CLASS: IX (CHEMISTRY)

CHAPTER 2
IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

Introduction:

Matter can be defined as any substance that occupies space and has mass. The matter is
further divided into various forms such as solid, liquid and gas. We know all the matter
around is not pure. Hence matter is also classified as pure substances and mixtures.

MIXTURES:

· A substance is impure if it consists of different kinds of elements combined

physically and not chemically.
· Impure substances are also called mixtures.
· An impure substance does not have definite set of properties.
· Mixtures are further divided into homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture.

PURE SUBSTANCES
· A substance is a pure single form of matter.
· A substance is a matter that has definite properties .
· A pure substance has a definite set of properties. These properties are different from the properties
of other substances.
· Pure substances are further classified as elements and compounds.
· A pure substance is a distinct type of matter that can not be separated into other type of matter by
any physical process e..g. oxygen, sulphur, iron etc. are pure substance however, if a substance
is composed of two or more different kinds of particles combined together in fixed proportion by
 weight, then the substance is also regarded as pure substance. e.g. Sodium chloride is a pure
substance, because it has a fixed number of sodium and chloride ions, combined together in fixed
proportion by weight, Similarly, magnesium oxide (MgO), Carbon dioxide (CO2) copper sulphate
(CuSO4) etc. are pure substance
Note : It does not imply to all homogeneous substances for example, sugar solution in water,
is a homogenous solution. Yet it cannot be called a pure substance, as it made of two
different substance e.g. salt and water.

Types of pure substance :

On the basis of their chemical composition, substance can be classified either are element or compounds.

PURE
SUBSTANCES

ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS

Elements :
Robert Boyle was the first scientist of use the term element is 1661. Elements are the basic building blocks of matter.
Every substance on the earth is formed one or more elements. There are 118 elements in the periodic table, out of which
92 are natural elements and the remaining are synthetic elements, majority of elements are solids. Eleven elements are
gaseous at room temperature . Two elements are liquid at room temperature- mercury and bromine. Antoine Laurent
Lavoiser (1734-94) a French chemist defined an element as a basic form of matter that can be defined as a substance
made up of the atoms with same atomic number.
Example :
Elements can be classified as metals, non-metals and metalloids. eg. hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, zinc, mercury etc.
Metals usually show one or all of the following properties.

ELEMENTS

METALS(Al,Zn,Na) METALLOID NON-

S METALS(N,H,O
)
Properties of metals :
1. They have generally silver grey colour, However some metal or their alloys have golden yellow colour. Exception is
copper. which is reddish in colour.
2. Metals have a lusture, the freshly cut surface has a shine on it.
3. They easily conduct heat and electricity.
4. They are malleable i.e. they can be beaten into sheets.
6. They are sonorous.
eg. Gold, silver, copper, iron, sodium, potassium etc. Mercury is the only metal the is liquid at room
temperature. Non-metal usually show some or all of the following properties.

Properties of non-metals

1. They exist in solid, liquid and gaseous state

2. They display variety of colours.
3. They are generally neither malleable nor ductile.
4. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity
5. The are not sonorous.
eg. Hydrogen, oxygen, iodine, carbon etc.

Metalloids : Some elements have intermediate properties of the metal and non-metals. The elements which exhibit the
properties of metals as well as non-metals, are called metalloids.

Example : Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, Boron, Telurium, polonium, silicon.

METALS AND NON METALS

PROPERTY METALS NON- METALS

They are non-lustrous. Exception-

Lustre They are lustrous, they shine.
Graphite, Iodine

They are malleable. They can be They are non-malleable. Exception -

Malleability
beaten into sheets. Exception - Carbon fibre
zinc

They are ductile. They can be drawn They are non-ductile. Exception -
Ductility
into wires. Exception - zinc, Carbon fibres.
mercury

Tensile They have high tensile They have low tensile

strength strength. Exception - zinc, strength. Exception - Carbon
mercury. fibres.

Sonority They are sonorous. They are non-sonorous.

Conduction of They are good conductors of heat They are poor conductors of heat
heat and and electricity. and electricity.
electricity Exception- Bismuth and Tungsten. Exception- Graphite
 PROPERTY METALS NON- METALS

They have a high melting and

Melting and They have low melting and boiling
boiling point. Exception - Sodium,
boiling point point. Exception - carbon, silicon.
Potassium, Mercury.

