612958824 Diamonds Diamond Grading Book 2 Assignments 7-11-2019

Diamonds &
Diamond Grading
BOOK 2
7. The Diamond Crystal
8. Diamonds and Light
9. The Evolution of Diamond Cutting
10. Finding and Identifying Clarity Characteristics
11. Grading Clarity
5/2019
Diamonds and Diamond Grading
Book 2
Assignment 7 The Diamond Crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Assignment 8 Diamonds and Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Assignment 9 The Evolution of Diamond Cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Assignment 10 Finding and Identifying Clarity Characteristics . . 101
Assignment 11 Grading Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

©
©2019 The Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved: Protected under the Berne Convention.
No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, transferred, or
transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever without the
express written permission of GIA.
Printed in the United States.
Cover photos (top to bottom):
Joel Beeson/GIA
GIA
Eric Welch/GIA, courtesy William Goldberg Diamond Corporation
Gary Roskin
Gary Roskin
The Diamond Crystal 7
Atomic Structure of Diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Carbon Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Diamond’s Unit Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Diamond’s Crystal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Foreign Atoms and Crystal Irregularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Diamond Crystals, Cutting, and Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Diamond Crystal Shapes and Planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Cubes and Cubic Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Octahedrons and Octahedral Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Dodecahedrons and Dodecahedral Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Twinned Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Evaluating Rough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Cuttable Rough Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Crystal Structure and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1
Welcome to Diamonds and Diamond Grading Assignment 7.
With the knowledge you gain from this assignment, you’ll be able to:
• Understand how the crystal structure of diamond influences the Four Cs.
• Explain the basics of atomic structure as it relates to diamond formation.
• Identify diamond’s various crystal forms and shapes.
• Describe how diamond’s crystal structure affects cutting decisions.
• Understand the standards used to judge the potential value of rough diamonds.
2
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Joel Beeson/GIA
An octahedral diamond crystal is one of nature’s most exquisite creations.
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL

Natural historians began using the term crystal to describe symmetrical Crystal—Solid matter with atoms
mineral specimens early in the seventeenth century. The word itself comes arranged in a regular, repeating
from the Greek krystallos, which means “clear ice.” The Greeks used it to pattern.
identify rock crystal quartz, a mineral that they found high in the moun-
tains. In its rough form, it probably looked like permanently frozen water Crystalline—Composed of crystals
to them. or related to crystals.
Basically, a crystal is any bit of solid matter with atoms arranged in a

regular, repeating pattern. Crystals form both organically and inor -
ganically—they can grow in plants and animals as well as in molten rock
or in the laboratory. In fact, scientists have discovered that almost all
solids are crystalline.
It would be impossible to list all of the crystalline materials in your
daily life, but here are a few: your teeth and bones; sugar and salt; snow
and ice; sand, aspirin, steel, and nylon. And, of course, diamonds.
In this assignment, you’ll learn how crystal structure influences the
Four Cs—the factors that determine a finished diamond’s value. The
3
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND G RADING 7
Thomas Hunn
The symmetry of diamond’s crystal

structure, which shows in the outward
appearance of diamond rough, makes it
a unique member of the gem world.
NASA
Common table salt—sodium chloride—is one of the many crystalline materials you
encounter in your daily life.
assignment will also give you a basis for understanding diamond’s inter-
action with light, which you’ll learn about in Assignment 8.
Together, this assignment and the next one reveal the science behind
cutting decisions, diamond color, grading judgments, and diamond-and-
simulant separations. These two assignments will help you gain a better
understanding of those very important topics.
Diamond is a unique member of the gem world. Part of that uniqueness
arises from the fact that it’s made of a single element: carbon. Another part
is the magnificent simplicity of its internal crystal structure. This assign-
ment is your introduction to the fascinating inner world of diamonds.
4
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Peter Johnston/GIA
The atom is the basic unit of all matter. Its nucleus contains positively charged
protons, and neutrons with no electrical charge. Electrons with negative charges
orbit around the nucleus.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF DIAMONDS

