Perspectives on age

Chronological Age:
• Indicates years since birth.
• Limited significance in developmental psychology; time doesn't directly cause changes.
• Development varies widely among individuals of the same chronological age.
• Cultural factors influence age perceptions, e.g., initiation rites.

Psychological Age:
• Reflects a person's ability to adapt and handle challenges.
• Example: A 40-year-old living with parents, unemployed, and lacking stable relationships may
be psychologically younger.

Social Age:
• Determined by how well a person's societal role aligns with expectations.
• Influenced by cultural, gender, race, and ethnic norms.
• Example: A woman having her first child in her forties may be perceived as socially younger
due to fulfilling expectations of a younger woman.

Biological Age

• Relates to a person's physical condition compared to peers.

• Health-conscious individuals may have a better physical condition despite chronological age.
• Perception of feeling older can occur, even among younger individuals.
• Research suggests some individuals may have a biological age significantly older than their
chronological age.

Key Terms Related to Aging: (Multiple Questions)

Functional Age:
The overall ability of an individual to function effectively in their environment.
Determined by considering psychological, social, and biological age collectively.

Primary Aging:
Normal, gradual physical deterioration inherent to the aging process.
Universal, inevitable, and caused by biological factors.

Secondary Aging:
Accelerated physical or psychological deterioration due to disease, stress, or an unhealthy
lifestyle.
Not universally part of aging, often preventable.

Tertiary Aging:
Terminal decline occurring in the period leading to death.
Characterized by significant physical and cognitive deterioration shortly before death.
Primarily related to the approach of death rather than chronological age.

Optimal Aging:
Age-related changes that enhance an individual's functioning.
Reflects preventive or compensatory measures taken to counteract the effects of aging.
Personal Age and Ageless Self:

Personal Age: How an individual perceives and experiences their own age.

Ageless Self: The perception that the core personality remains constant despite biological
and chronological aging.

Gender Differences in Aging:

Women may be more anxious about aging due to societal emphasis on physical appearance
and reproductive abilities.
Despite concerns, overall life satisfaction and mental health improve with age for women.

Legal Definition of Adulthood:

Varies by country; in South Africa, legal maturity is at 18 years.
Legal privileges include voting, driving, and independent decision-making.
Shift from 21 to 18 aligned with international trends in 2007.

Key Principles of a Life-Span Developmental Perspective:

Multidimensionality and Multidirectionality:
Development occurs in various dimensions (physical, cognitive, personality).
Changes can be simultaneous in different areas, and development may go in different
directions (improvement, stability, decline).

Plasticity:
Development is adaptable and changeable.
Experiences can alter the course of development, and improvement or modification is
possible even late in life.

Embedded in History:
Development happens in a cultural-historical context.
Individuals interact with and influence their social-cultural environments, with historical and
cultural factors shaping their development.

Development in Context:
Biological, social, and environmental factors influence development.
Development is shaped by shared and unique influences, including age-related changes,
historical events, and personal experiences.

Multidisciplinarity:
Development is influenced by multiple factors, requiring a multidisciplinary approach.
Biological, psychological, and sociological perspectives contribute to understanding the
complexities of development.
Lifelong Development:

Human development is a life-long process, beginning before birth and continuing until death.
All age groups are equally important, and no single part of life is more or less significant than
another.

Forces and Influences Shaping Development:

Interconnected Forces:
Development is shaped by the interplay of biological, sociocultural, historical, and individual
factors.
These forces work together to influence the course of development.

Normative Age-Graded Influences:

Events associated with chronological age, affecting most individuals.
Examples include marriage, childbirth, retirement, and societal expectations.
Changes in societal norms widen the boundaries of chronological-social expectations.

Normative History-Graded Influences:

Events affecting a specific culture or society at the same time.
May be biological, psychological, or sociocultural (e.g., wars, epidemics, technological
advancements).
Global events, such as globalization or technological changes, have far-reaching impacts.

Non-Normative Influences:
Result from rare or random events affecting an individual uniquely.
Can be favorable (e.g., winning a lottery) or unfavorable (e.g., serious illness, job loss).
Unpredictability makes these events unique and potentially transformative.

Interaction of Influences:
Forces are interconnected and may impact each other across the life span.
For example, technological advancements may affect different age groups differently, leading
to generational conflicts.

Age-Dependent Impact:
The influence of non-normative events may vary based on the age at which they occur.
Normative events may have different effects at different ages or be considered non-
normative if they occur unexpectedly.

Complexity and Interdisciplinarity:

Development is complex, involving knowledge from various disciplines.
Paul Baltes emphasized the need for a multidisciplinary approach to understand the
intricacies of life-span development.
Prominent Biological Theories of Ageing:
Overview of Biological Theories:

The body sets the limit of the lifespan, and understanding why people age and die involves
exploring various biological theories.
The majority of theories are biologically based, addressing the ageing process at organismic,
molecular, and cellular levels.

Programmed Ageing Theories:

Assume that ageing and death are genetically predetermined.
Genetic Programming Theory suggests:
Cells age according to a master genetic program unique to each species.
Cell division limits, influenced by telomeres, act as a biological clock determining lifespan.
Criticisms include uncertainty about whether shortened telomeres cause or result from
ageing.