They have high density. Exception - They have low density. Exception
Density
Sodium, Potassium. –Graphite

Uses of Metals:
 Copper and aluminium metals are used in the making of electric wires,
as they havevery low electrical resistance and good electrical
conductivity.
 Iron, copper and aluminium metals are used in the making of house-hold
utensils andfactory equipment.
 Zinc is used for galvanizing iron to protect it from rusting.
 Chromium and nickel metals are used for electroplating and in
the manufacture ofstainless steel.
 The aluminium foils are used in packaging medicines, cigarettes and food materials.
 Silver and gold are used to make jewellery, coins. The thin foils made of
silver andgold are used to decorate sweets.
 The mercury is used in the making of thermometers.
 Sodium, titanium and zirconium are used in atomic energy that is
nuclear energy andspace science projects.
 Zirconium is used in making bullet-proof alloy steels.
 Lead is used in making car batteries.

Uses of Non-Metals:

 Many non-metals like chlorine, sulphur, iodine is very useful for medicinal purposes.
 Non-metal like oxygen is very essential for our life for respiration.
 We use nitrogen, phosphorus in fertilizers for better plant growth
and enhance thefertility of the soil.
 Non-metal like Sulphur is useful in crackers.
 Chlorine and Fluorine are useful for the water purification purpose.
 Liquid hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel.
 Nitrogen is used to preserve food materials.

Uses of Metalloids are:

 Boron is used in fireworks. It is one of the most explosive metalloids. It is
used in theform of boric acid and can be used as a cleaning agent.
 Silicon finds application in the computer chips as it is a semiconductor.
 Germanium is used in semiconductor industries to improve conductive properties.

Compounds : A pure substance, which is composed two or more elements combined chemically in a definite
ratio, such that it can be broken into elements only by chemical means, is compound.
The two or more elements present in a compound. are called constituents or components of the compound, for
example, water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen combined together in the ratio of 1 : 8 by mass. Water
can be broken into its constituents only by electro-chemical method i.e by passing electric current through it.
The compounds can be further classified as acids, bases and salts or organic and inorganic compounds.

The product formed by mixing 1 g of sulphur powder and 2g of iron filings/turnings called a mixture.

 The composition of product i.e. iron fillings and yellow particles of sulphur can be seen with naked eye,
which is the property of a mixture.
 The iron fillings can be separated by dissolving the mixture in carbon disulphide, sulphur dissolves, but not
the iron, As the constituents can be separated by physical means therefore the product is a mixture.
 The constituents iron and sulphur are not evenly spread. At some places iron filings are
more than sulphur.
 No energy is absorbed when the Sulphur powder is mixed iron filings.
 The particles of iron and sulphur retain their individual chemical and physical properties.
The product formed on heating 1g of sulphur powder and 2g of iron turnings is called a compound.

 The product formed of is iron suphide the yellow particles of sulphur and fillings of iron are
no longer visible.
 The iron or sulphur cannot be separated from the iron sulphide by any physical means.
 The composition of iron sulphide is same throughout.
 Heat energy is involved when the iron reacts with suplhur. The product continues glowing
with red dull colour, even when the heating is stopped.
 The properties of the product (iron sulphide) are entirely different from the properties of and Sulpur
Difference between mixtures and compounds :
Mixtures Compounds
1. Elements or compounds just mix together to 1. Elements react to form new compounds.
form a mixture and no new substance is
formed.
The composition of each new substance is
2. A mixture has variable composition. 2. always fixed.

3. A mixture shows the proportion of 3. The new substance has totally different
constituent substances. properties from the constituents.

4. The constituents can be separated fairly 4. The constituents can be separated only by
easily by physical methods chemical or electrochemical methods.

Mixture :- When two or more substance (elements, compounds or both) are mixed together in any
proportion, such that they do not undergo any chemical change, but retain their individual characteristics the
resulting product is called a mixture. e.g. Brass is mixture of copper and zinc.
Crude oil is a mixture of large number of different hydrocarbons.
Type of mixture :- Depending upon the nature of components a mixture can be divided into two types
(a) Heterogeneous mixture :- A mixture in which different constituents are not mixed uniformly, is
called a heterogeneous mixtures. The components of a heterogeneous mixture can be observed with
naked eyes or with the help of a microscope e.g. Sand and iron filings, sand & water etc.
(b) Homogeneous mixture :- A mixture in which different constituents are mixed uniformly, is
Called a homogeneous mixture. homogeneous mixtures are also known as solution. The components
of such a mixture cannot be seen even under a microscope e.g. salt solution, copper sulpate, sugar solution
similarly alloys such brass, bronze etc. are homogeneous solid solutions of metals.
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE

1) Those mixtures in which the Those mixtures in which the substances

substances arecompletely mixed together
and are indistinguishable from one
another.
2) They have uniform composition throughout
itsmass.
remain separate and one substance is spread
throughoutthe other.
They do not have uniform composition.