■ What is the basic design of an atom?
■ How do carbon atoms combine to build a diamond crystal?
■ What is diamond’s characteristic crystal shape?
No description of diamond’s internal construction can begin without an

introduction to the basic structural unit of all matter—the atom. Atoms,
and the way they’re arranged and combined, dictate whether matter is
living or nonliving, and whether it’s animal, vegetable, or mineral.
Atoms are tiny. One cubic centimeter of solid matter—about the size of
a sugar cube—contains billions of atoms. Each atom has even smaller
subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons
form the nucleus, which is the heart of the atom. Electrons surround the
nucleus in orbits, or shells.
Neutrons aren’t electrically charged, but the other subatomic particles
are. Protons have positive charges and electrons have negative charges.
5
Minerals
NASA
The shields on the Atlantis space shuttle were made of highly heat-resistant
ceramics, derived from minerals.
A mineral is a solid material that forms in nature, not as the result of

human technology. It’s inorganic, which means it’s not alive and
never was. Each mineral has its own characteristic chemical compo-
sition. Most also have a characteristic crystal structure.
Minerals are everywhere. The earth’s rocks are made of minerals,
and so are all metals and most building materials. The ceramics used
in everything from coffee mugs to spacecraft heat shields are derived
from minerals. Glass, many medicines, and even common table salt
are made of minerals.
Minerals related by chemical composition and crystal structure
make up a species. There are over 3,000 known mineral species,
including diamond.
Within each species, there are varieties that differ in features such
as color and transparency. The mineral species diamond includes
several varieties. The names of diamond varieties are based on their
property differences: fancy-colored, colorless, and so on. Corundum
Jeffrey Scovil
is another gem species. It includes the varieties ruby and sapphire.
Additionally, minerals related by structure and properties belong
Every mineral has its own characteristic
to a mineral group. In the gemstone world, garnets and feldspars are

chemical composition, and most have a
the most-familiar mineral groups.

characteristic crystal structure, too. This
spectacular topaz specimen is one of
nature’s crystalline wonders.
6
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Because opposite charges attract, the protons in the nucleus act like Ke y C o n c e p t s
magnets for the orbiting electrons. The attraction holds the electrons in
their shells.
Covalent bonds are the strongest of
all atomic bonds.
Different types of atoms have different numbers of shells. The actual
number of electrons in an atom’s outer shell determines its chemical
nature—its ability to combine with other atoms.
Diamond’s atoms are more closely
bonded than the atoms of any other
An atom with a full outer shell is chemically inert, which means it
won’t easily combine with other atoms. An atom with fewer electrons will
natural material.
attract electrons from other nearby atoms in an attempt to always have a
full outer shell.
CARBON ATOMS
Carbon atoms normally have four outer electrons and four spaces
available for electrons to occupy. In diamond, each carbon atom shares Covalent bond—A chemical bond
an electron with each of its four neighbors. That way, it fills its outer
formed by two atoms sharing
shell with eight electrons without losing any of its own electrons. Each
electrons.
neighboring atom does the same thing. When carbon atoms share
electrons like this, they are forming covalent bonds. Atoms can bond in
Tetrahedron—In diamond, a group
other ways, but covalent bonds are the strongest.
of five carbon atoms with one at
the center.
Diamond’s carbon atoms are connected in groups of five, with one in
the center and the other four surrounding it. Each outside atom is part of
Unit cell—Smallest group of
another group of five as well. Each group is called a tetrahedron. In
atoms with the characteristic
geometry, a tetrahedron is a four-sided figure with triangular sides. When
chemical composition and the
the word is used to describe diamond structure, it refers to the group of
basic crystal structure of a
carbon atoms.
mineral.
DIAMOND’S UNIT CELL
One characteristic of mineral crystals is that their internal structures are

very uniform. That’s because they’re built from huge numbers of identical
unit cells. A unit cell is the smallest group of atoms with both the
characteristic chemical composition and the basic crystal structure of the
mineral. The unit cell’s structure sets the standard for repeating patterns
throughout the crystal.
The core of diamond’s unit cell is formed from four tetrahedrons, held
together by shared electrons in strong covalent bonds. Each corner atom
in a tetrahedron is connected to an atom of another unit cell. The outer
atoms of the tetrahedrons are bonded to atoms of other tetrahedrons, and
so on.
The carbon atoms in diamond bond under very high pressure and
create a strong, interlocking atomic structure. Diamond’s atoms are closer
together than the atoms of any other natural material. This is what gives
diamond its superior hardness.
7
carbon atom
carbon
atoms sharing
electrons
carbon tetrahedron
diamond crystal
structure
diamond crystal
Peter Johnston/GIA
Diamond’s crystallization process begins with a carbon atom, which joins with other
carbon atoms in strong covalent bonds. The bonded atoms form groups of five,
called tetrahedrons. Tetrahedrons, in turn, combine to form a unit cell, and many unit
cells together form a diamond crystal.
Unit cells connect to build crystal shapes or crystal forms. Crystal

