents were carried out if the wind speed did not exceed
5 m/ s. Balloon-borne measurements were accomplished in the range of
platform elevation from 2 m to 500 m above ground level. The speed and
sequence of ascents and descents varied depending on the research
program. The total flight time for the high-altitude profiles sensing
program from 2017 to 2019 was 166 h. The most complete set of
representative data on altitude profiles was obtained in 2019; therefore,
mainly these data will be presented here and used for analysis.
5
Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355
2.3. Calibration experiments
Since the frame of the platform is made of metal and is conductive, it
distorts the ambient AEF, requiring the determination of reduction co­
efficients for the electrostatic field mills mounted on the platform. These
coefficients differ for the field mills oriented up and down because the
girder on which they are mounted is fixed at the bottom of the platform.
The following calibration experiments were undertaken to find the
reduction coefficients for the platform field mills taking into account
platform geometry and opposite orientation of AEF sensors. During
platform take-off from the grounded stand, it is usually negatively
charged due to the induced charge acquired in the fair-weather AEF.
This charge exponentially decreases with a relaxation timescale
dependent inversely on the air conductivity. During the relaxation
process, the measured value of AEF is overestimated by both field mills
on the platform due to a zero offset, however, the difference between the
sensors’ values is not distorted. The coefficient, which reduces the
measurements of the down-oriented field mill to the values of the up-
oriented one, is determined by fitting a pre-exponential factor when
comparing time intervals of measurements containing a relaxation
process. Then, the coefficient for the device looking up was determined
by comparing simultaneous AEF measurements by the field mill
installed on a tripod at a height of 1 m and half of the difference between
two field mills measurements at the platform within the time intervals
when the latter was held at a height about 1 m. It is half of the difference
that is used for comparison, as it takes into account the opposite
orientation of the platform field mills and already reduced values of the
down-oriented sensor in relation to values of the up-oriented one.
Notice, that the reduction coefficient for the field mill on a tripod in
relation to the field mill flush with the ground was previously deter­
mined during installation. It was also necessary to estimate the sus­
pension length of the platform and a possible electric charge acquired by
S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 5. Average space charge density determined from daytime simultaneous balloon soundings and ground observations of the AEF on September 10 and 11, 2019.
Stepped lines indicate the height of the measuring platform. A horizontal line marks zero of space charge density scale.

the balloon when it was launched so that this charge (if any) did not
significantly affect the electric field at the height of measurements. For
this test, the balloon was held at certain heights directly above one of the
field mill installed on a tripod at a height of 1 m. As already mentioned
its reduction coefficient was known. Two balloon-holding non-conduc­
tive ropes, one of which wound on a winch and the other on a hand reel,
were attached to the balloon through a PTFE insulator. For comparison,
the second field mill also mounted on a tripod at a height of 1 m at a
distance of 10 m from the first one, and the third field mill mounted flush
with the ground at a distance of 300 m from the first and second ones
were used. The height of the balloon above the ground varied from 12 m
to 24 m holding it at a fixed height for about 10 min. Based on a com­
parison of the time series of the above three devices containing the time
interval with the launch of the balloon over one of the field mills, we
concluded that with a platform suspension length of 15 m, the effect of
the balloon on the measured AEF is completely inconspicuous. The
effects of distortion of the measured electric field by a balloon during
ascents and descents were also not detected.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Space charge and electric field
Using Gauss’s law applied to the evaluation of the space charge
density from the measured AEF vertical profile, we should be careful
since the balloon-borne measurement gives values at different heights at
different points in time. To estimate an error caused by non-
simultaneous AEF measurements at different heights we first deter­
mined the spectral density of AEF fluctuations SE(f) at several heights in
the frequency range corresponding to the time of balloon ascent or
descent in the layer with a thickness Δz. The average charge density is
estimated as

Fig. 6. Average space charge density on several days in atmospheric columns of various heights indicated by numbers (in meters) near the corresponding points.

6
S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 7. Examples of altitude distributions of partial and total charge densities of small ions. Blue and red profiles show a partial charge density of negative and
positive small ions respectively, black profiles show the total charge density of small ions.