3) For Example : Sugar solution, Salt For Example: Sugar and sand, Milk, Soil,
solution,Alcohol and water, Soft drinks etc. Bloodetc.

TYPES OF MIXTURE

Example
Type of mixture Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
1. Gas in gas Air (mainly O2 + N2)
2. Gas in liquid Aerated water (CO2 + H2O)
3. Gas in solid Hydrogen in palladium
4. Liquid in liquid Ethyl alcohol + Water Water + Oil
5. Liquid in solid Mercury in amalgamated zinc
6.Liquid in gas Dew, cloud

7. Solid in liquid Sugar in water Chalk in water, Dust (fine sand)

in water
 8. Solid in solid Alloys, eg., brass Mixture such as, sand + iron
filings; sand + ammonium chloride
etc.
9.Solid in gas Smoke, volcanic dust

A mixture containing potassium nitrate, sulphur and charcoal is called gun powder.

SOLUTION
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is called a solution Example is sugar and water.
This means that if we take out 1 mL sample from different parts of this solution, it will have
* the same degree of sweetness, and
* the same concentration. It means all 1 mL sample of this solution will contain the same number of
sugar and water molecules.
Dust-free air is a homogeneous mixture of many gases. The main gases present in the air are
nitrogen(78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%).
Component of a Solution
A solution basically has two components, i.e., a solvent and a solute.
(a) Solvent : The component of a solution which dissolves the other component in itself is called solvent.
Usually, a solvent is the larger component of the solution. For example, in the solution of
copper sulphatein water, water is the solvent. Similarly, in paints, the turpentine oil is the
solvent.
(b) Solute : The component of the solution which dissolves in the solvent is called solute. Usually,
solute is the smaller component of the solution. For example, in the solution of common salt in water,
the common salt is the solute. Similarly, in carbonated drinks (soda water), carbon dioxide gas is the
solute.

EXAMPLES:
- A solution of iodine in alcohol known as ‘tincture of iodine’, has iodine (solid) as the solute and
alcohol (liquid) as the solvent.
- Aerated drinks like soda water etc., are gas in liquid solutions. These contain carbon dioxide(gas)
as solute and water (liquid) as solvent
- Air is a mixture of gas in gas. Air is a homogeneous mixture of a number of gases.

Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions

(a) Saturated Solution : – A solution, which at a given temperature dissolves as much solute as it is
capable of dissolving, is said to be a saturated solution.
(b) Unsaturated Solution : – When the amount of solute contained in a solution is less than
saturation level, the solution is said to be an unsaturated solution.
(c) Super Saturated Solution : – A solution which contains more of the solute than required to make
a saturated solution, is called a super saturated solution.
Solubility of a solute :- The amount of solute (in grams), which can dissolve in 100 g of solvent at
 given temperature, is called solubility of the solute at that temperature.
The relation between the solute and solvent is very important in determining solubility. Strong solute-
solvent attractions equate to greater solubility while weak solute-solvent attractions equate to
lesser solubility. In turn, polar solutes tend to dissolve best in polar solvents while non-polar solutes
tend to dissolve best in non-polar solvents. In the case of a polar solute and non-polar solvent (or vice
versa), it tends to be insoluble or only soluble to a miniscule degree. A general rule to remember is,
"Like dissolves like."

Concentration of a solution :- The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given
quantity of the solution. In other words the mass of the solute in grams, which is present in 100g of a
solution.
In a solution the relative proportion of the solute and solvent can be varied. Depending up on the amount
of solute present in a solution. It can be called dilute , concentrated or a saturated solution. Different
substances in a given solvent have different solubilities at the same temperature.
The most common method for expressing the concentration of a solute, is called percentage of solute.

A) Solubility of solids in liquids

Solubility of solids in liquids is effected by two factor.
(a) Effect of temperature: As the temperature goes on increasing, the solubility of solids in liquids
goes on increasing because as the temperature increases, the kinetic energyof the molecules goes on
increasing which increase the space between them and more solids can be dissolved.
(b) Effect of pressure: There is no effect of pressure on the solubility of solids in liquid.

