Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265

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Atmospheric Environment
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv

Characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer and its relation with

PM2:5 during haze episodes in winter in the North China Plain
Qianhui Li a, Bingui Wu b, Jingle Liu b, Hongsheng Zhang a, *, Xuhui Cai c, Yu Song c
a
Laboratory for Climate and Ocean-Atmosphere Studies, Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, PR
China
b
Tianjin Municipal Meteorological Bureau, Tianjin, 300074, PR China
c
State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Department of Environmental Science, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, PR China

H I G H L I G H T S

� PM2:5 concentration profiles were collected by GPS sounding balloons in winter.

� The influence of the ABL structure on PM2:5 distribution is explained.
� The scavenging effect of low-level jets on PM2:5 in the upper layer is confirmed.
� Heavily polluted layers were discovered at high altitudes and explained.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Interactions between the spatiotemporal distribution of pollutants and the structure of the atmospheric boundary
Haze layer were studied using data obtained by GPS (Global Positioning System) sounding balloons in an intensive
PM2.5 concentration profile observation period from December 2018 to January 2019 at the Dezhou experimental station in the North China
Atmospheric boundary layer
Plain. Under haze weather conditions, negligible variation or a slight increase in temperature, higher relative
North China Plain
humidity (RH) and lower wind speed with uncertain wind direction are common characteristics. The concen­
tration distribution of particulate matter �2.5 μm (PM2:5 ) has a close relationship with the inversion layer, which
contributes to the accumulation of PM2:5 in the lower atmosphere. The reduction of pollutants suspended in the
upper layer during haze periods is closely related to low-level jets and intermittent turbulence. Higher RH values
are also favourable for the formation of heavy haze, and the value of PM2:5 increases with an increase in hu­
midity. During hazy days, the heat fluxes and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) are much smaller than those during
clear days. The values of the average maxima of net radiation, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux are 154, 76,
and 15 W=m2 , respectively, and the value of TKE is approximately 0.67 m2 =s2 . The decrease in atmospheric
boundary layer height (ABLH) is caused by weaker turbulent transfer during haze episodes. The ABLH is
approximately 400 m during the daytime and 240 m at night. The power function relationship is shown by a
negative correlation between the ABLH and surface PM2:5 concentration in the convective boundary layer.

1. Introduction boundary layer dynamics, and exerts complicated effects on weather

With the rapid expansion of industrialisation and urbanisation,
China has experienced severe haze pollution (Deng et al., 2012; Ding
et al., 2016) in which particulate matter � 2.5 μm (PM2:5 ) is the domi­
nant pollutant (Gao et al., 2017). Severe haze pollution reduces visibility
and has adverse effects on public health and traffic safety (Q. Zhang
et al., 2015). High concentration of aerosols suspending in the air can
change the atmospheric radiative characteristics, further changes the
and climate through aerosol-radiation-cloud feedback (Jacobson, 2001;
Shi et al., 2008; Ding et al., 2013).
There are several heavily polluted areas in China, and one is the
North China Plain (NCP) (Fu et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014; Zhang et al.,
2016). Several studies have explored factors contributing to haze in the
NCP from source emissions (Chan and Yao, 2008; Zhang et al., 2017),
weather conditions (Ye et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018), topography
(Jiang et al., 2015), regional transport (Hua et al., 2016; Sun et al.,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hsdq@pku.edu.cn (H. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117265
Received 25 October 2019; Received in revised form 2 January 2020; Accepted 4 January 2020
Available online 7 January 2020
1352-2310/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Q. Li et al. Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265

