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Water Saving Strategies for Irrigated Rice

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 Water Saving Strategies for Irrigated Rice
M. Aslam, Asad S. Qureshi and Vilma M. Horinkova1

Abstract: This paper reviews irrigation management strategies and practices at farm level in irrigated rice
production systems of the world, presents an overview of current water management practices and
identifies measures, which may result in real water savings in the irrigated rice production systems of
Pakistan. Water management strategies and practices at farm level include: (i) puddling for land
preparation, which requires 40 to 60 percent less water compared to non-puddled fields due to reduced
percolation losses; (ii) direct-seeded rice technique for crop establishment, which requires about 30 percent
less water for land preparation, compared to transplanting rice; (iii) irrigation scheduling, which could play
an important role in improving the water use efficiency of rice, resulting in considerable water savings; and
irrigation regimes and techniques, which conserve water. By applying different measures, water use for
clay loam soil, with a saturated soil regime could be reduced by about 40 percent, without rice yield loss, as
compared to continuous flooding. However, due to weed growth problem, continuous submergence during
the first 45 days after transplanting and then, continuous saturation could be an effective water-saving
strategy; (iv) reuse of drainage effluent; (v) discontinuation of Pancho System2; (vi) land leveling; and (vii)
improved layout of irrigation ditches and fields.

KEYWORDS: Management strategies, water saving, irrigated rice, Pakistan.

INTRODUCTION ( North), Zone 2 (Punjab Rice-Wheat Zone-

Rice is a stable food for nearly half of the world’s PRWZ), Zone 3 (Sindh Rice- Wheat North-
population, most of whom live in developing SRWN) and zone 4 (Sindh Rice-Wheat South-
countries.It occupies one-third of the world’s total SRWS). The SRWN and SRWS combined
area planted in cereals and provides 35-60 constitute the Sindh Rice-Wheat zone.
percent of the calories consumed by 2.7 billion
people in Asia. More than 90 percent of the Table 1 presents information on rice area, yield
world’s rice is produced and consumed in Asia and production in Pakistan during 1987-93 (Atlaf,
(IRRI, 1989). Rice is the most widely grown crop, 1994). The table shows that during 1991-92 to
under irrigation. About 78 percent of irrigated 1992-93 period, area sown in rice decreased from
lands in developing countries are in Asia, 2.10 to 1.93 Mha (8 percent). The rice yield
where more than 80 percent of the developed increased from 1.55 to 1.59 tons/ha (2.6 percent),
fresh water resources are used for irrigation while the total rice production decreased from
purposes, of which about 90 percent are 3.26 to 3.07 million tons (5.8 percent).
consumed by rice production (Bhuiyan, 1992).
Table 1: Area, Yield and Production of Rice in
Pakistan has 21 million hectares (Mha) of farm Pakistan (1987-93)
land, of which rice-wheat cropping sequence is
adoptedin2.2Mha.Therearefour rice-wheat Rice
croppingzonesinPakistan(Figure1):Zone 1 Year Area Yield Production
1Senior Irrigation Engineer, Regional Acting Director an (Mha) (tons/ha) (Mt)
Director Central Asia, International Water Management 1987-88 1.96 1.65 3.23
1988-89 2.04 1.57 3.20
Institute (IWMI), Lahore.
1989-90 2.11 1.53 3.23
Pancho System of irrigation involves draining standing 1990-91 2.11 1.54 3.25
2
Water from the rice field at intervals of 4 to 5 days and re- 1991-92 2.10 1.55 3.26
1992-93 1.93 1.59 3.07
irrigating the same rice fields with freshwater.
Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol. 6(1) January-June 2002/25
 Water Saving Strategies for Irrigated Rice