B) Solubility of Gases in liquids

Solubility of gases in liquids is also effect by temperature and pressure.
(a) Effect of temperature: As the temperature goes on increasing, the solubility of gases in liquids
goes on decreasing because as the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the molecules goes on
increasing and gas comes out so the molecules come closer. Hence the solubility decreases.
(b) Effect of pressure: As the pressure increases the solubility of gases in liquids goes on increasing.

Concentration of a Solution
The quantityof solute dissolved in a given mass or volume ofthe solution or the solvent is called
concentrationof the solution.

Measuring the concentration of a solution

The concentration of a solution is measured as the amount of the solute present in a given
amount of thesolvent or solution. It is normally expressed as mass percent or as volume percent.

A) Mass Percent

Mass percent of a solution may be defined as :

a liquid, then we consider the mass percentage of solute’ in calculating the concentration of solution, So in
the case of a solid solute dissolved in a liquid solvent.
Mass of solute (ingrams)
Mass by mass percentage of a solute 100
= Mass of solution (ingrams)
The mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
 (ii) Concentration by mass by volume percentage of a solution.
Mass of solute
mass by volume percentage of solute in Solution 100
= Voume of soution
Depending upon the unit of mass and volume, the mass by volume percentage of a solute in
solution, can have following units.
(a) gram/ml (b) gram/litre

Illustration 7
A solution contains 5 ml of alcohol mixed with 75 ml of water. Calculate the
concentration of the solution in terms of volume percent.
Solution
Volume of solute
Concentration of solution = ×100
Vo
Volume of alcohol = 5 ml
Volume of solution= (5 + 75) = 80 ml
5
Concentration of solution = ×100 = 6.25%

SUSPENSION

“A heterogeneous mixture of insoluble particles of solute, spread throughout a solvent,

is called suspension.
1. Muddy water, in which particles of sand and clay are suspended in water.
2. Slaked lime suspension used for white-washing has particles of slaked lime suspended
in water.
3. Paints in which the particles of dyes are suspended in turpentine oil.
Characteristics of Suspensions
1. The size of particles is more than 10–5 cm in diameter.
2. The particles of suspension can be separated from solvent by the process of filteration.
3. The particles of suspension settle down, when the suspension is kept undisturbed. The
process ofsettling of suspended particles under the action of gravity is called
sedimentation.
4. A suspension is heterogeneous in nature.
5. An excessive amount of scattering takes place in suspensions, because of bigger size
of particles.

SUSPENSION
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but
remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium. Particles of a suspension are visible to
the naked eye.
Examples of Suspensions
● Mud in Water.
● Turpentine oil in paint dyes.
● Chalk powder in water.
● Slaked lime for whitewashing.
● Sand particles suspended in the water.
PROPERTIES:
● Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
● The particles of a suspension can be seen by the naked eye.
● The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make
its path visible.
● The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed, that is, a
suspension is unstable. They can be separated from the mixture by the process of
filtration. When the particles settle down, the suspension breaks and it does not
scatter light any more.

COLLOID
A colloid is a kind of solution in which the size of solute particles is intermediate between
those in true solutions and those in suspensions.
 PROPERTIES OF A COLLOID
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
• The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
• Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its
path visible.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable
COMPONENTS OF A COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
The components of a colloidal solution are:
Dispersed phase and dispersion medium.

Dispersed phase: The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the
dispersed phase
Dispersing medium: The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as
the dispersing medium.
⮚ Colloids are classified according to the state (solid, liquid or gas) of the
Dispersed phase and the dispersion medium.
(i) .
Types of colloids
Dispersed Dispersion Common name / Examples
phase medium Type
Liquid Gas Liquid aerosol Fog, Liquid sprays etc.
Solid Gas Solid aerosol Smoke, Dust etc.
Gas Liquid Foam Soap lather, Fire extinguisher foam
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, Water-in-oil or oil-in-water
emulsion
Solid Liquid Sol Metallic dispersions, Toothpaste,
Milk of magnesia, Mud
Gas Solid Foam Expanded polystyrene
Liquid Solid Gel Opal, pearls
Solid Solid Solid sol Pigmented plastics, Coloured glasses
Tyndall effect :
The phenomenon due to which the path of light become visible, due to scattering of light by the colloid
particle is called Tyndall effect.
Examples :
»Tyndall effect can also be observed when a find beam of light enters s room through a small hole.
This happens due to scattering of light by the particles of dust and smoke in the air.
»Tyndall effect can be observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense, forest. In the
forest mist contains tiny droplets-of water, which act as particles of colloids dispersed in air.