2018), and the structure of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) (Han Compared with previous studies, we used a particulate sounding system,
et al., 2018a; Li et al., 2019). Coal combustion, engine exhaust, and which combined the particulate sensor with GPS sounding balloons.
biomass burning are important sources of haze (Cao et al., 2012; Ming Therefore, the profiles of PM2:5 concentration was detected directly,
et al., 2017). Stagnant weather occurs more frequently due to the avoiding the retrieval errors caused by ground-based remote sensing
westward extension of the western Pacific subtropical high and equipment. And with the high temporal and spatial resolution of our
decreased cold wave activity (Qu et al., 2013, 2015). Topographically, sounding data, fine structures of the ABL were captured. Based on the
Taihang Mountain and Yanshan Mountain block cold from moving into high quality ABL observations, interesting phenomena of pollution were
the NCP, which reduces the diffusivity of pollutants (L. L. Wang et al., discovered, and the influence of ABL structure on the spatiotemporal
2014; Wu et al., 2014). Chemically, the formation of secondary particles distribution of PM2:5 was explored and explained in detail. The rest of
can be accelerated under hazy conditions, which worsens air pollution the paper is organised as follows: The details of experimental station,
(Y. J. Zhang et al., 2015). observation methods and data processing are introduced in Section 2.
The ABL has a direct influence on the spatiotemporal distribution of The surface meteorology, weather background, and the interactions
air pollution. Turbulent motion is the dominant form of atmospheric between the spatiotemporal distribution of ABL structure and PM2:5 are
motion in the ABL, and the exchange of heat, energy, and substances analysed in Section 3. Finally, our conclusions are presented in Section
between the earth and atmosphere is primarily accomplished by tur­ 4.
bulent transport (Stull, 1988; Garratt, 1994). The thermodynamic and
dynamic structure of the ABL reflects turbulent motion and impacts the 2. Data and methods
spatial distribution of air pollutants. Studies suggest that the inversion
layer can suppress turbulent mixing and make the atmospheric stratifi­ 2.1. Experimental station
cation more stable, so it is conducive to the accumulation of air pol­
lutants in the surface layer (Zhong et al., 2018a; Miao and Liu, 2019). The field experiment was conducted from 18 December 2018 to 24
Furthermore, the dynamic structure has a close association with air January 2019 at the Dezhou experimental station, Shandong Province,
quality. Li et al. (2019) discovered that low-level jets (LLJs) could China. The experimental station (37� 090 N, 116� 260 E) is located in the
contribute substantially to the regional transport of air pollutants. Some middle of the NCP (Fig. 1), which is one of the most polluted districts in
researches indicated that intermittent turbulence associated with LLJs China, especially in the winter season (Fu et al., 2014; Zou et al., 2018).
could improve the vertical transport of particulate matter and promote The comprehensive experimental station is capable of conducting
the dissipation of pollution (Wei et al., 2018, 2020; Ren et al., 2019). measurements and observations of atmospheric physics and chemistry
Furthermore, the atmospheric boundary layer height (ABLH) is a key (Xu et al., 2019). The altitude of this station is approximately 23.8 m,
parameter related to air pollution, embodying the processes of turbulent and the underlying surface is farmland without tall buildings.
mixing and vertical diffusion (Seibert et al., 2000). Several studies show
a negative correlation between ABLH and aerosol concentration (Du
2.2. GPS sounding balloons
et al., 2013; Quan et al., 2013). Zou et al. (2017) estimated the surface
energy budget that is influenced by aerosols, and discovered that the
A particulate sounding system was used to obtain the atmospheric
ABLH decreases more than 400 m when air pollution is heavy. The ABLH
profiles during haze episodes, which combined a light portable partic­
typically does not exceed 1000 m in heavy haze episodes (Qu et al.,
ulate sensor with GPS sounding balloons. Therefore, the balloons
2017).
detected not only fundamental meteorological elements (temperature,
With growing concerns about the importance of the ABL on air
relative humidity, wind speed, and wind direction) but also recorded the
pollution, a number of field experiments and numerical simulations
mass concentration of PM2:5 . Observation by sounding balloons was
have been carried out (Gao et al., 2015; He et al., 2015). Using a 325 m
carried out every 3 h at local times: 02:00, 05:00, 08:00, 11:00, 14:00,
meteorological tower in Beijing, Shi et al. (2018) found that the wind
17:00, 20:00 and 23:00. The GPS sounding balloons were developed by
speed was low throughout the layer, remaining almost constant from the
the Institute of Atmospheric Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,
surface layer to the top of the tower. Based on the measurements by
and they ascended at a velocity of approximately 2 m/s and recorded
aerosol laser radar and tethered balloons, Han et al. (2018b) analysed a
data at 1-s intervals. The particulate sensor measured PM2:5 concentra­
fog-haze process from the vertical structure of PM2:5 and meteorological
tion by the optical method, that is, using the laser to irradiate the
elements. Zhong et al. (2018a) averaged the conventional sounding data
of multiple pollution processes from meteorological stations and re­
ported that light wind, a low inversion layer, and high humidity are
common characteristics of haze episodes. However, research on the
relationship between haze processes and the ABL has the following gaps:
Surface observations alone do not clearly explain haze events, but
high-resolution observations of the vertical structure of meteorological
factors and particulate matter are lacking. Measurements obtained by a
meteorological tower or tethered balloons have a limited space range,
and the time resolution of conventional sounding from meteorological
stations is coarse. In addition, the vertical distribution of particulate
matter is not clear. The lack of high-resolution data on ABL structure and
spatial distribution of particulate matter, results in a lack of under­
standing about the spatiotemporal distribution and the vertical trans­
port of air pollutants.
In order to make a better understanding of the interactions between
the spatial and temporal distribution of particulate matter and the
structure of the ABL during haze episodes, a field experiment was
initiated with an intensive observation period (IOP) from December
2018 to January 2019 at the Dezhou experimental station, which is
representative for the NCP. Profiles of meteorological elements, PM2:5
concentration, radiative data, and turbulent data were obtained. Fig. 1. Location of the Dezhou experimental station.

