Horizontal Alignment

 Design based on appropriate relationship between design

speed and curvature and their relationship with side
friction and superelevation
 Along circular path, vehicle undergoes centripetal
acceleration toward center of curvature (lateral
acceleration)
 Balanced by superelevation and weight of vehicle (friction
between tire and roadway)
Plan View and Profile

24
+0
23+00

0
22+00
21+00
20+00
19+00
18+00
17+0
16

0
plan
+0
0
15
+0
0

700
700
600
500
profile 400
300
200

15+00 16+00 17+00 18+00 19+00 20+00 21+00 22+00 23+00 24+00
Type of Curves

(1) Simple horizontal curve R1

R2

R1
(3) Compound curve
R2

(2) Broken back curve

Type of Curves

R2
R2

R1

R1

(a) With tangent (b) Without tangent

(4) Reverse Curve

Angle Measurement
90
60

30

180 0

(a) Degree (b) Radian


1   0.0174532 Radians
180
 180 
1 Radian     57.2957

Angle Measurement
Horizontal Curve Definitions
Radius, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in

ft

 = Central angle of the curve in degrees

PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal

curve)

PI = point of tangent intersection

PT = Point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal

curve)
Horizontal Curve Definitions
T = tangent length in ft.
M = middle ordinate from middle point of cord to middle

point of curve in ft.

E = External distance in ft.

L = length of curve

D = Degree of curvature (the angle subtended by a 100-ft

arc along the horizontal curve)

C = chord length from PC to PT

 PI

T
E
L

 M 
PC 2 C 2 PT
 
90  90 
2 2

R R
 
2 2

Key measures of the curve
M  R[1  cos( / 2)] 1
E  R[( )  1]
cos( / 2)
100(180 /  ) 18000 5729.57
D  
R R R
or, 
100
L R
D  57.2957 180
R
 
T  R tan C  2 R sin
2 2

Note 180 /  converts from radians to degrees

Concepts
 Alignment is a 3D problem broken

down into two 2D problems

 Horizontal Alignment (plan view)

 Vertical Alignment (profile view)

 Stationing

 Along horizontal alignment

 12+00 = 1,200 ft.

Piilani Highway on Maui
Stationing Horizontal Alignment

Vertical Alignment
Horizontal Curve Example
Deflection angle of a 4º curve is 55º25’, PI at station
245+97.04. Find length of curve,T, and station of PT.
D = 4º
 = 55º25’ = 55.417º

5729.58
D
R
5729.58
R  1432.3 ft
4
Horizontal Curve Example
D = 4º

 = 55.417º

R = 1,432.4 ft
L = 2R = 2(1,432.4 ft)(55.417º) = 1385.42ft
360 360
Horizontal Curve Example
D = 4º
 = 55.417º
R = 1,432.4 ft
L = 1385.42 ft
T = R tan  = 1,432.4 ft tan (55.417) = 752.29 ft
2 2
 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve
 Location of object along chord length that blocks line
of sight around the curve
Highway Centerline

sight Distan
ping ce
stop

PC M
Line of sight
PT

Sight Obstruction
Centerline of inside lane

R R
 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve
To provide minimum sight distance:
28.65d s
M  R[1  cos( )]
R
Or, by the degree of curvature, D
5729.57 ds D
M [1  cos( )]
D 200
v2
Where, ds = safe stopping distance, ft. d s  1.47v * t 
a
30(  0.01G )
32.2
and, v = design speed, mi/h
t = reaction time, secs
G = grade, %
ds = stopping distance, in ft.
a =deceleration rate, 11.2 ft/s2, recommended by Green Book
Sight Distance Example
A horizontal curve with R = 800 ft is part of a 2-lane highway
with a posted speed limit of 35 mph. What is the minimum
distance that a large billboard can be placed from the
centerline of the inside lane of the curve without reducing
required SSD? Assume p/r =2.5 and a = 11.2 ft/sec2

SSD = 1.47vt + _________v2____

30(__a___  0.01G)
32.2
Sight Distance Example
SSD = 1.47(35 mph)(2.5 sec) +

_____(35 mph)2____ = 246 feet

30(__11.2___  0)