〈ρ〉 =
ε0
〈Ez (z2 , t) − Ez (z1 , t)〉, (1) space charge density in columns of various thicknesses with a cross-
Δz section of 1 m2 calculated from Eq. (1) where z1 = 0 for the sensor
flush with the ground and z2 is the platform elevation shown on the
where ε0 = 8.85×10− 12 F m− 1 is the electric constant, z2 = z1 + Δz, Ez is
vertical axis on the right. The short steps on the graph correspond to
the measured AEF in projection on the vertical z-axis oriented up, angle
approximately 5-min intervals. From the analysis of this data as well as
brackets mean time averaging, which for the space charge density is also
data for other days, it follows that both negative and positive average
averaging over Δz. Let the coordinate z1 corresponds to time t1, the
space charge density may be present in the ABL regions associated with
coordinate z2 corresponds to time t2 = t1 + Δt, then Δz = uΔt, where u is
some air masses on different days and times of the day. It can also be
the average vertical speed of the balloon. In the time interval Δt, we can
seen that the average value of space charge density decreases with the
decompose Ez(z,t) into the mean 〈 Ez〉 and fluctuating components Ez’
height of the atmospheric column. Fig. 6 shows the variability of space
that gives
charge density averaged over the atmospheric columns with a maximum
ε0 ε0 { ′( } elevation of the balloon during profile measurement so that z2 was at the
(2)
′
〈ρ〉 = {Ez (z2 , t2 ) − Ez (z1 , t1 )} + Ez (z1 , t) − Ez z2 , t) ,
Δz Δz top of a profile. The bulk of the determinations corresponds to a positive
average space charge density in a column of the lower atmosphere up to
where the first term is directly measured and the second term is the about 0.5 km high. Based on data presented in Fig. 6, we can estimate
uncertainty associated with non-simultaneous AEF measurements at two the rate of change of the total electric charge in the column with a cross-
heights. Each of the fluctuating components Ez’ can be estimated on section of 1 m2 and then compare it with the difference between the
average as standard deviation σ E. Since the variance of the sum of in­ values of conduction current at the top of a profile and at the surface
dependent random variables is equal to the sum of their variances, (this is done in Sect. 3.3). Observed columnar charge variations could be
which can be found by integrating SE(f) over the frequency range cor­ thought of as a current density of charging or discharging by the con­
responding to the time interval Δt, we can give a majorizing estimate of duction current of an electric capacitor distributed in the atmospheric
the uncertainty of the average space charge density as column, although they can also be a consequence of the transfer of air
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√ ∫fmax masses containing a space charge. Most likely, that is why no relation­
ε0 √
√ ship was found between the magnitude and sign of the change in the
δρ = √2 SE (f )df, (3)
uΔt space charge density in the column and its thickness or time of day.
The charge density of small ions is derived from their measured
1/Δt

where fmax is half the sampling rate of the platform field mills. Using a
power approximation of the spectral density SE(f)∝f-m, we have
δρ∝Δt
m− 3
2 .
It should be noted that simultaneous measurements of the AEF at the
surface and some height are devoid of this uncertainty and allow us to
estimate more confidently the average space charge density in the at­
mospheric column with a lower boundary on the earth’s surface rather
than in elevated layers.
Fig. 5 represents two samples of daytime variability of the average
concentrations under the assumption that a small ion has one elemen­
tary charge. Typical daytime altitude distributions of negative, positive,
and net charge of small ions are presented in Fig. 7. First, an increase in
(4) the partial charge density and the net charge density when approaching
the earth’s surface is noticeable. Second, there is a clear tendency for
positively charged small ions to prevail near the ground, demonstrating
a pronounced electrode effect that is the most developed around local
noon. An estimate of the thickness of the electrode layer gives about 10
m. Above the electrode layer, a negative space charge of small ions was
usually observed. In the majority of cases including ground observation
data, the net charge density of small ions was enclosed in a range from

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S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 8. Examples of altitude distribution of total space charge deduced from the local derivative ∂Ez/∂z (blue) and space charge of small ions measured by ion sensor
(red) both resulting from two successive soundings one of which was fast without stops (solid) and another was slow, holding the platform at several intermediate
heights (dashed).