2
Q. Li et al.
sampling air and getting the intensity of the scattered light, and the
aerosol scale spectrum can be obtained by the Mie scattering theory. The
measurement range for PM2:5 concentration is from 0 to 500 μg/m3,
with a resolution of 1 μg/m3. For measured PM2:5 values between 100
μg/m3 to 500 μg/m3, the accuracy is �10 μg/m3; when the value is
below 100 μg/m3, it is �10%.
During the experimental period, 290 datasets were collected. We
carried out quality control on the original sounding data and eliminated
outliers. Due to the low height of the ABL in the winter season, we
collected data from 0 to 2000 m and smoothed the profiles by using the
five-point moving average method. Adopting the methods of Li et al.
(2018), we averaged the profiles to a vertical resolution of 10 m. In this
study, the thermodynamic method was used to evaluate the ABLH.
Based on the temperature profiles, we calculated potential temperature
(PT) and took the height where a discontinuous gradient and strong
inversion was observed as the ABLH.
To assure the quality of the PM2:5 concentration data measured by
GPS sounding balloons, we also collected mass concentration of PM2:5
data from the China National Environmental Monitoring Station
(CNEMS). The PM2:5 data from the CNEMS was hourly averaged, and it
was downloaded from the national urban air quality real-time release
platform (http://www.cnemc.cn/sssj/) of China environmental moni­
toring station. The location of CNEMS (37� 280 N, 116� 180 E) is shown in
Fig. 1. The results show high consistency between these two datasets,
indicating that the PM2:5 concentration measured by the sounding bal­
loons is reliable (Fig. 2). The two sites are separated by 35-km, so the
difference seen on 12 January may be due to a difference in local
emissions.
2.3. Radiative and turbulent data
Net radiation was measured by a net radiometer (NR-Lite,
Kipp&Zonen Co., Finland). These measurements were automatically and
continuously recorded at intervals of 10 min and processed into average
values spanning 30-min. Visibility was observed by a sensor (CS120A,
Campbell Scientific Co., USA), which has a good real-time response
capability. Turbulent data, temperature, wind speed and wind direction
data were obtained by a three-dimensional sonic anemometer-
thermometer (IGRASON, Campbell Scientific Co., USA). The IGRASON
was installed at an altitude of 2.8 m and pointed north. Turbulent data
were processed using Eddy-Pro software (Advanced 6.2.1, LI-COR Bio­
sciences, Inc, USA) (www.licor.com/EddyPro), and the data processing
included eliminating outliers (Vickers and Mahrt, 1997), double rota­
tion (Wilczak et al., 2001) and detrending (Gash and Culf, 1996).
2.4. Identifying haze events
There are two criteria for identifying a haze event. One is visibility of
Fig. 2. Comparison of PM2:5 concentrations measured by GPS sounding balloons and the CNEMS. The shaded areas indicate haze episodes.
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Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265
no more than 10 km, and the other is relative humidity (RH) below 80%
that lasts for several hours (Fu et al., 2008; Leng et al., 2016; Li et al.,
2018). When the RH is between 80% and 90%, it is considered a tran­
sitional period between fog and haze. When the RH is above 90%, it is
considered fog.
Fig. 2 shows the temporal variations of PM2:5 concentration in the
surface layer. Five haze episodes occurred during the IOP (shaded areas
in Fig. 2). The first case was 18–22 December 2018. The second was
from 31 December 2018 to 5 January 2019. Cases 3, 4, 5 were 6–8, 9–15,
and 17–19 January 2019, respectively. Nearly half of the time during the
observation period was under haze conditions, and the mass concen­
tration of PM2:5 shows a strong negative correlation with visibility. The
Pearson correlation coefficients for Cases 1 through 5 are 0.75, 0.81,
0.83, 0.81, and 0.85, respectively. Case 1, Case 2 and Case 4 not
only had a high pollution level, with the PM2:5 concentration reaching
approximately 150 μg=m3 on average, but also had a long duration,
lasting for more than four days. Persistent heavy haze events have a
stronger adverse effect on air quality, traffic safety and public health. As
a consequence, in the following section, we focus on these three severe
and more persistent haze episodes.
3. Results
3.1. Synoptic background
PM2:5 concentration is affected by meteorological elements, and the
temporal variation of the meteorological elements in the surface layer
are shown in Fig. 3. In Fig. 3a, the daily average temperature (T) had
varied negligibly or increased slightly under haze conditions. A higher
value of RH was a contributing factor to persistent haze events. When
haze pollution dissipated quickly, there was often an obvious drop in
both T and RH, corresponding to an invasion process with a dry and cold
air mass. According to Fig. 3b, the wind speed (WS) during each haze
episode was typically less than 2 m/s, without a dominant wind direc­
tion (WD), while the WS promptly rose to approximately 4 m/s and the
dominant wind shifted to the northeast during rapid dissipation stage.
Fig. 3c and d depict the variations in sea level pressure (P) and vertical