Table 2 presents a comparison of the area, yield The rapid industrial and urban growth, being
And production of rice in different rice growing experienced by many Asian countries, would
Countries of the Asia for 1991-92 (Singh and cause excessive diversion of water from irrigation
Paroda, 1994). The rice production in Pakistan is projects, for non-agricultural purposes. Over-
considerably lower than in other Asian countries. Exploitation of groundwater, disposal of untreated
This is because the area grown in rice is, smaller or under-treated industrial or domestic waste into
and the yield per hectare is lower than in the other fresh water bodies, will create additional negative
countries. Impacts. Thus, the agriculture’s share of water will
decrease in both quantity and quality.
Table 2: Rice Area, Yield and Production of Asian Consequently, the future of rice production will
Region in 1991-92 heavily deoend on the development and adoption
of strategies and practices that will make an
Countries Area Yield Production efficient use of water available for irrigation.
(Mha) (tons/ha) (Mt)
Bangladesh 10.20 2.68 27.30
China 32.30 5.73 134.90 WATER SAVING STRATEGIES AND
India 42.10 2.61 110 PRACTICES AROUND THE WORLD AND
Nepal 1.30 2.27 2.90
Pakistan 2.10 1.55 3.26 THEIR PROSPECTS FOR PAKISTAN

Despite hectic efforts, rice yields are far below Water Use for Land Preparation
than the potential (Yaseen and Haroon, 1990).
Much water is used for the land preparation of the
rice crop establishment. Puddling is the most
Table 3: Yield (tons/ha) of rice with its potential in common method of land preparation for rice in
Pakistan Asia. The destruction of the soil structure through
puddling results in better weed control, increased
Crop Present Potential Yield
National Yield Gap water-holding capacity and reduced hydraulic
Yield conductivity, and therefore, reduced deep
Rice(Basmati) 1.6 5.2 3.6 percolation losses. Several research studies
(Sanchez, 1973; De Datta and Kerin, 1974;
This yield gap can be attributed to inadequate have shown that in puddle soils deep percolation
levels of vital inputs and cultural practices losses could be reduced up to 60 percent
(seeded preparation, seeding rate and depth, compared to non-puddled soils (Figure2). It was
planting dates, time, method and amount of also shown that grain yield was 1.2 tons/ha higher
fertilizers and irrigation water use, pesticides use, in puddled than in non-puddled soil. Rice in
etc.) and environmental constraints, including puddle soil had 2.5 times higher water use
soils (soil salinity/sodicity), irrigation water efficiency (7.9 kg/ha-mm) than in non puddled soil
supplies (quantity and quality) and drainage. 2.9 kg/ha-mm).

Rice, being an aquatic crop, needs an adequate
supply of water for its proper growth and
development. Per capita availability of water
resources declined by 40 to 60 percent in many
Asian countries between 1955 and 1990 (Gleick,
1993). With water, becoming increasingly scarce,
per capita availability of water in Asian countries
is expected to decline by 15-54 percent in 2025
as compared to 1990. The share of water,
allocated to agriculture will decrease even at a
faster rate due to increasing competition from the
urban and industrial sectors (Tuong and Bhuiyan,
1994).
Tuong et al., (1994) reported that the inclusion of
small non-puddled areas within the field, with 5
cm ponding water depth, increased the field water
loss from 2.7 mm/day to 15 mm/day. Maintaining
a shallow ponding water depth did not significantly
affect percolation loss through uniformly puddle
soil, but greatly reduced losses in non-puddled
areas. Thus, soil puddling is an important
measure to increase the water use efficiency of
rice fields in areas with permeable sub-soil.

Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol.6 (1) January-June 2002/27

