Delhi Sultanate Administration

The Delhi Sultanate period extended from 1206 CE to 1526 CE for almost 320 years.

Administration

 The effective administrative system under the Delhi Sultanate made a great impact on the Indian provincial
kingdoms and later on the Mughal administrative system. At its peak, the Delhi Sultanate controlled regions as far
south as Madurai.
 The Turkish ruler Mahmud of Ghazni was the first to adopt the title of Sultan. The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic
State with its religion as Islam. The sultans were considered to be the representatives of the Caliph. The name of
the Caliph was included in the khutba (prayer) and also inscribed on their coins. This practice was even followed
by Balban, who called himself “the shadow of God”. Iltutmish, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Feroz Tughlaq
obtained a ‘mansur’ (letter of investiture) from the Caliph.
 The ultimate authority for the legal, military & political activities was with the Sultan. All the Sultan’s sons had an
equal claim to the throne since there was no unambiguous succession law at the time. Iltutmish had even nominated
his daughter Raziya over his sons. However, such nominations had to be accepted by the nobles. At times,
the Ulemas also played a pivotal role in getting a favourable public opinion. Nevertheless, military might was the
chief factor when it came to succession.

Central Administration

 There were many departments and officials who helped the Sultan in administration. The Naib was the most
influential post and virtually enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan. He had control over all the other departments.
The post of Wazir was next to the Naib and he headed the finance department known as the Diwan-i-Wizarat. An
Auditor-General for examining expenditure and an Accountant General for checking income worked under the
Wazir. The period of wazir-ship of Feroz Shah Tughlaq Khan-i-Jahan is generally considered as the high
watermark period of the Wazir’s influences.
 Diwan-i- Ariz was the military department that was commanded by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. He would recruit the
soldiers and administer the military department. However, Sultan himself acted as the Commander-in-chief of the
army. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji, the number of soldiers in the department was about three lakh. The
efficient army helped in containing the Mongol invasions along with the Decan expansion. The Turks also had a
large number of properly trained elephants for war purposes. The cavalry was given prime importance and was
considered more prestigious.
 The department of religious affairs, Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with pious foundations and granted stipends to deserving
scholars and men of piety. This department granted funds for the construction of madrasas, tombs and mosques. It
was headed by Chief Sadr who also functioned as Chief Qazi, the head of the judicial system. Other judges and
Qazis were appointed in different parts of the Sultanate. Sharia or Muslim personal law was followed in civil
matters. The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and their cases were dispensed by the village
panchayat. The criminal law was dictated by the rules and regulations established by the Sultans. Diwan-i-
Insha was the department of correspondence. All the correspondence between the ruler and the sovereigns of other
states as well as with his junior officials was managed by this department.

The given figure demonstrates the central administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Central administration of the Delhi Sultanate followed a very systematic and well-planned
administration procedure which was run by different ministers who had specific work assigned to them.
Besides, there were also several other departments and the Sultan appointed their officers to carry on
specific duties.

1. The SULTAN - was the head of the state and enjoyed unlimited powers in every sphere of state activity.
2. The NAIB - also enjoyed an equivalent position as that of the Sultan.
3. The WAZIR - was the Prime Minister of the state and headed the financial department.
4. Diwan –i- Ariz – He was the head of the department of Diwani-i-Ariz and in that capacity was the
controller-general of the military department.
5. Diwan –i- Risalat - Department of religious affairs and was headed by Chief Sadr.
6. Amir -i-Majlis -Shahi - he was the minister who looked after the festivals of the state, and made sure of
all the public conveniences and arrangements during festive seasons.
7. Diwan-i-Insha- was the minister who looked after the local correspondence of and different offices.

Provincial Government

 Iqtas, the provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were initially under the dominion of the nobles. Muqtis or Walis was
the name given to the governors of the provinces and were responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting
the land revenue. The provinces were further divided into Shiqs, which was under the control of the Shiqdar. The
Shiqs were further divided into Pargana, comprising a number of villages and was headed by the Amil. The village
remained the basic unit of administration and its headman was called Chaudhri or Muqaddam. Patwari was the
village accountant.

The Delhi Sultanate was further divided into smaller provinces for it was convenient for the ministers to
help them in the administration. They were called IQTAS.

Iqta System
• The Iqtadari was a unique type of land distribution and the administrative system that evolved during the
sultanate of Iltutmish.
• Under this system, the entire empire was very evenly divided into several large and small tracts of land,
called the Iqtas.
• These plots of land were assigned to the various nobles, officers, and soldiers for the purpose of easy and
flawless administration and revenue collection.
• The Iqtas were transferable, i.e., the holders of Iqtas-Iqtadars-were transferred from one region to another
every three to four years.
• The holders of small Iqtas were individual troopers. They had no administrative responsibilities.
• Muhammad of Ghur in 1206 A.D. the able king was the first to introduce the Iqta system in India, but it
was lltutmish who gave it an institutional form. The Iqtadari system witnessed numerous changes during the
Sultanate period. Initially, Iqta was a revenue-yielding piece of land that was assigned in lieu of salary.
However, during Firuz Shah Tughlaq's reign, in the year 1351 A,D, it became hereditary.
Local Administration
• Local administration was vague and undefined and basically a traditional system.
• The provinces in this period were divided into 6 parts headed by shiqda
• The main functions were to maintain law and order and protect people against the oppression of zamindars
and had to perform military obligations.
• The Shiqs were further divided into Parganas and had different officials some of which were-
1. Amil- officers who collected land revenue and other taxes
2. Mushrif
3. Hazamdars- treasurers who kept the finances in control.
4. Qazi-Civil officials, who maintained developmental records.
5. Shiqdar-Criminal official and lawmakers.
6. Kotwal-Police head under shiqdar.
7. Faujdar-Military official in charge of the fort along with their adjoining territories.
8. Amin- Officers in charge of measuring land and allocating their usage’.
9. Qanungo-Maintained previous records of produce and assessment.
10. Patwari-Village record keeper
Lands were also classified into three categories namely iqta land, khalisa land, and inam land.
Iqta lands were the lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment of their services. On the other hand
khalisa land were under the direct control of the Sultan. The revenue collected from it were spent for the
maintenance of royal court and royal household. And last is inam land that was assigned or granted to
religious leaders or religious institutions.