velocity (w). During haze episodes, pressure changed slowly, and the
experimental station was located in a relatively stable pressure field;
these observations agree with previous reports of stagnant weather
during haze episodes (Wang et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2015; Huang et al.,
2018). The rapid invasion of a cold, high-pressure weather system was
accompanied by not only a strong wind, that enhanced the horizontal
transport of pollutants but also a strong downdraft flow, which pro­
moted the vertical removal of pollutants from the upper layer.
The synoptic situation was generally stable during haze episodes.
Sparse isobaric lines and stagnation of the airflow near the surface in the
Q. Li et al.
Fig. 3. Temporal variations of (a) temperature and relative humidity, (b) wind speed and wind direction, (c) sea level pressure, and (d) vertical velocity in the
surface layer.
NCP frequently occurred. There are some similarities in weather sys­
tems, as illustrated by Case 1. Fig. 4 depicts the characteristics of surface
weather conditions during the polluted and rapid cleansing periods
associated with Case 1. The location of the experimental station is often
in the southeastern periphery of an area of high pressure on the western
side of Lake Baikal. At other times, it is in a northeast-southwest weak
low-pressure band, a position that is relevant to low visibility events,
according to Ye et al. (2016). Typically, the haze dissipates when the
high pressure on the western side of Lake Baikal expands to the south­
east and gradually takes control of the NCP, bringing strong north­
westerly winds and removing contaminants. Such a synoptic situation is
similar to the findings of Tie et al. (2015).
3.2. Structure of the ABL and its impact on PM2:5 distribution
The spatiotemporal distribution of air pollutants is attributed to the
temperature, humidity, and wind structure of the ABL. Overviews of the
ABL structure and PM2:5 distribution for Cases 1, 2 and 4 are shown in
Fig. 5, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 5a, there were three periods exhibiting high PM2:5
concentrations in Case 1, occurring on 19th, 21st, and 22nd of
December. The worst pollution occurred on 21 December; the height of
the polluted layer reached 800 m, and the PM2:5 concentration exceeded
250μg=m3 . According to Fig. 6a, air pollution worsened from 3 January
in Case 2. The concentration of PM2:5 increased not only near the ground
but also in the higher layer. The height of the polluted layer reached
approximately 1200 m, and the PM2:5 concentration exceeded 200μg=
m3 . Despite the presence of a thick pollution layer, an elevated pollution
layer was observed on 4 January 2019. Fig. 7a depicts the spatiotem­
poral distribution of PM2:5 concentration in Case 4. The polluted layer
was more continuous in Case 4 from 12 January to 14 January, which
differs from the patterns seen in Cases 1 and 2. The polluted layer
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Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265
remained below 800 m and exhibited a gradual decrease in height. By
the end of 14 January, the height of the polluted layer decreased to
approximately 200 m. In all three cases, the pollution centre corre­
sponded to high RH, and the frequent LLJs had a great impact on the
removal of pollutants.
The thermal structure of the ABL represents the state of thermal
turbulence and reflects the stability of the atmospheric stratification.
Turbulent mixing is active in the convective boundary layer (CBL),
where heat and substances become uniformly mixed. While in the stable
boundary layer (SBL), which is characterized by an inversion layer
generated from the surface, turbulent transport is suppressed and sub­
stances accumulate near the surface. As shown in Fig. 7a and b, there is a
strong correlation between the polluted layer and the inversion layer. A
persistent warm air-mass is maintained in the upper layer from 12
January to 15 January. The warm layer was initially at an altitude of
800 m, and then gradually descended to 400 m. Until 14 January, a
thick, elevated inversion layer remained at 200–400 m throughout the
day. This strong, stable stratification inhibited the upward transport of
pollutants, acting as a lid. The effect of inversion layer on vertical
transport can be reflected by static stability (SS). As shown in Fig. 8, SS
often increased with height during 12 January to 14 January, which
indicated stable stratification and reduced possibility of vertical trans­
port. Furthermore, the wind speed was approximately 2 m/s at altitudes
below 200 m. Therefore, both the vertical diffusion conditions and the
horizontal transport conditions were poor. As a consequence, PM2:5 was
restrained to accumulate at altitudes below 200 m. The persistence of
elevated inversion layer at low altitudes coupled with low wind speed
was an important contributor to the continuous air pollution observed in
Case 4.
LLJs are often observed during the transition from pollution to
cleansing. LLJs not only affect the horizontal transport of air pollutants
but also cause momentum fluxes due to wind shear (Banta et al., 2002).
Q. Li et al. Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265