Error Theories:
Propose that ageing results from unplanned changes over time.
Wear and Tear Theory:
Suggests bodies age due to constant use, similar to machines.
Critics question the theory's applicability, as regular exercise does not necessarily accelerate
ageing.
Free Radical Theory:
Free radicals damage cells by attacking cell membranes and DNA.
Linked to age-related conditions such as dementia, heart disease, and cancer.
Cross-Linking Theory:
Proteins like collagen cross-link, making tissues less flexible and functional.
Associated with skin aging, stiffening of muscles, and increased risk of heart attacks.

Challenges and Conclusions:

Evidence for each theory is mixed, with some providing empirical support.
No single theory is likely to account for the entire ageing process.
Nature-nurture interaction may play a role, with factors like lifestyle, medical care, and stress
management influencing an individual's potential maximum age.
Climacteric and Menopause in Middle-Aged Women:
Climacteric vs. Menopause:

Climacteric (Perimenopause):

Transition in middle age, reproductive capacity ends.

Begins in 40s, completed by 50-55.
Physiological and hormonal changes, affecting menstrual patterns and sexual response.

Menopause
Cessation of menstruation, and child-bearing ability,
Starts around age 50.
Hormonal changes, mainly decreased estrogen secretion.

Hormonal Changes and Symptoms:

Imbalance in hormonal system leads to symptoms:
Hot flushes, night sweats, decreased sexual energy.
Anxiety, depression, sleeplessness, concentration difficulties.

Treatment and Controversies:

Hormone therapy (HT) controversial due to potential risks.
South African Menopause Society supports HT for acute symptoms.

Individual and Cultural Influences:

Individual variations in experiences.
Cultural and socioeconomic factors shape perceptions:
Awareness and knowledge lower in under-resourced areas.
Cultural norms influence attitudes towards sexuality.

Cultural Differences in Symptoms:

Contradictory data on symptoms across cultures.
Research needed to clarify cultural influences on menopausal experiences.
Attention and Its Forms:
Definition:
Attention is a cognitive state where resources are focused on specific aspects of the
environment, preparing the central nervous system to respond to stimuli.

Forms of Attention:

Sustained Attention:
Concentration on a task without distraction.
Generally well-preserved in later life, with some age-related decline.

Selective Attention:
Concentration on a task amidst distracting stimuli.
Older adults exhibit decline, especially in suppressing irrelevant information.
Additional neural connectivity compensates for some decline.

Switching Attention:
Alternating attention between two or more tasks.
Older adults may be slower but don't make more errors than younger adults.

Divided Attention:
Attending to and processing more than one source of information simultaneously.
Older adults less effective in dividing attention, especially in challenging tasks.

Executive Attention:
Involves planning actions, goal allocation, error detection, and managing new or complex
circumstances.
Older adults affected in novel and complex tasks, especially those involving high-level
cognitive activities.
Discuss memory and the different types of memory
Definition:
Memory is the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.

Types:

Sensory Memory:
Brief storage of sensory info.

Short-Term Memory (STM):

Limited capacity, active processing.

Long-Term Memory (LTM):

Unlimited storage over time.
Subtypes: Episodic, Semantic, Procedural.

Memory Processes:
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.

Factors Affecting Memory:

Attention, Rehearsal, Emotion, Organization.

Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallised Intelligence:

Fluid Intelligence (Gf):
Definition: Ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns.
Flexibility: Adaptable, not domain-specific.
Nature: Raw intelligence, reliant on the central nervous system.
Examples: Acquiring new skills, solving novel problems, creativity.
Dependency: Heavily reliant on immediate brain functioning.

Crystallised Intelligence (Gc):

Definition: Ability to use learned skills, knowledge, and experience.
Source: Accumulated through education, experience, and cultural exposure.
Nature: Represents stored information and strategies.
Examples: Native language proficiency, applying learned processes.
Dependency: Less reliant on current brain functioning, solidified through exposure.

Summary:
Fluid intelligence involves on-the-spot problem-solving and creativity, relying on immediate
brain functioning. In contrast, crystallised intelligence draws on accumulated knowledge and
experiences, representing a solidified skill set less dependent on current brain function.

Factors Affecting Cognitive Development in Adulthood:

(multiple questions)
Physiological Changes: Age-related decline in cognitive functioning, influenced by neural
decline, and sensory losses impacting mental efficiency.

Health: Pathological aging accelerates cognitive decline, with diseases like diabetes and
cardiovascular issues linked to poorer cognitive performance.

Sociodemographic Factors:
Prolonged education, higher socio-economic status, and stimulating environments
contribute to cognitive maintenance.
Marriage to an intelligent spouse and exposure to cultural and educational resources impact
cognitive functioning.

Personality Factors:
Positive self-image, internal control, self-efficacy, and effective coping strategies combat
cognitive decline.
Cultural stereotypes about aging influence cognitive performance.
Flexible attitudes at midlife correlate with less decline in intellectual competence.

Multilingualism: Speaking multiple languages is associated with better cognitive

functioning, providing flexibility of thought and cultural understanding.

Lifestyle Factors:
Active engagement in community and family, stimulating mental activities, and intellectual
complexity in leisure activities contribute to cognitive maintenance.
Healthy lifestyle choices, including diet, sleep, and regular exercise, positively impact
cognitive aging.
Aerobic fitness is linked to improved cognitive measures, such as brain plasticity and memory
functioning.

Conclusion: Cognitive development in adulthood is influenced by a complex interplay of

physiological changes, health status, sociodemographic factors, personality traits,
multilingualism, and lifestyle choices. Maintaining cognitive abilities requires a holistic
approach that encompasses both physical and mental well-being.