Application of Colloids
(a) Most of the applications of the colloidal solutions are because of the removal of charge or
neutralisation of charge on the colloidal particles. The process of neutralization of charge on the
colloidal particles by the addition of certain oppositely charged species is known as coagulation.
(i) Bleeding from a cut can be immediately stopped by applying alum or ferric chloride.
(ii) Delta is formed when river water comes in contact with sea water for a long period.
(iii) Sky appears to be blue in colour
(b) In our food. Many items in our food contain colloidal materials. For example, milk, starch,
proteins, fruit-jellies are colloidal in nature.
(c) In medicines. A large number of medicines and pharmaceutical preparations are colloidal in
nature. Such colloidal medicines are easily absorbed by the body tissues and, therefore, are more
effective. For example, colloidal gold, calcium, silver are used in medicines or as ointments.
Differences between a true solution, a colloid and a suspension
True solution Colloid Suspension
1. A true solution is a A colloid is a homogeneous A suspension is a heterogeneous
homogeneous mixture of two, or looking but heterogeneous mixture of a solid dispersed in a
more than two substances. mixture. liquid, or a gas.
2. In a true solution, solute In a colloid, the dispersed In a suspension, the particles can
cannot be seen even with a particles can be seen only with a be seen with the naked eyes.
microscope. powerful microscope.
3. In a true solution, the size of In a colloid, the size of particles In a suspension, the size of
particle is about 10–10 m. is between 10–7 and 10–9 m. particles is greater than 10–7 m.
4. The constituents of a true The constituents of a colloid can can be separated by ordinary
solution cannot be separated by not be separated by filtration filtration.
ordinary filtration. they are separated by
centrifugation.

SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
Heterogeneous mixture can be separated to their respective components by simple physical methods
such as handpicking, sieving , filtration etc. in every day life. However, for separating homogeneous
mixture special techniques are employed depending upon the difference in one or more.

1. Separation through Evaporation is a technique used to separate out homogeneous mixtures that
contain one or more dissolved salts. The method drives off the liquid components from the solid
components. The process typically involves heating the mixture until no more liquid remains.
Prior to using this method, the mixture should only contain one liquid component, unless it is
not important to isolate the liquid components. This is because all liquid components will
evaporate over time. The evaporation method is suitable to separate a soluble solid from a
liquid.
In many parts of the world, table salt is obtained from the evaporation of sea water. The heat for the
process comes from the sun.

Evaporation with small activity by separating the coloured component with the blue or
black ink.

Evaporation apparatus

Step 1: Let us take the ink in a watch glass, keep it on the beaker containing water, and heat the
beaker.

Step 2: After some time, the water in the beaker starts boiling. The heat is transferred to the watch
glass, and evaporation takes place.
Step 3: Continue the process of heating until no changes seen on the watch glass.

Observation: The ink which was kept in the liquid form gets evaporated, leaving over the coloured
component in the watch glass, which show the ink is a mixture of water with dye.

Result: Using the evaporation process, we can separate the volatile portion (solvent) from its non-
volatile solute.
2. To separate cream from milk
Technique: Centrifugation
Principle: The denser particles a force to the bottom and the lighter particles at the top
when spunrapidly.
Materials required : Full-cream milk, churner, jug
Procedure : Take fresh cold milk (unboiled) in a jug. Churn the milk with a churner. The
separated cream floats over the milk, and can be removed.
Application of this method (Centrifugation)
* Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from the wet clothes.
* Used for separating cream from milk and butter from curd in dairies or at home.
 * Used in diagnostic laboratories for testing blood/urine.

A centrifuge is used to separate suspended solid particles from a liquid, quickly. When the centrifuge is
switched on, the test-tubes (containing suspension) held in it swing out and spin (or rotate) at high speed.The
centrifugal force acts on suspended particles which forces them to go to the bottom of test tubes andclear
liquid remains on top (This sketch shows four test-tubes spinning).