2017–2019 field campaigns are presented in Table 2. The assumption of

Table 2
the formation of long-lived layers of space charge in the lower atmo­
Characteristics of the observed stable layers of space charge.
sphere put forward in Anisimov et al. (2012) thus receives support in
Date Location height Observation time Charge density [pC this study.
[m] (LT) m− 3]
Figs. 9 and 10 show six examples of the daytime evolution of AEF
18.08.2017 20–110 0600:0725 − 12.9 vertical profiles and AEF variations at the ground observed in August
18.08.2017 110–150 0610–0710 5.2
and September 2019. The profiles visibly demonstrate a tendency to­
31.08.2017 30–50 0750:0845 72.6
01.09.2017 10–40 0630:-0930 − 92.9
wards a decrease in AEF during the day that most pronounced in the
01.09.2017 90–120 0655:0750 − 56.3 lower 100 m. In contrast to the cases of sunrise enhancement of fair
06.09.2018 40–100 0940:1620 5.8 weather AEF described in Marshall et al. (1999), we did not observe any
12.08.2019 80–95 1125:1405 20.5 anomalies in the AEF at the earth’s surface level around sunrise. In our
17.08.2019 10–35 0925:1100 − 31.0
cases, a thin electrode layer of positive charge just above the ground was
17.08.2019 35–250 0935:1045 9.3
21.08.2019 50–150 1000:1245 10.0 also observed. However, this positive layer was covered with a thicker
29.08.2019 1–100 1230:1255 − 2.0 layer of negative charge. Deep long-lived layers of positive space charge
10.09.2019 80–180 1530:1700 7.9 were occasionally observed. For example, the layers of positive space
11.08.2019 300–450 0930:1045 2.2 charge formed on August 17 and 21, 2019 at altitudes from about 50 m
11.08.2019 1–40 1005:1245 − 13.9
12.08.2019 120–190 1015:1245 0.9
to 250 m were the cause of increased AEF compared to typical. However,
the reason for the amplification of this space charge layers itself has
remained an intriguing mystery, because although the temperature on
− 20 pC m− 3 to 30 pC m− 3 reaching the highest values with rare ex­ these days grew faster, no significant differences were found in other
ceptions directly at the earth’s surface. Fig. 8 illustrates the altitude measured values compared with measurements on other days. It should
distribution of total space charge is the sum of contributions from small be specially noted that these days fully met all the criteria for fair
ions and aerosol particles and separately charge density of small ions weather mentioned in Harrison and Nicoll (2018). Despite the shape of
observed on different days during two successive soundings, one of morning profiles of AEF in this study is mostly different from Marshall
which was fast without stops and another was slow, holding the platform et al. (1999), there is a tendency towards a flatter profile shape as
at several intermediate heights. The total charge density was estimated convection develops in both studies. When comparing variations of the
from the finite-difference approximation of the first-order derivative AEF at the ground shown in Fig. 10 and respective vertical profiles in
∂Ez/∂z, while the charge density of small ions was derived from mea­ Fig. 9, one may notice that even at time intervals when the AEF at the
surements of polar conductivities. Some estimates of the spatiotemporal surface has no trend, the profiles shift to the lower AEF values. This is
variability of the space charge and its distribution on small ions and not surprising since, with more intense and deeper vertical mixing, the
aerosol particles can be made from these data. The proximity of corre­ space charge tends to be distributed more evenly. Moreover, as was
sponding fast and slow profiles indicates the presence of layers where shown in Anisimov et al. (2020) a tendency to a decrease in the AEF and
the altitude distribution of the space charge and its distribution over the flattening of the profile throughout the day in the convective ABL can be
fractions of small ions and aerosol particles change rather slowly. Based closely related to the entrainment of clear dry air from the free atmo­
on the given profiles, it can be argued that the negative space charge of sphere leading to a decrease in the effective diameter of aerosol particles
small ions is on average compensated by the positive space charge of and their concentration. This daytime behavior of the AEF means the
aerosol particles above the electrode layer. Average space charge den­ destruction of an electric dipole (or three-pole) structure formed over­
sity in the most time-stable layers deduced from several successive AEF night near the earth’s surface. Such a structure can be thought of as the
soundings at various heights, layer thicknesses, and times in the lower positive charge layer covered by a layer of a negative charge, on

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S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 9. Evolution of vertical profiles of the AEF for 6 days of 2019. Minus sign indicates the direction of the AEF from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface.

Fig. 10. Variations of the AEF measured by ground-based field mill at the surface level on the same days as in Fig. 9. Minus sign indicates the direction of the AEF
from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface.

