Varactor Diode

Definition: Varactor diode is the one which works on the principle of variation in
capacitance by changing the width of the depletion region of P-N junction. The P-
N Junction diode creates capacitor effect. The capacitance is controlled by
applied voltage. It works on reverse biased mode.

Varactor word is formed from words Variable reactance or variable resistor.

Thus, it provides variable resistance or reactance or capacitance thus it is named
as a varactor diode. The symbol of the varactor diode is same as conventional
diode except the symbol of the capacitor is merged with the symbol of the diode
to show the capacitance effect.

It is also called voltage-variable capacitor (VVC) or varicap diode.

Construction of Varactor Diode

It is formed of P-type and N-type semiconductor and reverse biasing is applied to
it. The majority carriers in an N-type semiconductor are electrons and the
majority carriers in a P-type semiconductor are holes. At the junction, the
electrons and holes recombine. Due to which immobile ions accumulate at the
junction. And no more current can flow due to majority carriers.
Thus, the depletion region is formed. The depletion region is called so because it
is depleted of charge carriers i.e. the majority carriers are absent in depletion
region. This works as a dielectric layer and P and N-type semiconductor works
as plates of a capacitor.

Working of Varactor Diode

When the reverse bias is applied to P-N junction, the width of depletion layer
increases. And with the increase of reverse voltage gradually the depletion layer
increases even more. Thus, the depletion region creates Transition capacitance
CT.
CT = ɛA/W

Here, CT is Transition capacitance, ɛ is dielectric constant, A is the area of plates

of the capacitor and W is the width of the depletion layer.
It is evident from the above relation that transition capacitance is inversely
proportional to width of the depletion layer. Thus, if we want the high magnitude
of capacitance the width should be small. And the width will be small if we will
apply low reverse voltage.

Similarly, if we require low capacitance the width should be large and to increase
the width the reverse voltage applied should be high.Thus, this width can be
controlled with applied reverse voltage.

Volt-ampere Characteristics of Varactor Diode

It can be seen in the characteristic curve that as reverse voltage increase from 0
V the transition capacitance is decreasing exponentially.

The relation between the transition capacitance, V R and Vk .

CT = K/ (Vk + VR)n

Here, CT is junction capacitance, Vk is the knee voltage and V R is the reverse

voltage and the value of n for alloyed junctions is 1/2 and diffused junctions it is
1/3. Thus, the voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance.
The tuning range of the capacitor varies with the doping level of the diode. For
abrupt doping junction the doping will be uniform, but for the hyper abrupt
junction, the doping profile will be non-uniform.

Advantages of Varactor Diode

1. Low Noise: It generates less noise as compared to the other P-N

junction diode. Thus, the power loss due to noise is low in varactor
diodes.
2. Portability: It is portable due to the small size and lightweight.
3. Reliability: It is more reliable than other P-N junction diodes.
4. Economical: It is a low-cost diode thus, it is economical to use in
various applications.
Disadvantages of Varactor Diode
These are specially designed to work in the reverse biased mode, it possesses
the least significance when operated in forward biasing.

Applications of Varactor Diode

1. Television receivers: Varactor diodes are used as tuned capacitors

and have replaced mechanically tuned capacitors in various
applications. It is used in television in the resonant tank circuit.
 2. Radio receivers: Radio receivers also use this diode for tuning
purposes.
3. Frequency Multiplier: It is also used as a frequency multiplier in
various electronic circuits.
4. Phase Locked Loops: It is used in Phase locked loop for frequency
modulation. Varactor diodes help in achieving frequency modulation.
Thus, in communication devices varactor diodes are significant.
5. Voltage controlled oscillators: Voltage control oscillators are used
extensively in transmission and receiving circuits in communication.
And varactor diode plays a significant role in construction of voltage
controlled oscillator.
6. Parametric Amplifiers: It is used in parametric amplifier as a
significant component.
Varactor diode produces capacitance effect, this is because it cathode and
anode terminals acts as the plate of the capacitor and region between them acts
as dielectric medium.

Tunnel Diode
A tunnel diode (also known as a Esaki diode) is a type of semiconductor
diode that has effectively “negative resistance” due to the quantum
mechanical effect called tunneling. Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped p n
junction that is about 10 nm wide. The heavy doping results in a broken band
gap, where conduction band electron states on the N-side are more or less
aligned with valence band hole states on the P-side.
The application of transistors in a very high in frequency range are hampered
due to the transit time and other effects. Many devices use the negative
conductance property of semiconductors for these high frequency
applications. A tunnel diode is one of the most commonly used negative
conductance devices. It is also known as Esaki diode after L. Esaki for his
work on this effect.
The concentration of dopants in both p and n region is very high, at around
1024 – 1025 m-3. The p n junction is also abrupt. For this reasons, the depletion
layer width is very small. In the current voltage characteristics of tunnel
diode, we can find a negative slope region when a forward bias is applied.
The name “tunnel diode” is due to the quantum mechanical tunneling is
responsible for the phenomenon that occurs within the diode. The doping is
very high so at absolute zero temperature the Fermi levels lies within the bias
of the semiconductors.
Construction of Tunnel Diode
The device is constructed by using the two terminals namely anode and
cathode. The p-type semiconductor acts as an anode, and the n-type
semiconductor material acts as a cathode. The gallium arsenide,
germanium and gallium antimonide are used for manufacturing the tunnel
diode.

The ratio of
the peak value of the forward current to the value of the valley current is
maximum in case of germanium and less in silicon. Hence silicon is not
used for fabricating the tunnel diode. The doping density of the tunnel
diode is 1000 times higher than that of the ordinary diode.

Volt-Amp Characteristic

In forward biasing, the immediate conduction occurs in the diode because

of their heavy doping. The current in a diode reached their maximum value
IP when the Vp voltage applied across it. When further the voltage
increases, the current across the terminal decreases. And it decreases until
it reaches their minimum value. This minimum value of current is called the
valley current Iv.

The graph above shows that from point A to point B the value of current
decreases with the increase of voltage. So, from A to B, the graph shows
the negative resistance region of the tunnel diode. This region shows the
most important property of the diode. Here in this region, the tunnel diode
produces the power instead of absorbing it.
Tunnel Diode Symbol
The symbol for a tunnel diode is shown below.

Tunnel Diode Applications

Tunnel diode is a type of sc diode which is capable of very fast and in
microwave frequency range. It was the quantum mechanical effect which is
known as tunneling. It is ideal for fast oscillators and receivers for its negative
slope characteristics. But it cannot be used in large integrated circuits – that’s
why it’s an applications are limited.

When the voltage is first applied current stars flowing through it. The current
increases with the increase of voltage. Once the voltage rises high enough
suddenly the current again starts increasing and tunnel diode stars behaving
like a normal diode. Because of this unusual behavior, it can be used in
number of special applications started below.
1.Oscillator Circuits:
Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators as the transition
between the high electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be used to
create oscillation as high as 5Gz. Even they are capable of creativity oscillation
up to 100 GHz in a appropriate digital circuits.
Used in Microwave Circuits:

2.Normal diode transistors do not perform well in microwave operation. So,

for microwave generators and amplifiers tunnel diode are used. In microwave
waves and satellite communication equipments they were used widely, but
lately their usage is decreasing rapidly, as transistors which operate in this
frequency range are becoming available.

3. Resistant to Nuclear Radiation:

Tunnel diodes are resistant to the effects of magnetic fields, high temperature
and radioactivity. That’s why these can be used in modern military
equipment. These are used in nuclear magnetic resource machine also. But the
most important field of its use satellite communication equipments.