shapes can indicate the atomic structure inside a crystal. A diamond’s unit
cell is cube-shaped, so it can be the basis of a number of different shapes.
It’s like building with toy blocks—the finished shape depends not so
much on the shape of the blocks as on how they’re stacked. Cube-shaped
blocks can build a pyramid or a larger cube, for example.
8
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
unit cell
Maha Tannous/GIA
The octahedron is the most common

habit of gem diamond. A perfect dia-
mond octahedron is called a glassie.
Crystal shape (form)—Geometric

shape of a well-formed crystal.
cube
dodecahedron
Habit—Characteristic crystal
shape of a specific mineral.
Octahedron—A form with eight

equal triangular faces.
octahedron
Glassie—A well-shaped,
transparent, octahedral diamond
crystal with sharp, square edges.
Peter Johnston/GIA
Diamond’s unit cells are cube-shaped so, depending on how they’re stacked, they
can form different crystal shapes.
The basic crystal shape of a mineral is called its habit. The habit of gem
diamond is most often the octahedron, a form with eight triangular faces.
Ke y C o n c e p t s
Perfect diamond octahedrons, called glassies, are among the most striking
The most common habit of gem
of all mineral crystals. But the octahedron is only an ideal form. Perfectly
diamond is the octahedron, but
shaped octahedral rough is so rare it often ends up as a collector’s specimen perfectly shaped octahedral rough
rather than a cut gem. is rare.
9
Lester V. Bergman/Corbis
Gold is a cubic mineral, like diamond.

Its basic crystal structure determines its
properties and appearance.
Jeffrey Scovil
Spinel belongs to the cubic crystal Well-formed cubic crystals, like the ones in this pyrite specimen, have balanced,
system along with diamond and several even proportions.
other minerals.
DIAMOND’S CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Crystal structure (lattice)— In most minerals, regular, repeating patterns of atoms form an internal
Regular, repeating arrangement of arrangement called the crystal structure or crystal lattice. Crystal
atoms in a mineral. structure greatly affects a mineral’s characteristics. As you learned in
Assignment 4, the diamonds in a million-dollar tiara and the graphite in
Crystal systems—Categories of a 10-cent pencil are made of exactly the same element—carbon—and
the same kinds of atoms. It’s their crystal structures that make the
crystals based on their symmetry
difference.
and internal structure.
Mineralogists and gemologists classify crystals by their geometric

properties and the symmetry of their internal crystal structures. The
categories are called crystal systems. Diamonds belong to the cubic system,
also called the isometric system. The cubic system is the most symmetrical:
10
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Naming Crystal Forms

Mathematicians and mineralo-
gists created the names for geo-
metric and crystal forms by using
the Greek words for numbers and
shapes. When used this way, the
Greek words are called “roots.”
Once you recognize the Greek
roots, you’ll be able to recognize
the words made from them. The
dodecahedron octahedron
number roots are:

Tris = 3
Tetra = 4
Hexa = 6
Octa = 8
Dodeca = 12
tetrahexahedron trisoctahedron
Individual roots can be com-

bined to make roots for larger
numbers.
Tetrahexa = (4× 6) = 24
Trisocta = (3× 8) = 24
hexoctahedron
Hexocta = (6×8) = 48 Peter Johnston/GIA
Next, add the base word

Many diamond crystals are actually modifications of the octahe-
hedron, which means “face.” So,

dron and the dodecahedron. The blue areas show where the
an octahedron has 8 faces, a

faces of simple and complex crystals correspond. For example,
dodecahedron 12, and a trisocta-

a dodecahedral face becomes two smaller faces on the tetra-
hexahedron, and a group of four on the even more complex
hedron 24.
hexoctahedron. The hexoctahedron has faces that correspond
to both basic shapes.
Well-formed cubic crystals are evenly proportioned and balanced. Garnet,

spinel, platinum, and gold are also cubic minerals.
Crystal structure affects diamond in ways that are especially important