9
S.V. Anisimov et al.
Fig. 11. Temperature distribution recorded by MTP5.
top of which again a layer of a positive charge whose density decreases
on average with height. However, both the lowest positive layer and the
intermediate negative layer may dilute or completely degenerate due to
mutual mixing. It should be emphasized that a similar but more devel­
oped electrical structure is characteristic of thunderstorm clouds
(Krehbiel, 1986). The lifetime of observed structure of alternating layers
of space charge can be estimated as several hours despite the develop­
ment of the convective ABL and intensive vertical mixing confirmed by
data of ultrasonic meteorological units and temperature profiler pre­
sented in Fig. 11. The reasons for this behavior should be sought in the
altitude distribution of radon, aerosol concentration, and electrical
conductivity discussed below. In order to judge how typical the curves
shown in Figs. 9 and 10 are, Fig. 12a shows the average high-altitude
profile for the whole duration of the balloon observations in 2019 and
Fig. 12b shows the average daily variation of the AEF on the earth’s
surface over 26 days of fair weather in 2019.
3.2. Radon volumetric activity, aerosol concentration, and electrical
conductivity
Simultaneous measurement of aerosol particle concentration, radon
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Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355
volumetric activity, and especially polar electrical conductivities aloft
and at the surface allow a deeper analysis of the mechanisms responsible
for variability of the space charge, AEF and conduction current density
in the ABL. Several examples of the daytime evolution of radon profiles
presented in Fig. 13a–e demonstrate their significant variability such
that the variance of fluctuations is comparable to the average values. On
some days, the trend towards a shift towards lower values by noon was
most pronounced (Fig. 13c, e). The average daily variation in the
volumetric activity of radon near the earth’s surface over the aggregate
of days of fair weather is shown in Fig. 13g. We did not observe either
significant radon activity even at nights or pronounced diurnal variation
near the earth’s surface. Nevertheless, as expected, the highest radon
activity values on average over the altitude profile are observed in the
morning, whereas the least ones are characteristic of noon until the
formation of the stable boundary layer with a surface temperature
inversion. The probable cause of some exceptions is the invasion of air
masses enriched with radon from territories where the rate of its exha­
lation is greater. Fig. 13f contains the combined data for all measured
radon activity profiles from 2017 to 2019.
Fig. 14a, b, and c show the differences in the altitude distribution of
aerosol particles of various sizes measured on August 12, 20, and 21,
S.V. Anisimov et al.
Fig. 12. (a) Average high-altitude profile of the AEF over 33 h of the balloon
observations in 2019, (b) average daily variation of the AEF at the earth’s
surface over 26 days of fair weather from July 17 to September 15, 2019.
2019. Observations show that usually particles with a diameter of more
than 1 μm exhibit a decrease in concentration with height, the most
dramatically within a few tens of meters above the ground. This cannot
be said for particles with a diameter of fewer than 1 μm, especially from
the range of 0.3–0.5 μm, whose concentration profiles behave in a more
complex way. The concentration of aerosol particles near the earth’s
surface in anticyclonic conditions exhibits an explicit diurnal variation
possibly perturbed by the occurrence of evening fog and its subsequent
disappearance accompanied by dew. Fig. 14d represents a typical
diurnal variation of aerosol concentration for several particle diameters
observed at a height of 1 m above the ground in those days when balloon
measurements were taken and there was no fog. After local noon, the
concentration of particles reaches a minimum that can be associated
with the entrainment processes taking place at the top of the convecive
boundary layer (CBL) and resulting in dilution of polluted lower air
layers by clean air from the free atmosphere above the CBL. Dilution
expectedly leads to a decrease in the concentration of aerosol particles
manifested in the tendency to shift of aerosol concentration profiles to
the lower values similar to radon activity most noticeable in Fig. 13c, e.
The most prominent diurnal variation in aerosol concentration at the
surface was observed for the smallest particles. Normalized variability υ
= (Nmax-Nmin)/〈N〉 calculated from the presented in Fig. 14d curves
amounted to υ(N0.3–0.5μm) = 1.14, υ(N0.5-1μm) = 0.88, υ(N1-5μm) = 0.57,
υ(N5-25μm) = 0.67.
To determine the electrical conductivity from the measured small ion
concentrations, we used the following values for average mobilities of
positive and negative small ions μ+ = 1.36 cm2 V− 1 s− 1 and μ− = 1.53
cm2 V− 1 s− 1 (Hõrrak et al., 2000). Over the entire set of measured