Figure 2: Comparison of Cumulative Water Applied, Evapotranspiration and Percolation Losses in Field
Studies of Puddled and Non-puddled Soils (Adapted from De Datta and Kerim, 1974)
Water Efficient Methods of Rice Establishment
The direct seeding rice culture is becoming
dominant crop establishment method, replacing
the traditional transplanting practice in various rice
practicing countries. There are two different
systems of direct seeding rice, wet and dry. Under
the wet direct seeding system, pre-germinated
seeds are sown in the saturated field that has
been prepared under the wet condition. In the dry
direct seeding method, field preparation is done
under dry condition, immediately followed by seed
sowing, either before irrigation water is applied, or
before rainfall occurs, to enable germination and
seedling establishment. Under this system, the
total cropping season could be reduced by about
2 weeks, avoiding the nursery preparation and
transplanting phase and overall irrigation
requirement is reduced, resulting in significant
water saving of up to 25 percent.
Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol.6 (1) January-June 2002/28
Water Saving Strategies for Irrigated Rice
De Datta (1986) reported that farmers in the
Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand are switching
From transplanted to the direct-seeded wet rice
system. Farmers in India, Bangladesh and
particularly Sri Lanka have practiced direct-
seeded wet ricesystem for many years. Under
this system, during the first 4 to 5 days, after
seeding , the field should be moist,but not
flooded. Following that, 2-3 cm of water should be
introduced keeping the emerged rice seedling
ahead of the water. About 10 days after seeding,
the water level is increased to 5 cm and main-
tained at that depth until crop gets maturity.
Bhuiyan (1992) and Bhuiyan et al., (1995)
reported that the wet-seeded rice, in which pre-
germinated seeds are sown directly on puddle
fields in lieu of transplanting seedlings to establish
crop, offers a significant opportunity for the
improved management of irrigation water. In case
of the wet-seeding technique, preparation of pre-
germinated seeds by seed soaking takes 24-36
hours, and land preparation can be completed in
about a week, avoiding long periods of water
losses occurring in transplanted rice. About 30
Direct seeding is usually faster and easier than
transplanting, and grain yields are similar or
occasionally higher. Land preparation for direct-
seeded flooded rice is essentially similar to that
for transplanted rice, but better leveling of the field
is necessary for good water control and crop
establishment. A pre-germinated rice seeds of
100 kg/ha gave the best results in terms of
adequate stand establishment and weed control.
The direct-seeded flooded rice technique has the
advantages of reduced labour cost because it
eliminates nursery preparation, care of seedlings
in the seeded, pulling seedling, hauling and
transportation, shorter cropping cycle because of
the absence of transplanting soak and the
improved water control and its better manage-
ment. Further, direct seeding would require
shallow water depth to be maintained in the rice
Field compared to transplanted rice fields.
establishment could offer opportunities for
improved management of irrigation water.
Irrigation Scheduling
Prihar and Grewal (1985) addressed the issue of
improving water use efficiency for the rice farming
system. They recommended that depending on
soil conditions, the irrigation of rice can be
delayed for variable time periods after the
infiltration of water from rain or a previous
irrigation
Gill (1994) reported that in the high productivity
zone of India, one week of submergence and
keeping the soil wet, for the remaining growing
period, save about 33 percent of irrigation water
without significant yield loss (Table 4).
Table 4: Effect of Standing Water on Rice Yield
Period of Standing 1 2 3
Water after
Transplanting (Week)
Yield (tons/ha) 7.20 7.25 7.25
percent less water is required in order to prepare
a typical field up to the same puddle condition for
wet-seeded rice than for transplanting rice. Wet-
seeded rice yield is more both in water-sufficient
and water-short situations, requires less labour
and produces a better return on investment than
transplanted rice.
Ogino et al., (1993)reported that in Kazakhstan,
paddy farmers practice the dry direct-seeded rice
technique for crop establishment. After sowing