Fig. 5. Spatiotemporal distribution of (a) PM2:5 concentration, (b) temperature,

(c) relative humidity, and (d) wind speed during Case 1 from 18 to 24
December 2018.

Fig. 4. Surface weather conditions during (a) a polluted period and (b) a rapid
cleansing period in Case 1. Weather charts are from the Korea Meteorological
Administration.
(a) Local time at 20:00 on 18 December 2018 and, (b) local time at 20:00 on 22
December 2018.

LLJs can increase wind shear in the upper layer and promote the pro­
duction of turbulence. The turbulence moves down toward the surface,
contributing to the removal of PM2:5 suspended in the upper layer. Fig. 9
depicts the scavenging effect of LLJs in detail. At 11:00 on 19 December,
the maximum of LLJ was observed at an altitude of approximately 300
m, at a speed of 6.8 m=s; meanwhile, PM2:5 accumulated under 400 m,
with a concentration of approximately 120 μg=m3 . Then, LLJs gradually
developed from top to bottom, and the downward transmission of mo­
mentum caused a dramatic increase in wind speed at low altitude; the
maximum wind speed rose to 13 m=s at 20:00. As a result, the PM2:5
concentration also decreased according to the altitude of the jet stream Fig. 6. Spatiotemporal distribution of (a) PM2:5 concentration, (b) temperature,
from top to bottom. Based on the surface PM2:5 concentration and the (c) relative humidity, and (d) wind speed during Case 2 from 30 December
turbulence observations from a meteorological tower, Wei et al. (2018) 2018 to 7 January 2019.
pointed out that the LLJs appeared in the transition period between the
accumulation of pollutants and the rapid transport stage, and intermit­ the top-down removal of pollutants and improves air quality. Our results
tent turbulence also appeared in the transition period. The tower ob­ of the contribution of LLJs to the vertical removal of PM2:5 supports the
servations showed that intermittent turbulence occurred earlier at a hypothesis proposed by Wei et al. (2018).
higher level and then transported downward. Therefore, Wei et al. Besides the thermodynamic and dynamic structure of the ABL, hu
(2018) speculated that downward intermittent turbulent flux promotes