To separate the mixture of two immiscible liquids

Principle: Immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending on their densities.
The liquids which do not dissolve in each other are called immiscible liquids.
Materials required : Separating funnel, iron stand, beaker, oil and water.
Procedure : The mixture containing oil and water is taken in a separating funnel. The
separating funnel is clamped on an iron stand and allowed to stand for some time. After a
while oil and water separate to form two layers. Oil being lighter than water forms the upper
layer. Water forms the lower layer. Openthe stopcock and collect the water in a beaker. Oil is
left behind in the separating flask.
 Separation of two immiscible liquids by using a separating funnel
Application:
(i) Separate mixture of oil and water
(ii) Extraction of Iron from its ore.

(a) To separate a mixture of two miscible liquids

Principle: Separation of two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and have
sufficient differencein their boiling points (Distillation)
To separate alcohol and water from their mixture. Take the mixture in a distillation flask. Fit
it with a thermometer. Heat the mixture slowly keeping a close watch at the thermometer. The
alcohol vaporises, condenses in the condenser and can be collected from the condenser outlet.
Water is left behind in the distillation flask.

(b) To separate a mixture of salt and ammonium chloride

Technique: Sublimation
Principle: To separate mixture that contain a sublimable volatile component from a non
sublimable impurity.
Materials required : China dish, funnel, asbestos sheet, tripod stand
Procedure : Take the mixture of common salt and ammonium chloride in a china dish. Place
this china dish on a tripod stand and cover it with a perforated asbestos sheet. Place an
inverted funnel on the perforated sheet. Plug the opening of the funnel with a cotton plug.
Heat the china dish on a low flame. Observe the white fumes coming out of the mixture. What
do you see? These white fumes start depositing as white solid on the inner wall of the funnel.
After a few minutes, stop heating and allow it to cool. Now, remove the funnel. Scrape the
white deposit of ammonium chloride with the help of a spatula. Commonsalt is left behind in
the china dish.
 Separation of a mixture by sublimation. Here a mixture of common salt and ammonium chloride is
being separated by sublimation.

Separation of gases of the air :

Air is mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, helium, neon etc. The major component of
air is nitrogen (78.03%). The second major component of air is oxygen (20.99%) and the third major component
of air is argon (0.93%)

All these gases are obtained from air on a large scale. This is because are is cheapest source of these gases.

Air is homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its components by fractional distillation of liquid

air.
Principle: Separation of two miscible liquid for which the difference in boiling points is
less than 25 K(fractional distillation)
Air is a homogenous mixture of oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and noble
gases (He,Ne, Ar and Kr). These gases have different freezing and boiling points.
These gases, therefore, can be separated by liquefying and fractional distillation of the liquid
air as shown below :
Methods :
» The air is first filtered to remove dust, then water vapour and carbon are removed. It water vapour and
carbon dioxide are not removed, they would become solid in the cooling process and block the pipers.
» Air is compressed to a high pressure and then cooled. This cooled air is then allowed to
expend quickly into a chamber through a jet. This expansion cools the air even more.
» The process of compression. cooling and rapid expansion of air is repeated again and again makes the
air more and more cool. Ultimately the air gats so cooled that it turn into a liquid. In this liquid air is

obtained.
» The liquid air is fed into a tall fractional distillation column from near is bottom and warmed up slowly.
(a) Liquid nitrogen which present in air. has the lowest boiling point. of, - 196oC. So,
on warming, liquid nitrogen boils off first to form nitrogen gas.
(b) Liquid argon which present in liquid are has a slightly higher boiling point of – 186 oC so liquid argon
boils off next and collected as argon gas in the middle part of the fractional distillation column.
(c) Liquid oxygen also present in liquid air has a still higher boiling point of. – 183 oC so., liquid oxygen
boils off lest and collected as oxygen gas from the bottom of the fractional distillation column.

(c) To obtain pure copper sulphate from an impure sample.