profiles, it has been observed that the conductivity near the earth’s
surface shows the greatest variability and most dramatic height de­
pendency. However, no steady trend in the conductivity high-altitude
profile has been detected. The most likely reason for this is that the
processes of convective entrainment and dilution reduce both the con­
centration of aerosol particles and radon, which are antagonistic to the
concentration of small ions, that mostly provide air electrical conduc­
tivity. During the field campaign of 2019, the widest variability range of
daytime conductivity was 2–26 fS m− 1. Fig. 15a, b, and c show altitude
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Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355
profiles of the electrical conductivity observed on August 20 and
September 10, 11, 2019 from which it can be seen that the conductivity
reaches peak close to the surface afternoon. High-altitude conductivity
profiles averaged over all measurements by year are shown in Fig. 15d.
Unfortunately, for 2017 and 2018, there are very few data above 200 m,
which does not allow for a full comparison, but even from the data
presented, it can be concluded that the profile shape is reproducibly
stable in the lower few tens of meters. Single conductivity profiles
measured during the day are subject to significant spatiotemporal fluc­
tuations due to complicated turbulent dynamics of ionization precursors
and aerosol particles working as sinks for small ions. It is important to
note that the conductivity values measured along one profile in just a
few lower hundred meters above the earth’s surface can vary so much as
several times. In Fig. 15e hourly-averaged diurnal variation of the
conductivity at the surface for 2017–2019 is plotted, indicating that the
maximum conductivity values are more often reached in the morning or
evening hours.
As observations show, there is generally no inverse relationship be­
tween the local electric field and the conductivity (at least in the lower
part of the ABL), in the presence of which the quasi-steady conduction
current density would not depend on the height. To investigate this
issue, it is necessary to analyze the altitude profiles of conduction cur­
rent density.
3.3. Conduction current and external fair-weather current densities
The conduction current density has been determined by the indirect
method from the product of conductivity and electric field. Therefore, it
is clear that since the conductivity and the AEF profiles depend on height
most sharply near the earth’s surface, this is also true for the conduction
current. It turns out that the conduction current can both decrease and
increase towards the ground. Fig. 16 shows the evolution of altitude
profiles of the conduction current density on August 20, 29, and
September 10, 11, 2019. Some inferences can be made from these data.
We may note that a decrease (increase in magnitude) in current density
with height near the earth’s surface was observed only in the first half of
the day, then changing to the opposite dependence. In the morning, the
conduction current more often decreased with height starting just above
the ground. During the day, the tendency to a decrease in the magnitude
of the conduction current density with height became more pronounced
near the earth’s surface while changes aloft were not so noticeable. By
the continuity equation for the total vertical electric current passing
through the atmospheric column, we have
∂jc ∂jext ∂ρ
− = + , (5)
∂z ∂z ∂t
where ρ is the space charge density and the total vertical electric current
density is decomposed by the conduction current density jc and the
external current density jext representing charge transfer, not because of
the electric field but, for example, due to the movement of air masses or
the gravitational drift of charged particles. From Eq. (5) in quasi-steady
approximation, which is obtained by averaging over a time interval
exceeding the timescale te = ε0/σ, where σ is the conductivity, it follows
that the sum of the conduction and external current densities is inde­
pendent of height. Consequently, the averaged high-altitude profile of
the conduction current density reveals the shape of the external current
density profile, which is determined (if this current is associated with
turbulent transport of charge) by the vertical component of space charge
gradient. In turn, the vertical distribution of space charge near the
earth’s surface in a complex way depends on the turbulent electrode
effect under inhomogeneous profiles of ionization and aerosol particle
concentration.
Being integrated over the atmospheric column from z1 to z2, Eq. (5)
gives
S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 13. (a)–(e) Examples of evolution of radon volume activity vertical profiles, (f) average high-altitude profiles of radon activity for the entire duration of the
balloon observations by year, (g) average radon activity diurnal variation at a height of 1 m above the surface for 8 days of 2017, 14 days of 2018, and 10 days of
2019; error bars indicate standard deviation.