seed in dry soil conditions, farmers apply first
irrigation immediately. In the initial stage, ponding
is shallow and according to the development of
seedlings, the water depth is increased and
maintained at 100 to150 mm depth level until
about 20 to 30 days, before harvesting. Generally,
water is applied 10 to 15 times in one season.
In Pakistan, the traditional practice of rice
establishment is through transplanting of young
rice seedling from the nursery. Mostly, farmers
do not have sufficient water for land preparation,
which delays land preparation and transplantation
until the monsoon starts. This is especially the
case in the tail reaches of the watercourses.
Adoption of direct seeded method for rice
Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol.6 (1) January-June 2002/29
M. Aslam et al.
Over-irrigation to paddy is done by farmers
because of their lack of awareness about crop
water requirements and fixed warabandi system
of water distribution. Over-irrigation causes not
only water logging and salinity problems, but also
reduces crop yield. Optimum irrigation scheduling
can prevent water logging and soil salinity will
increase crop yield and save irrigation water. The
irrigation scheduling adjusts water application to
climatic evaporative demand and allowable soil
water depletion, thereby causing considerable
reduction in irrigation requirements for the
growing season and improving productivity of
water.
Water Saving Irrigation Regimes
Sandhu et al., (1980) evaluated the effect of
various irrigation practices on the irrigation
requirement of rice on a sandy loam soil. They
found that the irrigation needs of rice were highest
(170-240 cm) with continuous submergence
(table 5).
The mean increase (average of 4 years) in
In Pakistan’s Punjab, paddy receives nearly all
water available during Kharif, especially from July
to Octobr. The water requirements of other
Kharif crops are met mostly by rainfall. The
average amount of irrigation water, excluding
rainfall, applied to paddy over the growing season
varies from 465 mm to 3642 mm with a mean
value of 1309 mm. The mean irrigation application
of about 1300 mm is considerably lower than the
paddy’s gross water requirement of about 1600
mm considering the consumptive water use of
650mm, land preparation of 450mm, and
seasonal seepage and percolation losses of 500
mm in the case of a fine-textured soil. There is a
large variation around the mean water application;
about 33 percent of the farmers in the Punjab apply
irrigation water in excess of 1600 mm (Bhatti and
Kijne, 1992).
In Sindh, for over 52 percent of the CCA during
the entire growing period, a total of 1200 mm to
1700 mm of water is applied to rice crop, of which
only 900 mm is for consumption. This results in an
application efficiency of 53-75 percent only (Clark
and Aniq, 1993).
necessary in order to obtain high rice yield. Once
the transplanted seedlings are well established,
irrigation could be delayed for some period after
the complete infiltration of ponded water without
any yield loss. Primarily, the potential saving of 20
to 50 percent in irrigation water is achieved from
the reduction in percolation.
Bhuiyan (1992) reported that water use for
growing transplanted rice could be reduced by
about 40 percent without loss in rice yield, by
replacing the shallow-depth water regime by
saturated soil regime. Under high weed pressure
conditions, shallow flooding during the first 45
days after transplanting followed by maintenance
of a saturated soil regime for the rest of the
season will achieve the same yield as under the
conventional water management, but with over 30
percent saving in water.
Tabbal et al ., (1992) evaluated alternative water
management strategies on farmers’ rice fields
with clay loam soil with average water-table depth
of 95 cm for four consecutive dry seasons (1988-
1991). The irrigation regimes considered were:
irrigation water efficiency with 1 day, 2 day, 3 day
and 5 day drainage was 30, 54, 57 and 88
percent, respectively over the mean irrigation
water efficiency of 28.9 kg/ha-cm with continuous
submergence (Table 5). This study reveals that
the continuous submergence of soil is not
continuous flooding (2-7 cm, WR1); continuous
flooding up to the panicle initiation stage, then
saturated soil (WR2); saturated soil throughout
(WR3); and alternate wetting and drying (WR4) as
shown in Figure 3. The results of the study are
shown in Table 6.