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Q. Li et al. Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265

midity structure also affects pollution. Heavily polluted areas often

correspond to areas with higher RH. For example, in Case 1 (Fig. 5c), a
high PM2:5 concentration was associated with high RH that exceeded
60%, and the pollution events on 19 December and 22 December like­
wise corresponded to high RH. High RH could induce the hygroscopic
growth of aerosols and facilitate liquid-phase and heterogeneous re­
actions of aerosols (Fu et al., 2014; Zhong et al., 2018a). Increases in
both size and mass of particulate matter could aggravate episodes of air
pollution (Tie et al., 2017). Therefore, high humidity is an important
factor in haze events.

3.3. Analysis of heavily polluted layers at high altitude

Fig. 7. Spatiotemporal distribution of (a) PM2:5 concentration, (b) temperature,
(c) relative humidity, and (d) wind speed during Case 4 from 8 to 16
January 2019.
Fig. 8. Spatiotemporal distribution of static stability during Case 4 from 8 to 16
January 2019.
A thick pollution layer may appear when the surface inversion in­
tensity is weak and when the wind speed is high at night. For example,
the data from 21 December in Case 1 revealed that the height of the
polluted layer reached 800 m at 05:00 (Fig. 5a). As shown in Fig. 5b, the
inversion intensity was relatively weak below 800 m, while a strong
inversion layer capped the top. Therefore, the inhibition effect of the
inversion layer on 21 December was weak. In addition, the wind speed
in the polluted layer was high, approximately 8 m=s, leading to active
mechanical turbulence, as shown in Fig. 5d. Hence, the stratification
was weak and this kind of stable boundary layer benefitted the mixing of
PM2:5 in a thicker layer at night.
With the development of the CBL during the day, a thick, polluted
layer is formed. Fig. 10a and b suggest that with the development of the
CBL, the distribution of potential temperature gradually became uni­
form, and the concentration of PM2:5 gradually became homogeneous by
turbulent mixing. The heights of the uniform layers of potential tem­
perature and PM2:5 concentration reached 800 m by 17:00. The SBL
grew from the surface at night, and the height of the SBL rose to
approximately 150 m, as shown in Fig. 10d. In the meantime, the PM2:5
concentration in the residual layer remained at 150 μg=m3 , while the
PM2:5 concentration in the SBL increased significantly, rising to 200
μg=m3 . Favourable turbulent mixing conditions in the CBL and the ex­
istence of a residual layer at night contributed to the maintenance of
PM2:5 at a higher layer.
An elevated, heavily polluted layer developed on 14 January in Case
2 (Fig. 6a). Fig. 11 shows the details of the vertical structure of the ABL
and PM2:5 concentration. PM2:5 mixed uniformly in the CBL by 11:00 at
a level of 200 μg=m3 (Fig. 11a). Due to the effect of LLJs (Fig. 11c), PM2:5
concentration declined below 800 m and the elevated polluted layer
gradually formed. However, PM2:5 concentration remained and even
increased in the upper layer at night. The concentration of PM2:5
exceeded 200 μg=m3 at 23:00, and the height of the elevated polluted
layer ranged from 800 to 1500 m (Fig. 11a). The increase in pollution
concentration may be explained by humidity. As shown in Fig. 11c,
there was an obvious whole-layer uplift of water vapour at night,
causing the specific humidity to increase above 1000 m. Higher hu­
midity provides favourable conditions for hygroscopic growth of aero­
sols and enhances secondary particulate matter formation through
heterogeneous and liquid-phase reactions (Zhong et al., 2018b; Liu
et al., 2018). Therefore, the residual pollutants in the upper layer
increased to 250 μg=m3 at 23:00. These may be the reasons for the
elevated, heavily polluted layer in Case 2.