Diamonds belong to the cubic or
to cutters. In some directions, the atoms in a diamond crystal are closer
isometric crystal system, the most
together than in others. This makes those directions harder and, as a result,
symmetrical of the crystal systems.
unsuitable for sawing and polishing.
On the other hand, in some directions there are fewer carbon atoms—
with more space between them—than in others. A well-placed blow can
cause a flat break parallel to one of these directions. These are called
cleavage directions. They’re like the spaces between the pages of a book—
they make the pages easier to separate than to tear across.
11
In these historic photos, Joseph Asscher is preparing to cleave the famous Cullinan diamond rough after carefully analyzing its
crystal directions.
Specific gravity (SG)—Ratio of Crystal structure also affects density, or weight per unit of volume.
the weight of a material to that of The carbon atoms in a diamond crystal are closer together than those in
an equal volume of water. graphite, so there are more of them in the same space. As a result, a
diamond weighs about 1.6 times as much as the same size piece of
graphite.
Scientists call the relationship between weight and volume specific
gravity (SG). They express the SG of a substance by comparing it to the
weight of an equal volume of water. A cubic meter of a substance with an
SG of 1.00 would weigh exactly the same as a cubic meter of water.
Gem diamond’s SG is 3.52, which means a diamond weighs 3.52
times as much as an equal volume of water. The SG of industrial
diamonds can be as low as 3.43 because of their many inclusions and
impurities.
You can use SG to separate diamond from its imitators. Almost all of
the common simulants have higher SGs than diamond. Many jewelry
12
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
The Cullinan rough, unearthed in 1905 in South Africa, weighed an extraordinary

3,106 cts. Once cut, it produced 9 large stones and 96 small brilliants. The
largest—the 530.20-ct. Cullinan I—is shown here in its early stages. No matter what
the size of the crystal, each step in the cutting process is dictated by the rough’s
internal structure.
13
diamond
SG=3.52 graphite water
SG=2.23 SG=1.00
Peter Johnston/GIA
Specific gravity compares a material’s weight to the weight of an equal volume of water. Gem diamond’s SG is 3.52, while
graphite’s is 2.23. The diamond, the graphite, and the water are different sizes, but they all weigh the same. If they were all the
same size, the diamond would be the heaviest.
professionals can detect a simulant simply because it weighs more than

it looks like it should. Detection is sometimes as simple as bouncing an
Singly refractive (isotropic)—
Possessing the same physical or
optical properties in all crystal unmounted simulant gently up and down in your hand. You’ll learn more
directions. about this in Assignment 18.
Crystal structure also affects the behavior of light. In diamond and
other cubic crystals, light rays behave the same way no matter which
Doubly refractive (anisotropic)—
direction they’re traveling. These crystals are described as singly
Possessing different physical or
refractive, or isotropic. Crystals that form in less symmetrical crystal

optical properties in different
systems split light rays into separate beams that take different paths and
crystal directions.
travel at different speeds. These crystals are called doubly refractive, or

anisotropic.
Doubling—The appearance of
double images of a gemstone’s
facet junctions on the side oppo- Optic character—the way a mineral handles light—helps distinguish
site the viewer. singly refractive diamond from doubly refractive simulants like zircon,
colorless sapphire, synthetic rutile, and synthetic moissanite. When you
look into those simulants from most directions, you’ll see double images
Trace elements—Atoms in a gem
of the facet junctions on the opposite side. The visibility of the doubling,
that aren’t part of its essential
as it’s called, depends on the material and the size of the stone. In
chemical composition.
Assignment 18, you’ll learn more about doubling and its role in separating
diamonds from simulants.
FOREIGN ATOMS AND CRYSTAL IRREGULARITIES

During formation, mineral crystals sometimes incorporate atoms of
foreign elements. These are called trace elements. They cause distortions
in the crystal lattice because they’re usually not the same size as the atoms
they replace. Trace elements are sometimes called impurity elements.
14
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
diamond
Shane McClure/GIA
The doubling is fairly obvious in this

synthetic moissanite. Its presence pro-
vides a dependable way to separate
this simulant from natural diamond.
isotropic or singly
refractive
zircon
anisotropic or doubly
refractive
Peter Johnston/GIA
It doesn’t matter if a diamond is perfectly octahedral or flat and triangular: Its isotropism
makes light travel as a single beam. Anisotropic gems, like the one illustrated at the
bottom, split light as it passes through.
15
Crystal Systems
All minerals fit into seven
crystal systems. Minerals in
the same crystal system often
have some similar internal and
external characteristics. The
crystal systems are cubic or
cubic diamond
isometric, tetragonal, hexago-

nal, trigonal or rhombohedral,
orthorhombic, monoclinic, and
triclinic.
Crystals in the cubic system
are the most symmetrical. The
tetragonal zircon
crystals in the other six systems

are less symmetrical than
cubic crystals, and they have
their own physical and optical
characteristics. Those systems
aren’t important to diamonds,
but they are important in the
hexagonal apatite
study of other gems.