∂Q column undergoes short-period irregular fluctuations, but at times more

jc (z1 ) − jc (z2 ) = jext (z2 ) − jext (z1 ) + (6)
than 103 s it changes insignificantly. Therefore, being averaged over
,
∂t
consecutive balloon descent and ascent, the contribution of the last term
where Q is the total electric charge in the column with a unit cross- in Eq. (6) becomes small. The maximum registered value corresponds to
section. The rate of change of the total columnar electric charge can an electric current density of 0.15 pA m− 2.
be expressed as Since the conduction current is independent of height in the undis­
∂Q ∂{Ez (z2 , t) − Ez (z1 , t) } turbed free atmosphere, as found by Kraakevik (1961), the external
= ε0 , (7) current must become significantly less than the conduction current
∂t ∂t
above a certain height. Observations showed that the conduction cur­
and averaging over the altitude profile, we can estimate both the con­ rent density could become almost independent of height within the ABL,
tributions of the external current and the charge change rate. Such an moreover, at relatively low levels. Therefore, if the value of the con­
estimate showed that the total charge in the considered atmospheric duction current density, starting from a certain level, changed with a

12
S.V. Anisimov et al.
Fig. 14. (a)-(c) Examples of evolution of vertical profiles of aerosol particle concentration in three particle size range for 3 days of August 2019, (d) average for 8
days of August and September 2019 diurnal variation of aerosol particle concentration in four particle size ranges at a height of 1 m above the surface.
height of less than 10% per 100 m, we neglected the external current
density at these heights. This assumption allowed us to determine the
average high-altitude profile of the external current density below this
level from the difference in the left-hand-side of Eq. (6), taking into
account Eq. (7) in cases when this quantity could not be neglected.
Obtained in this way, average values of the conduction current density
in the upper part of the profile where it no longer depends on the height,
the change rate of the total charge in the atmospheric column, and the
maximum of external current density along the profile for different days
and time of the day are presented in Table 3. Since the average charge
density decreases with increasing thickness of the atmospheric column,
the rate of change of total charge in the column must also decrease,
reducing the error in determining the external current and the corre­
sponding EMF, for evaluation of which and its effect on GEC parameters,
we need to consider following integral quantities.
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Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355
3.4. Columnar electrical resistance, potential, and electromotive force
Atmospheric columnar electrical resistance is one of the important
parameters of the GEC, since, on the one hand, being integrated over the
globe, it gives the total resistance of the atmosphere as a whole, on
which the total leakage current depends. On the other hand, it may
characterize spatiotemporal variability of the density of the conduction
current passing through the atmospheric column. Fig. 17 shows the
altitude dependence and variability of cumulative columnar electrical
resistance obtained from integrated profiles of inverse conductivity from
the ground level up to a certain height. A typical observed variability
range of the electrical resistance of the atmospheric column with a
bottom at the earth’s surface and a thickness of about 0.5 km was
(1.2–1.6)×1017 Ω m2. This value is subject to changes throughout the
day up to 15% of the average. Fig. 18 shows the altitude dependence and
variability of cumulative atmospheric potential with respect to the
earth’s surface obtained from integrated profiles of AEF. We can note a
S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 15. (a)–(c) Examples of evolution of vertical profiles of electrical conductivity on August 20 and September 10 and 11, 2019, (d) average high-altitude profiles
of the conductivity for the entire duration of the balloon observations by year, (e) average diurnal variation of the conductivity at a height of 0.35 m above the
surface for 12 days of 2017, 10 days of 2018, and 7 days of 2019.

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S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 16. Conduction current density profiles on August 20, 29 and September 10, 11, 2019. Minus sign indicates the direction of the current from the atmosphere to
the earth’s surface.