Technique: Crystallization
Impure copper sulphate can be purified by the method of crystallization to obtain pure
copper sulphate.
This is done as follows
(i) Take about 10 grams of impure copper sulphate and dissolve it in minimum amount of water in a
china dish to make copper sulphate solution.
(ii) Filter and copper sulphate solution to remove insoluble impurities.
(iii) Heat the copper sulphate solution gently on a water bath to evaporate water and obtain a saturted
solution (This can be tested by dipping a glass rod in hot solution from time to time. When small
crystals form on the glass rod, the solution is saturated). Then stop heating.
(iv) Allow the hot, saturated solution of copper sulphate to cooled slowly.
(v) Crystals of pure copper sulphate are formed. Impurities remain behind in the solution.
(vi) Separate the copper sulphate crystals from solution by filgration and dry.
The process of crystallization is used to purify a large number of water soluble solids.
For example, the common salt obtained from sea-water is an impure substance having many
impurities init. So, common salt is purified by the process of crystallization.
An impure sample of alum is also purified by crystallization.
Crystallization is a better technique than ‘evaporation to dryness’ because of the following
 reasons
(i) Some solids (like sugar) decompose or get charred on heating to dryness during evaporation.
There is no such problem in crystallization.
(ii) The soluble impurities do not get removed in the process of evaporation. But such impurities get
removed in crystallization.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
Physical change
1 In a physical change, only physical
properties such as colour, physical state,
volume, etc., change. Chemical properties
remain unchanged.
2 No new substance is
formed.
3 No energy in the form of heat, light or
sound energy is absorbed or evolved in a
physical change
4 The original form of the substance can be
obtained easily by simple physical
methods.
5 Physical change is generally temporary, in
the sense that it can be easily reversed by
reversing the conditions.
Chemical change
In a chemical change, the chemical
composition and chemical properties of
the reactants undergo a change
A new substance is formed. It has
properties different from those of the
reacting substances.
A chemical change is always
accompanied by the absorption or
evolution of energy in the form of heat,
light, or sound energy.
The original substance cannot obtained by
simple physical methods.
Chemical change is a permanent change
in the sense that it cannot be reversed by
just reversing the conditions.
* Draw a line with a pencil about 2-3 cm from its lower end.
* Place this paper strip on a smooth surface (may be table top) and put a small drop of black
ink withthe help of a fountain pen or a capillary tube. Let it dry up. Place another drop of ink
at the same spot andlet it dry up.
* Now suspend the filter paper strip in a jar containing little water, so that the ink spot is
slightly abovethe level of water. Cover the jar and leave it undisturbed for some time. Record
your observation.
Observations : Two or more coloured spots are seen at different distances from the
reference line. Thecoloured component which is more soluble in water rises faster than
the others.
Conclusion : The black ink is a mixture of dyes.
Application:
(i) To separate colours in a dye
(ii) To separate pigments from natural colour
(iii) To separate drugs from blood

Use of chromatography in the separation of constituents from a mixture :

(i) word chromatography implies writing in colour.
(ii) Technique was initially used to separate coloured components from pigments and dyes.
(iii) Wide rang of applications.
(iv) Chromatography is of a number of types such as absorption, thin layer.
(v) The paper chromatography is very simple and is commonly used in the laboratory.
TDS stands for total dissolved solids, and represents the total concentration of
dissolved substances in water. TDS is made up of inorganic salts, as well as a small
amount of organic matter. Common inorganic salts that can be found in water include
calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, which are all cations, and carbonates,
nitrates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates, which are all anions. Cations are
positively charged ions and anions are negatively charged ions.

HO W DO T HESE SO L IDS E ND U P D ISS O L VED I N W AT ER?

These minerals can originate from a number of sources, both natural and as a result of
human activities. Mineral springs contain water with high levels of dissolved solids,
because the water has flowed through a region where the rocks have a high salt
content. The water in the Prairie provinces tends to have high levels of dissolved
solids, because of high amounts of calcium and magnesium in the ground.

These minerals can also come from human activities. Agricultural and urban runoff
can carry excess minerals into water sources, as can wastewater discharges, industrial
wastewater and salt that is used to de-ice roads.

WHAT HA P PENS T O T HE W AT ER W HE N T HE T D S L EVEL IS HIG H?

Alone, a high concentration of dissolved solids is usually not a health hazard. In fact,
many people buy mineral water, which has naturally elevated levels of dissolved
solids. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is responsible
for drinking water regulations in the United States, includes TDS as a secondary
standard, meaning that it is a voluntary guideline in the United States. While the
United States set legal standards for many harmful substances, TDS, along with other
contaminants that cause aesthetic, cosmetic and technical effects, has only a guideline.