3.4. ABLH characteristics and relationship to PM2:5 concentration in the

surface layer

The ABLH, which represents the height where turbulence nearly

Fig. 9. (a) Low-level jets and (b) the vertical distribution of PM2:5 concentra­
tion on 19 December 2018.
disappears, is recognised as a crucial parameter in haze events. It has a
close relationship with turbulent mixing and surface air quality. The
ABLH depends on thermodynamic and dynamic effects of turbulent
motion. On the one hand, sensible heat flux (H) is the part of net radi­
ation (Rn) used to heat the atmosphere and promote convection. On the

6
Q. Li et al.
Fig. 10. Vertical distribution of potential temperature (PT) and PM2:5 concentration at (a) 14:00, (b) 17:00, (c) 20:00, and (d) 23:00 on 11 January 2019.
Fig. 11. Vertical distribution of (a) PM2:5 concentration, (b) specific humidity, and (c) wind speed on 14 January 2019.
other hand, turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) reflects the strength of me­
chanical turbulence. Therefore, the ABLH value is directly influenced by
H and TKE in haze episodes.
Fig. 12a depicts the surface heat fluxes during the observation
period. The average daily peaks of Rn, H, and latent heat flux (LE) were
200, 137, and 18 W=m2 during clear periods, and only 154, 76, and 15
W=m2 in haze episodes, respectively. There was an evident decrease in
heat flux during haze episodes compared with clear periods. Both Rn and
H exhibited a significant increase as soon as the hazhad dissipated.
Fig. 12b shows the temporal variation of TKE in the surface layer. During
hazy periods, the daily TKE maximum averaged approximately 0.67 m2 =
s2 , nearly half of the TKE during clear weather conditions (1.3 m2 = s2 ).
Furthermore, a sharp increase in TKE occurred after haze episodes, as
evidenced in Cases 1 and 4. The phenomena mentioned above indicate
that turbulent transport of both heat and momentum fluxes are notably
weaker under hazy conditions. As shown in Fig. 12c, the ABLH is much
lower on hazy days, with an average of 400 m during the day and 240 m
at night. Similarly, a steep rise in ABLH after a haze episode also occurs
in Cases 1 and 4.
Fig. 13 compares the diurnal variation of the ABLH during clear and
haze conditions in Cases 1, 2, and 4. Diurnal variation of the ABLH is
weaker, and the ABLH is lower during haze episodes than those in clear
periods. The CBL develops at 400 m on hazy days, nearly 400 m less than
in clear conditions. A lower ABLH contributes to heavy haze in the
surface layer, as the pollutants are trapped in the boundary layer, and
the turbulent transport is weak. Therefore, in general, ABLH is lower in
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Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265
cases of haze pollution.
We investigated the relationship between the ABLH and the surface
concentration of PM2:5 in greater detail. During the IOP at the experi­
mental station, sunrise was at 07:30 local time (LT), and sunset was at
17:00 LT. We eliminated the data collected during non-stationary con­
ditions and determined the boundary layer type at 11:00 and 14:00 LT as
the CBL, and at 02:00 and 23:00 LT as the SBL. The scatter diagram is
shown in Fig. 14. The ABLH is typically below 500 m under polluted
conditions. There is a negative relationship between surface PM2:5
concentration and the ABLH throughout the entire IOP, and the rela­
tionship can be described as a power function. This negative relationship
is apparent with the CBL, but it is not applicable to the SBL, indicating
that the effects on PM2:5 concentration in the surface layer are more
complicated under SBL conditions. There may be PM2:5 transport be­
tween the residual layer and the SBL, or turbulent intermittency that
exists in the SBL may inhibit the transport of PM2:5 . The reasons remain
unclear and need further research. Therefore, we can establish a power
function to describe the relationship between surface PM2:5 concentra­
tion and the ABLH during the day, and although this power function can
be applied to air quality forecasts, it is not suitable for the SBL condi­
tions. As such, the relationship for the SBL needs further exploration.
4. Conclusions
Based on field experiments carried out from 18 December 2018 to 24
January 2019 at Dezhou experimental station, the influence of the ABL