downward trend in the EMF during the day causes a decrease in the
Table 3
cumulative electric potential. However, the reasons for the weakening of
Components of the continuity equation and the average electromotive force.
the EMF itself acting in the daytime ABL remain an open question until
Date Time Maximum Jc ∆Q/∆t jext EMF the true nature of the external fair-weather current is determined.
height [m] [pA [pC s− 1] [pA [kV]
m2] m2]
4. Conclusions
20.08.2019 1240:19LT 185 − 0.20 − 0.04 0.36 13.8
1420:09LT 225 − 0.25 − 0.15 0.31 12.2
21.08.2019 1121:50LT 462 − 0.60 − 0.13 0.90 39.5 As a result of simultaneous ground-based and tethered balloon-borne
1141:55LT 461 − 0.51 − 0.03 0.72 53.5 measurements of a set of atmospheric electrical and meteorological
1242:00LT 459 − 0.67 − 0.03 0.50 51.4 quantities, the concentration of radon and aerosol particles in the
29.08.2019 1156:45LT 385 − 0.35 0.02 0.09 18.6 diameter range 0.3–25 μm up to heights of about 0.5 km, unique data
1324:13LT 364 0.40 0.02 0.32 17.2
have been collected characterizing the evolution and variability of the
−
10.09.2019 0930:23LT 450 − 0.40 − 0.07 0.33 21.4
1603:52LT 475 − 0.39 − 0.02 0.46 27.1 mid-latitude ABL as a part of the GEC. Variability and average values of
1647:36LT 469 − 0.50 − 0.02 0.58 27.1 principal atmospheric electrical parameters have been quantified and
1731:02LT 469 − 0.40 − 0.02 1.47 24.2 their relationship to each other as well as to the concentration of radon
11.09.2019 0928:17LT 439 0.44 0.09 0.30 27.5
−
and aerosol particles was analyzed. The observations have shown that
1235:25LT 455 − 0.41 0.10 0.42 26.0
1402:00LT 438 − 0.40 − 0.09 0.20 22.9 the formation of a long-lived structure with alternating layers of space
1540:44LT 438 − 0.32 0.04 0.41 15.2 charge is typical for the lowest part of the ABL. The formation of space
12.09.2019 1003:51LT 414 − 0.28 0.04 0.24 16.5 charge layers seems to be more characteristic of the stable boundary
1132:13LT 426 − 0.25 − 0.01 0.34 10.4 layer. The development of convection causes the charged layers to mix
resulting in a smoother profile of the AEF decreasing with height. The
mild tendency to a decrease in the cumulative potential in the daytime lifetime of charge stratification in the daytime CBL can reach several
ABL supposedly related to the above-mentioned decay of space charge hours, which is much more than the convective time scale characterizing
structure formed by morning. A variability range of the atmospheric the turnover time of the largest turbulent eddies. This suggests the
potential at a height of about 0.5 km throughout the 2019 campaign was operation of a generator separating the charges despite the turbulence
40–150 kV. Taking into account a typical range of the ionospheric po­ mixing them, perhaps similar to the EMF acting in thunderstorms. In the
tential values 200–300 kV, an estimate can be obtained for the contri­ unperturbed lower atmosphere, the role of such a generator could play
bution of the lowest atmospheric column of about 0.5 km thickness to the separation of charge due to conductivity inhomogeneities (e.g. Zhou
the global potential difference up to 70%. This is very a tangible and Tinsley, 2007) along with selective charging of aerosol particles
contribution, a part of which is provided by the action of the EMF. If we settling due to gravity. This hypothesis is partially supported by the fact
neglect the non-steady processes charging of the atmospheric column, that the altitude profile of conductivity undergoes the most dramatic
then we can use Ohm’s law for the inhomogeneous region of the circuit changes in the first few tens meters above the earth’s surface and at
to evaluate the EMF acting in the ABL. Fig. 19 depicts calculated EMF those heights where significant conductivity gradients are formed, space
values (see also Table 3), which are time-averaged during soundings. A charges can accumulate. A sharp decrease in the conductivity with

15
S.V. Anisimov et al. Atmospheric Research 250 (2021) 105355

Fig. 17. Columnar resistance from the earth’s surface to a certain height indicated on the vertical axis.

Fig. 18. Atmospheric electric potential relative to the earth’s surface.

height near the earth’s surface is in good agreement with the contri­
bution of thoron (radon-220) to ion production estimated in Anisimov
et al. 2017b. Therefore, precision measurements of thoron altitude dis­
tribution in various turbulent regimes of the ABL would help shed light
on the stability of the space charge layers formed in its lowermost part.
The tendency to decrease in potential and EMF in the daytime CBL can
be associated with convective mixing of the space charge layers and a
decrease in the efficiency of charge separation processes under these
conditions. When interpreting the results of ground-based observations
of the conduction current density, the contribution of the fair-weather
external current density and the decrease in the total atmospheric cur­
rent density due to corresponding EMF action should be taken into
account. It was found that the EMF continuously acting in the undis­
turbed ABL could provide a significant part of a potential difference
between the ABL top and the earth’s surface, thereby contributing to
maintaining of GEC potential difference along with other external cur­
rent sources outside the ABL. Nevertheless, based on the newly obtained
data, it is not possible to identify consistently the external current in the
ABL as the convection current only. We infer that the true nature of this
current cannot be considered unambiguously established and requires
further research in this direction. Despite the undertaken measurements
are local, the results characterize the electrical variability of the ABL,
which is the lower very significant atmospheric part of the GEC.

16
S.V. Anisimov et al.
Fig. 19. Daytime evolution of average electromotive force for 8 days of 2019. The length of the horizontal segments indicates the averaging intervals.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation under
project No. 16-17-10209 and government program No. 0144-2014-
00115.
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