Table 5: Various Irrigation Regimes for Rice

Irrigation Regime Mean Irrigation Increase in mean

Irrigation Water Applied (cm) Water Efficiency Irrigation Water
1974 1975 1976 1977 Mean (kg/ha-cm) Efficiency (%)
Continuous Sub 204 195 170 192 190 28.9 -
1-day drainage 151 138 130 160 145 37.6 30
2- day drainage - 117 121 136 125 44.4 54
3-day drainage 114 92 107 128 113 45.3 57
5-day drainage 96 94 81 112 96 54.4 88

Table 6: Average Yield, Water Use, Productivity and water Savings Under various Water Regimes
Water Yield (kg/ha) Water Use (mm) Water Productivity Water Saved
Redimes (kg/ha-mm) (%)
1988-89 1990-91 Mean 1988-89 1990-91 Mean 1988-89 1990-91 Mean 1988-89 1990-91 Mean
WR1 5552 5102 5327 1793 2786 2289 3 2 3 - - -
WR2 5237 4833 5035 1168 1804 1486 5 3 4 35 35 35
WR3 5153 4198 4676 1068 1644 1356 5 3 4 40 41 40.5
WR4 4336 3757 4046 728 1065 896 6 4 5 59 62 61

Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol.6 (1) January-June 2002/30