Most people think of TDS as being an aesthetic factor. In a study by the World Health
Organization, a panel of tasters came to the following conclusions about the preferable
level of TDS in water:

TDS stands for total dissolved solids, and represents the total concentration of dissolved substances in water.
TDS is made up of inorganic salts, as well as a small amount of organic matter. Common inorganic salts that
can be found in water include calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium, which are all cations, and
carbonates, nitrates, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates, which are all anions. Cations are positively charged
ions and anions are negatively charged ions. HOW DO THESE SOLIDS END UP DISSOLVED IN WATER?
These minerals can originate from a number of sources, both natural and as a result of human activities.
Mineral springs contain water with high levels of dissolved solids, because the water has flowed through a
region where the rocks have a high salt content. The water in the Prairie provinces tends to have high levels of
dissolved solids, because of high amounts of calcium and magnesium in the ground.
These minerals can also come from human activities. Agricultural and urban runoff can carry excess minerals
into water sources, as can wastewater discharges, industrial wastewater and salt that is used to de-ice roads.
Most people think of TDS as being an aesthetic factor. In a study by the World Health Organization, a panel of
tasters came to the following conclusions about the preferable level of TDS in water:
Increased concentrations of dissolved solids can also have technical effects. Dissolved solids can produce hard water,
which leaves deposits and films on fixtures, and on the insides of hot water pipes and boilers. Soaps and detergents do not
produce as much lather with hard water as with soft water. As well, high amounts of dissolved solids can stain household
fixtures, corrode pipes, and have a metallic taste. Hard water causes water filters to wear out sooner, because of the
amount of minerals in the water. A high concentration of TDS is an indicator that harmful contaminants, such as iron,
manganese, sulfate, bromide and arsenic, can also be present in the water.

WHAT IS PH?
The pH value of a water source is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. The pH level is a measurement of the activity of
the hydrogen atom, because the hydrogen activity is a good representation of the acidity or alkalinity of the water. The
pH scale, as shown below, ranges from 0 to 14, with 7.0 being neutral. Water with a low pH is said to be acidic, and
water with a high pH is basic, or alkaline. Pure water would have a pH of 7.0, but water sources and precipitation tends
to be slightly acidic, due to contaminants that are in the water.
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE PH OF THE WATER CHANGES?
A change in the pH of water can have a number of consequences. In the environment, many plants and animals are
harmed, or even killed, as a result of acidification. Many varieties of fish and aquatic life are extremely sensitive to
changes in water temperature and composition. The below diagram illustrates the pH that is required for a number of
aquatic species. Notice that when the pH is around 6.0 to 7.0 (which is natural for many lakes and streams), the
biodiversity within the ecosystem is wide. As the pH decreases and the acidity increases, fewer and fewer organisms can
survive.

Supply of drinking water in a city :

In cities, drinking water is supplied from water works, the methods like sedimentation, decantation.
loading, filtration and chlorination etc are used it remove undesirable materials from water. The source of water supply in
a city is either a nearly river or a lake called reservoir. The river water and take water usually contain suspended solid
substance and some germs. so , before this ware can be supplied to homes, it must be purified to remove suspended
impurities as wall as germs.

The purification of river water or lake water is done in the following steps.

(1) Sedimentation : The water is allowed to stand in big tanks, where heavier suspended impurities settle down. To
increase the rate of sedimentation, alum is added to it, the impurities settle at the bottem.
(2) Filtration : The semi-clear water is allowed to pas through beds of send. Charcoal and gravel to remove suspended
impurities.
(3) Removal of harmful – organism or sterilization : The harmful bacteria in filtered water can cause very serious
diseases such as typhoid, cholera etc. Thus, to the filtered water bleaching powder or chlorine gas is added. This kills
the micro-organism and hence the water becomes fit for dirking. This water is directly pumped into overhead tanks
for supply to a city.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
Physical change
1 In a physical change, only physical
properties such as colour, physical state,
volume, etc., change. Chemical properties
remain unchanged.
2 No new substance is
formed.
3 No energy in the form of heat, light or
sound energy is absorbed or evolved in a
physical change
4 The original form of the substance can be
obtained easily by simple physical
methods.
5 Physical change is generally temporary, in
the sense that it can be easily reversed by
reversing the conditions.
Chemical change
In a chemical change, the chemical
composition and chemical properties of
the reactants undergo a change
A new substance is formed. It has
properties different from those of the
reacting substances.
A chemical change is always
accompanied bythe absorption or
evolution of energy in the form of heat,
light, or sound energy.
The original substance cannot obtained by
simple physical methods.
Chemical change is a permanent change
in the sense that it cannot be reversed by
just reversing the conditions.