32.2
Sight Distance Example
M= R(1 – cos [28.65 S])
R
M = 800 (1 – cos [28.65 {246}]) = 9.43 feet
800
Horizontal Alignment
Design Factors for Horizontal Alignment :-
 Design speed
 Cross Slope or Camber
 Horizontal curves
 Super elevation
 Radius of circular curves
 Widening of pavement on curves
 Transition curves
Cross slope or Camber
1. Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road
surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain
water from the road surface.
2. Usually the camber is provided on the straight roads by
raising the centre of the carriage way with respect to the
edges forming a crown or highest point up the centre
line.
3. The rate of camber depends upon:-
a. The type of pavement surface
b. The amount of rain fall
Camber values for different roads
S.No Type of road surface Heavy rain Light rain

1 Cement concrete and 1 in 50 1 in 60

high type bituminous 2.0 % 1.7 %
surface
2 Thin bituminous 1 in 40 1 in 50
surface 2.5 % 2.0 %

3 Water bound 1 in 33 1 in 40
macadam gravel 3.0 % 2. %
4 Earth 1 in 25 1 in 33
4.0 % 3.0 %
Types of cambers
 Straight line camber

 Parabolic shape camber

 Combination of both
Superelevation
 Superelevation is the banking of the roadway along a
horizontal curve
 Basic Purpose
 Drivers can negotiate the curve at safe and comfortable
speed
 Superelevation

Normal crown

Center line Elevated

Elevated

Normal Crown Level ground

 Superelevation Concept

2
mv
Fcentripetal  v2
R is the centripetal acceleration
R

v
Fcentripetal
R
Superelevation
R

≈
v

Fc

e
W 1 ft

α
 Superelevation

From basic physics law:

Wv 2 Wv 2
W sin   f (W cos  sin  )  cos
gR gR
Dividing both sides by W cos yields:

v2
tan   f  (1  f tan  )
gR
Where,
W: weight of the vehicle;
 : angle of incline in degrees
f : coefficient of side friction
v : vehicle speed
g : gravitational constant 32.2 ft/s2
 Superelevation

tan  Indicates the superelevation (banking) of the curve,

represented by percent, it can be defined as below:

tan   e / 100
Where, e is the number of vertical feet of rise per 100 feet of horizontal
distance, The equation changes to:

0.01e  f v 2

1  0.01ef gR
 Superelevation

In practice: 1  0.01ef  1 and g is calculated:

0.067v 2 v2
0.01e  f  
R 15R

2
v
v : vehicle speed, ft/s 0.01e  f 
R: radius of curve, ft
15 R
e: rate of superelevation, percent
f: side friction factor (lateral ratio)
Radius Calculation
Rmin = ___V2______
15(e + f)
Where:
V = velocity (mph)
e = superelevation
f = friction (15 = gravity and unit conversion)
Radius Calculation
 Rmin related to

 Max. f

 Max. e allowed

 Rmin use max e and max f (defined by AASHTO, DOT, and

graphed in Green Book) and design speed
Max f
f is a function of:

 speed, roadway surface, weather condition, tire condition,

and based on comfort – drivers brake, make sudden lane
changes and changes within a lane when acceleration
around a curve becomes “uncomfortable”

 AASHTO: 0.5 @ 20 mph with new tires and wet pavement

to 0.35 @ 60 mph

 f decreases as speed increases (less tire/pavement contact)

Side Friction Factors for High-speed Highways
Side Friction Factors for Low-speed Highways
Max e
 Controlled by 4 factors:
 Climate conditions (amount of ice and snow)

 Terrain (flat, rolling, mountainous)

 Type of area (rural or urban)

 Frequency of slow moving vehicles who might be

influenced by high superelevation rates
Max e
 Highest in common use = 10%, 12% with no ice and

snow on low volume gravel-surfaced roads

 8% is logical maximum to minimize slipping by stopped

vehicles

 For consistency use a single rate within a project or on a

highway
Radius Calculation (Example)
Design radius example: assume a maximum e of 8%
and design speed of 60 mph, what is the
minimum radius?
fmax = 0.12 (from Green Book)

Rmin = _____602________________
15(0.08 + 0.12)

Rmin = 1200 feet

Radius Calculation (Example)
For emax = 4%? (urban situation)

Rmin = _____602________________
15(0.04 + 0.12)
Rmin = 1,500 feet
Radius Calculation (Example)
For emax = 2%?

Rmin = _____602________________
15(0.02 + 0.12)

Rmin = 1,714 feet