 M. Aslam et al.
Figure 3: Graphical Illustrations of Irrigation Regimes (Tabba et al., 1992)
This study showed that: (i) water use under
saturated soil regime was about 40 percent less
than the continuous flooded conditions, without
any yield loss. In the alternate wetting and drying
regime, water use was 60 percent les than the
traditional practice, but it resulted in about 28
percent yield loss; (ii) high rice yields could be
obtained under continuous saturated soil regime,
maintained in the field to allow ET to take place at
the potential rate. However, if weed growth is a
problem, continuous submergence up to panicle
initiation stage of crop growth and then,
continuous saturation, could be an effective
technique of water-efficient irrigation without yield
reduction; and (iii) percolation rate could be
reduced significantly by maintaining continuous
saturated soil conditions. But, if soil cracks
develop, percolation losses increase and water
losses could even be greater than those in the
continuously submerged field conditions.
Kijne (1994) reported following three alternatives
to continuous flooding:
. Intermittent Irrigation: Field is irrigated as
soon as the soil water content falls slightly
below saturation, in an amount sufficient to
maintain shallow submergence of the field
Intermittent irrigation could save 20 percent
water compared to continuous flooding and
leads to only 50 percent of the potential yield;
. Heading Stage Submergence Method: Soil is
kept at saturation or is slightly submerged
during most of the growing period, followed by
field submergence to a depth of 10 cm for a
period of 25 days after heading. Heading
stage submergence could save 40 percent
water and fields are reduced by 25 percent;
. Water Saving Method: after pudding and
transplanting, the field is supplied with
sufficient water to keep the soil water content
in the root zone at not less than 75 percent of
saturation during the growing period, with
moderate submergence only during a period
of 30 days starting at head initiation till the
end of flowering. This technique requires 25
percent less water without yield loss.
Singh et al., (1996) evaluated four irrigation
regimes, namely: (i) continuous shallow
Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol.6 (1) January-June 2002/32
submergence throughout; (ii) continuous shallow
submergence for 2 weeks after transplanting and
the irrigation at 1-day drainage; (iii) continuous
shallow submergence for 2 weeks, after
transplanting, and then irrigation at 2-day
drainage; and (iv) continuous shallow
submergence for 1-week, after transplanting and,
then irrigation at 2-day drainage. They found that
the practice of continuous submergence for initial
2 weeks, after transplanting, followed by irrigation
at 2-day drainage saved, on average, 73 percent
irrigation water compared to continuous
submergence.
Mishra et al., (1997) reported that an optimum rice
yield with high water use efficiency of 3.21-3.67
kg/ha-mm could be obtained by adopting an
intermittent irrigation schedule of 3-5 days after
the disappearance of ponded water under shallow
water tables of 7-92 cm deep. Similarly,
intermittent irrigation of 1-3 days under medium
water table (13-126 cm deep) conditions would be
beneficial in place of continuous submergence
In Pakistan’s Punjab, typically, rice is cultivated in
bunded fields with standing water, which is
maintained during most of the growing season.
On average, farmers keep the water standing in
the fields for 7 days before planting the nursery.
Then, 25 irrigation turns are applied to the
standing crop throughout the season (Azeem et
al., 1990).
In Sindh, all rice is grown in flooded fields, which
are initially irrigated individually, and later on, with
the increase in water depth, a largely uncontrolled
water flow takes place from field to field. This
results in continuous flow of irrigation. In the case
for transplanted rice, one, or more, pre-irrigation
turns are provided in order to have some soil
moisture before transplanting. This is done when
the seedlings are in the nursery. An additional
irrigation is given just prior to transplanting. Once
the seedlings are established, normally a few
days after transplanting, water is again applied
and the field kept permanently flooded. Irrigation
is discontinued about 15-20 days before
harvesting.
In order to improve water-use efficiency of the rice
crop, farmers in the Punjab and Sindh Provinces
 Water Saving Strategies for Irrigated Rice
should adopt water-saving practices by
maintaining a thin layor of standing water in the
rice field, saturated, or alternate wet and dry soil significantly to the total irrigation water supply for
regimes in place of the traditional practice of
continuous submergence. These irrigation
regimes can save 20-70 percent of irrigation water considered as a means of water saving and
without significant yield loss. In clay loam soils,
high rice yields can be obtained by maintaining a
saturated soil moisture, thereby, allowing potential Discontinuation of the Pancho System
Et to occur. However, if weed growth is a
problem, submergence up to panicle initiation
stage and continuous saturation thereafter, can
increase water use efficiency without significant
rice yield reductions. Therefore, adopting these
moisture regimes provide opportunities for
improving water use efficiency in rice.
Reuse of Drainage Effluent
Recycling of drainage water (Ngion, 1994) is
being adopted in Malasia for water savings and
conservation an for sustaining agricultural
development. In a number of existing irrigation
schemes, drainage water is being pumped from
the drains into nearby canals or directly onto the
adjoining paddy fields for recycled use, which
directly raises the cropping intensity.
Zulu et al., (1996) evaluated the potential of
agricultural drainage water reuse for improving
irrigation water management in rice lands of a
water shortage area in Niigata Prefecture, Japan.
They found that for three years (1991-1993), the
average water reuse component was about 14.5
percent of the total irrigation water supply for the
whole Kaliyada area. Apart from meeting the
water needs at peak demand periods, water reuse
was a quick response to water supply solution,
during dry spells, increasing both the water
reliability and rice crop security. Because
drainage water within the irrigation area is used
for irrigation, the water intake from the headwork
could be reduced without sacrificing productivity
and reducing cropped area. By using drainage
water for irrigation, the fresh water requirements
were reduced by 14.5 percent of the irrigation
water supply for the whole Kaliyada area. This
study proved that coupled with efficient water use
methods, water reuse has a high potential for