Hence we can decipher that the establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the evolution of a
powerful and efficient administrative system. At its zenith, the authority of Delhi Sultans had extended as far
south as Madurai. They are even today remembered for their very systematic administrative capabilities.
Although the Delhi Sultanate had disintegrated, their administrative system made a powerful impact on the
Indian provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal system of administration
Agrarian crisis in Mughal era: theory given by Irfan habib
During the Mughal period in India, agrarian crises were not uncommon, and they often had
significant socio-economic and political repercussions. During the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal
Empire was faced with numerous rebellions and revolts from the Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs and
Marathas. Irfan Habib has viewed these as peasant uprisings. Several factors contributed to these
crises, leading to adverse effects on agricultural production, rural communities, and the overall
stability of the empire. Some of the key agrarian crises during the Mughal era include:

1. Droughts and Famine: The Mughal Empire experienced periodic droughts and famines,
which had devastating consequences for agricultural production and rural livelihoods.
Droughts led to water shortages, crop failures, and livestock deaths, exacerbating food
shortages and causing widespread hunger and starvation among the population.
2. Floods and Natural Disasters: Floods were another recurring natural calamity that affected
agricultural lands, especially in the fertile river plains of northern India. Excessive rainfall and
flooding could destroy crops, inundate fields, and displace rural communities, leading to
loss of life and property.
3. Pest Infestations: Insect pests, such as locusts and caterpillars, posed a significant threat to
crops during the Mughal period. Swarms of locusts could devour entire fields of crops,
causing massive losses for farmers and exacerbating food scarcity.
4. Land Degradation and Soil Erosion: Overexploitation of land, improper agricultural
practices, and deforestation contributed to land degradation and soil erosion in certain
regions. Soil fertility declined over time, leading to reduced agricultural productivity and
lower yields.
5. Taxation and Revenue Extraction: The Mughal revenue system, while essential for
financing the empire, sometimes imposed heavy burdens on the agrarian population. High
taxation rates, coupled with fixed revenue demands regardless of crop yields, exacerbated
the economic strain on farmers, particularly during times of agricultural distress. Jagirdars’
exploitation, corruption etc etc The Mughal land tenure system, which relied heavily on
revenue farming and the grant of land revenue assignments (jagirs) to nobles and officials,
sometimes exacerbated agrarian crises. Corrupt revenue officials or absentee landlords
 could exploit peasants, extracting exorbitant rents and taxes, which further strained the
agricultural economy
6. Political Instability and Conflict: Political instability, succession disputes, and military
conflicts could disrupt agricultural production and trade routes, leading to economic
dislocation and food shortages. War and conquest often resulted in the destruction of
crops, livestock, and agricultural infrastructure, further exacerbating agrarian crises.
7. Social Dislocation and Poverty: Agrarian crises often led to social dislocation,
displacement of rural populations, and increased poverty and destitution. Landless laborers
and tenant farmers were particularly vulnerable during times of agricultural distress, as they
lacked access to land and resources to sustain themselves.
8. Land revenue system: staunch, strict, wanted more money, all pressures came down to
peasantry, demanded and preferred in cash, exploitation
9. Transfer and escheat: frequent transfers of jagirs= trying to extract as much as possible=
lavish lifestyles ki aadat ho g thi= exploitation= relocation and emigration of peasantry=
crises
10. Fraud: some jags were trying to extract 2.5 more of actual money, aurangzeb’s effort to
reduce it proved very ineffective for obvious reasons
11. Conflict of Interest: There was a conflict of interest between jagirdars and zamindars as
well. When jagirdars pressed for more revenue, this naturally increased the pressure on
zamindars. It was against the zamindar's interest that peasants be exploited to such an
extent that they leave en masse - something jagirdars didn't care about. So zamindars also
sided with the peasants and revolted.
Implications: flight, emmigration, change of profession, led to agrarian crises!!

Forms of Passive Resistance:

 Flight: Either by individual peasants or that of an entire village. This could happen
particularly if there were accessible areas held by autonomous chiefs or 'zortalab'
zamindars, where the peasant might hope to get better terms. Bernier records that due to
severe oppression, peasants took to flight and "a considerable portion of the land remained
untilled." During the reign of Jahangir, the peasants were so cruelly and pitilessly oppressed
that the fields remained unsown and grew into wildernesses.

 For Mughal authorities, the flight of the peasants to the lands of chiefs was sufficient
justification for military expeditions being sent against them.

 When flight was not possible, or not likely to be rewarding, the peasants had no choice
but to stay in their villages and try to delay or refuse payments. In such situations, the
Mughal authorities either slaughtered or enslaved them along with their women and
children.