• Diamonds, garnets, and
spinels are cubic gems
• Zircon is a tetragonal gem
trigonal quartz
• Apatite and beryl are
hexagonal gems
• Quartz and corundum vari-
eties are trigonal
• Topaz, chrysoberyl, peridot,
and tanzanite are
orthorhombic
orthorhombic topaz
• Kunzite, jade, and moon-

stone are monoclinic
• Most feldspars are triclinic
This assignment will con-
centrate on the cubic system.
You’ll learn more about the
monoclinic kunzite
other crystal systems when

you enroll in the GIA Colored
Stones and Gem Identification
courses.
triclinic feldspar
16
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Glide plane—Crystal distortion

caused during growth when
one part of the lattice is offset in
relation to the rest.
Graining (grain lines)—Visible,

shadow-like lines in a diamond
caused by irregularities in the
crystal structure.
Grain lines reveal irregularities in diamond’s crystal structure. They’re caused by

changing conditions during crystal growth.
Diamond’s chemical composition is simply carbon, but it can incorporate

a variety of trace elements. One of the most common is nitrogen. Nitrogen
affects the way diamond absorbs light and produces the yellow color of
many diamonds.
Boron is another trace element. It colors diamonds blue and makes
them electrical conductors. There are elements other than nitrogen and
boron that are sometimes found in diamonds, but researchers haven’t yet
determined their effects.
Irregularities in a diamond’s structure can strain the crystal and influence
Christie’s Images Inc.
its appearance. One of these irregularities is called a glide plane, in which

Trace elements cause color in diamonds.
part of the crystal lattice is slightly out of line in relation to the rest. It
This magnificent blue diamond contains
the trace element boron in its crystal
happens when the atoms don’t stack perfectly during growth and the
structure.
crystal structure becomes deformed.

Irregularities in the crystal structure can create visible effects known as
grain lines, or graining. Graining occurs when conditions change during
crystal growth. Several types of graining can appear in diamond, depending
on the nature of the structural irregularities.
Diamond can also incorporate small crystals of other minerals—even
of other diamonds—during the formation process. You usually need mag-
nification to see these inclusions, but you can sometimes see them with
your unaided eye. John Koivula/GIA
Diamond often surrounds crystals of

other minerals as it grows. Sometimes,
DIAMOND CRYSTALS, CUTTING, AND VALUE the minerals—like this garnet crystal—
remain as unique features in finished
■ How does a diamond’s crystal structure dictate cutting methods? diamonds. (20X)
■ What are diamond’s basic crystal shapes and planes?
■ How is diamond rough evaluated for cutting?
Rough diamonds vary widely in appearance. They can be perfectly sym-

metrical or crooked and deformed, bright and clear or cloudy and
17
Thermal Expansion and Conductivity

Thermal expansion and thermal
conductivity are technical names
for fairly simple concepts.
Thermal expansion is a
material’s capacity to expand
when it’s heated. Some materi-
als expand more than others.
You can use the effects of ther-
mal expansion to remove a
tight metal cap from a glass
bottle. When you run hot water
over it, the metal expands more
than the glass, so it’s easier to
unscrew the cap.
Thermal conductivity meas-
ures the rate at which a gem’s
surface temperature responds to
a change in the temperature of
its environment. The higher the
thermal conductivity, the slower
the change. Gems have high
thermal conductivity, and dia-
monds have the highest. If you
touch a diamond, it will feel
cool because its temperature
rises very slowly in response to
your body heat.
Thermal expansion and ther-
mal conductivity are related to
chemical composition and crys-
tal structure. As temperature
increases, atoms pick up energy.
Tino Hammid/GIA
The energy makes them vibrate,

Diamond’s high thermal conductivity
and they move farther apart. The

makes it useful for drawing heat away
from working electronic equipment. The
amount of movement is different
fashioned laboratory-grown diamonds
for different materials. Even