improving irrigation water management in paddy
areas.
Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol.6 (1) January-June 2002/33
Depending on the quality of drainage effluent, the
water reuse component can contribute
the irrigated rice areas. For Pakistan, the
possibility of reuse of drainage effluent should be
conservation.
In Sindh, some of the rice farmers, especially on
the Right Bank of the Indus River, practice a
Pancho System of irrigation. This system involves
draining standing water from the field at intervals
of 4 to 5 days and re-irrigating the same rice
fields. The standing water in the rice field is
drained out to adjoining low-lying areas and fresh
water is applied. Though, some of “Pancho water”
let out of rice fields is lost through evaporation
and percolation, this practice ultimately results in
waterlogging, thereby creating the acute drainage
problems in rice growing areas.
The factors that encourage the Pancho System of
irrigation are:
. Long water courses with a continuous flow of
water. The farmers are forced to use their
irrigation turns, irrespective of their irrigation
needs;
. Irrigation by block of fields. There is only one
water inlet for a number of fields from the
irrigation ditch. Often water is kept moving
slowly through the paddy fields; and
. Control of salinity. In newly reclaimed saline
land, water is let out of the field for washing
the salts from the land.
In order to improve the drainage of rice areas, the
practice of the Pancho system should be
discouraged. This can be achieved by reducing
the length of the watercourses and farmers should
irrigate each field separately from the irrigation
ditch. For achieving these objectives, there is a
need to construct additional minor channels by
the irrigation Department and additional irrigation
ditches by the farmers, so that each field has a
separate water inlet from a watercourse for
separate and controlled irrigation.
Land Leveling
Farmers should be encouraged to level their fields
to improve water application. Land leveling helps
 M. Aslam et al.
in uniform irrigation application, thereby avoiding measure to increase the water use efficiency
over-or under-irrigation. In order to facilitate this
activity, the local government agencies should
provide subsidies, technical assistance and
training to the farmers. As the scope of land
leveling by bullock and manual labour is very
limited in Pakistan, especially, in Sindh, due to
clayey nature of the soils, farmers can benefit
from laser technology for land leveling. Laser
equipment is now being locally manufactured by
the private sector. In general, farmers have a
tendency to over-irrigate to water undulating
fields.Poorly leveled fields are considered to be
a major factor in causing over-irrigation which
results in rise to waterlogging and salinity
problems.
Improved Layout of Irrigation Ditches and
Fields
In Pakistan, improper layout of water channels
and weak bunds of rice fields, waste a significant
amount of water, resulting in low irrigation and
application efficiencies. These channels follow a
zigzag pattern, which slows down the water flow
and causes siltation frequent cleaning of water
channels. The uncertainty about the availability of
irrigation water causes the over-flooding of rice
fields. Problem of wastage of water, over-irrigation
and shortage of water could be solved by
improving layout of water channels and fields and
keeping the water channels straight and clear.
Also, in order to improve the irrigation efficiency,
leveling of individual fields and strengthening the
bunds of water channels and fields is very
important. Farmers should be advised to construct
proper field bunds to retain and control water to
the required standing depth to prevent or
minimize water losses through reduced drainage
effluent.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
. Puddling is the most common methodof land
preparation for rice in Asia. The destruction of
the soil structure through puddling results in
better weed control, increased capacity to
retain water and reduced hydraulic
conductivity resulting in reduced deep
percolation losses. Puddled rice field could
require 40-60 percent less water than in
non-puddled fields. Thus, it is an important
Journal of Drainage and Water Management, Vol.6 (1) January-June 2002/34
of rice fields in areas with permeable subsoil.
. Direct-seeded rice system offers a major
opportunity to reduce water use during rice
growth, as less water is required for direct-
seeded rice. It is faster and easier than
transplanting and grain yields are similar, or
occasionally higher. Land preparation is more
water-efficient for direct-seeded rice than for
transplanted rice. About 30 percent less water
is required to prepare a typical field up to the
same puddle condition for direct-seeded wet
rice than for transplanting rice.
Irrigation scheduling could play an important
role in improving water use efficiency of rice
thereby promising considerable water
savings.
. Water-saving irrigation regimes and
techniques (maintaining a thin layer of
standing water in the field, saturated, or
alternate wet and dry soil conditions) could
save about 20-70 percent of irrigation water
without significant yield loss as compared to
continuous shallow submergence.
. Under limited water resources and high cost
of freshwater conditions, saline drainage
water can be used for irrigation of rice crop.
The saline drainage effluent can be used
directly or in conjunction with fresh water
depending on the quality of drainage water.
Conjunctive use of good and bad quality
water through blending or cyclic application
could be practiced to minimize adverse
effects of poor quality drainage water on land
and water resources. The use of drainage
water for irrigation reduces the amount of
freshwater requirement and decreases the
volume of drainage effluent that needs to be
disposed of in an environmentally safe
manner. Reuse of drainage effluent coupled
with efficient water use methods has a greater
potential for improving irrigation water
management as well as water saving and
conservation in a water shortage situation.
. Farmers in the irrigated areas should be
encouraged to carry out land leveling in order
to improve rice farming, and also water
conservation. Land leveling will also
effectively facilitate on-farm water control and
management.
 Water Saving Strategies for Irrigated Rice
In Pakistan, intensive research is needed on
direct-seeded rice system of crop
establishment and various water saving
irrigation regimes in order to provide
guidelines on water efficient crop
establishment methods and irrigation
practices applicable for local irrigated rice
production systems.
LITERATURE CITED
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