Q. Li et al.
Fig. 12. Temporal variations of (a) turbulent heat fluxes, (b) turbulent kinetic energy in the surface layer, and (c) the atmospheric boundary layer height.
Fig. 13. Diurnal variation of the ABLH during (a) haze episodes and (b) clear episodes. The lines marked with plus signs, hollow circles, asterisks, or no marking,
indicate Case 1, Case 2, Case 4, and the mean diurnal variation, respectively.
structure on the spatiotemporal distribution of PM2:5 concentration was
investigated. During the IOP, several heavy and long-lasting haze events
were observed.
During haze periods, the value of temperature typically exhibited
negligible change or a slight increase, RH frequently exhibited a higher
value, and wind speed was lower without a dominant direction
compared with those under clear conditions. During in the rapid
pollution dissipation stage, there was an appreciable drop of both tem­
perature and RH, and short-term, strong northeast winds appeared.
These features corresponded to synoptic processes, which suggests cold
air invasion accompanied by cold, high pressure and downdrafts.
The structure of the ABL had a great impact on the spatiotemporal
distribution of PM2:5 concentration. There was a strong correlation be­
tween the polluted layer and the inversion layer. A persistent, elevated
inversion layer at low altitude coupled with low wind speed contributed
to the accumulation of PM2:5 at low levels, causing continuous haze
pollution. From the dynamic structure, the wind speed was typically low
in the polluted layer, which is not conducive to the horizontal transport
of pollutants. Furthermore, LLJs were a major contributor to the
8
Atmospheric Environment 223 (2020) 117265
removal of PM2:5 suspended in the upper layer. Because intermittent
turbulence was generated and transported downward as LLJs developed,
the vertical transport of PM2:5 was promoted, and the air quality
improved. Furthermore, heavy pollution is often associated with high
relative humidity, and a higher RH could aggravate haze pollution.
High PM2:5 concentration at a higher altitude frequently appeared
during the IOP. The formation of high-altitude pollution at night might
be attributed to a weak stable boundary layer, so the boundary layer
height at night is relatively high. Furthermore, PM2:5 can be transported
to a higher altitude by thermal turbulent transport in the CBL during the
day and can remain in the residual layer at night. If it coordinates with
the LLJs at low level and high humidity is present in the upper layer,
then an elevated pollution layer will form, as in Case 2.
Finally, the characteristics of turbulent transfer and the relationship
between the ABLH and surface PM2:5 concentration were discussed. The
average daily maxima of Rn, H, and LE are 154, 76, and 15 W=m2 ,
respectively, on hazy days, and the TKE was approximately 0.67m2 =s2 .
Heat fluxes and TKE noticeably decreased in haze episodes, and the
weaker turbulent transfer of both heat and momentum led to a lower
Q. Li et al.
Fig. 14. Relationship between surface PM2:5 concentration and the ABLH.
ABLH, which was approximately 400 m during the day and 240 m at
night. The diurnal variation in the ABLH was weaker, and the ABLH was
lower under haze conditions and typically did not exceed 500 m. There
was a negative correlation between the ABLH and surface PM2:5 con­
centration in the CBL, a relationship that could be described as a power
function; however, the factors affecting the surface PM2:5 concentration
were more complicated in the SBL.
Data availability
Data used in this study are available from the corresponding author
upon request (hsdq@pku.edu.cn).
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Qianhui Li: Conceptualization, Software, Formal analysis, Writing -
original draft. Bingui Wu: Formal analysis. Jingle Liu: Investigation.
Hongsheng Zhang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - original
draft, Supervision. Xuhui Cai: Formal analysis, Methodology. Yu Song:
Formal analysis.
Acknowledgement
Funding: This work was jointly funded by grant from the National
Natural Science Foundation of China [91544216, 41675018]; National
Key R&D Program of China [2017YFC0209600].
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117265.
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