were cut from crystals produced
the tightly bonded carbon atoms

specifically for this industrial use.
Thermal expansion—Capacity of in diamond move apart, but not very much. Their strong bond
a material to expand when it’s allows a rapid transfer of heat through the crystal, so the crystal
heated. itself stays cool.
A thermal tester measures thermal conductivity, and helps to sep-
arate diamond from most simulants. You’ll learn more about this in
Thermal conductivity—The relative
Assignment 18.
ability of a material to transfer heat.
18
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Brian Stevenson
Not all diamond rough is perfectly octahedral and crystal clear. In fact, most of it is
small and cloudy-looking.
Thomas Hunn
Bort is rough diamond that was once considered unsuitable for use in jewelry.
However, many of today’s designers incorporate bort with interesting colors and
shapes into modern jewelry styles.
included. The worst specimens are suitable only for industrial use. But the
best, and even the second and third best, have a potential for beauty that any
skilled cutter can recognize. This is because, no matter how they look on
the outside, all diamonds have the same well-defined internal patterns.
Bort is a form of diamond that usually occurs as very included single
crystals in a range of yellows, grays, and browns. While it was once
considered suitable only for industrial use, modern designers have adopted
bort’s more interesting colors and shapes and incorporated them into
contemporary jewelry styles.
19
Shape is the most important factor
in a rough gem diamond crystal’s
potential value.
Tino Hammid/GIA
The shape of this 1.34-ct. rough severely limits the cutter’s choices and its potential
value as a gemstone.
Crystal planes—Internal directions In the gem-quality category, the shape of a rough diamond crystal is the
parallel to a mineral’s unit cell most important factor in its potential value as a gemstone. Two crystals
surfaces. with the same color and clarity might be equal in weight, yet one can be
worth many times more than the other on the basis of shape alone. This is
because the shape affects the amount of weight the cutter can retain in the
finished gem. If a crystal is an octahedron or a cube, it’s easy to imagine—
and cut—at least one large fashioned gem from it. If it’s irregular, or even
flat, this limits the cutter’s choices.
20
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
octahedral plane
dodecahedral plane
cubic plane
Maha Tannous/GIA Peter Johnston/GIA
Diamond’s internal pattern of atoms makes this octahedron’s internal structure as All diamonds, regardless of their shape,
ordered as its outward appearance. contain octahedral, dodecahedral, and
cubic planes.
DIAMOND CRYSTAL SHAPES AND PLANES

As you learned earlier, diamond’s crystal structure consists of regular,
repeating patterns of atoms, and in some directions, the atoms are more
closely spaced than in others. These different internal directions are called
crystal planes, and they produce properties like directional hardness and
cleavage.
Diamond has three internal crystal planes: cubic, octahedral, and
dodecahedral. All diamonds, regardless of their external appearance,
contain all three. These planes are important to a diamond cutter because
some are best for sawing and polishing and others for cleaving.
If you stack cube-shaped blocks equally in every direction, you’ll create

CUBES AND CUBIC PLANES Joel Beeson/GIA
a larger cube. Gem-quality cube-shaped diamond crystals are extremely

Diamond is a cubic mineral, but cube-
rare, and no cubic crystals have the perfectly flat crystal faces that some
shaped, gem-quality rough diamonds
are extremely rare.
octahedral crystals have. Regardless, every diamond crystal has cubic

planes parallel to its possible cubic crystal faces.
Cubic planes are softer than octahedral planes and harder than
dodecahedral planes. Because of this, and because of their relationship to
other planes, cubic planes provide the most efficient directions for sawing
Cubic planes provide the most effi-
large, regularly shaped crystals into sections. The sections can then be cut
cient sawing directions for dividing
into standard round brilliants without losing too much weight from the large, regularly shaped crystals.
original rough.
21
Maha Tannous/GIA
Diamond octahedrons aren’t all perfectly formed. Some are slightly distorted and some might have rounded corners. In spite of
this, most display the outward signs of their inner crystal structures.
From the simple cube shape, it’s possible to picture more complex shapes
OCTAHEDRONS AND OCTAHEDRAL PLANES
like the octahedron. One way to visualize an octahedron is to imagine

building one. Start with one layer of cube-shaped blocks, arranged in a
square. Add smaller square layers above and below it, but subtract one
row of blocks from the outside of each succeeding layer. You’ll end up
with a form that looks like two four-sided pyramids joined base to base.
That’s an octahedron.
If an octahedron were to grow inside a cube, its six points would each
touch the center of one of the cube’s faces. That’s because its planes form
at 45° angles in relation to the planes of the cube. For the same reason, if
Vincent Cracco/GIA
a cube were inside an octahedron, each of the cube’s eight corners would
The clean break in this 3.32-ct. diamond
touch the middle of one of the octahedron’s faces.

shows where it divided along its cleavage
plane.
As you’ve learned, the octahedron is the most common habit of gem-

quality diamond. In nature, the basic octahedrons are often modified,
producing rounded shapes that are especially suitable for cutting round
brilliants.
22
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Internal octahedral planes—the planes parallel to the possible octahedral Cleavage plane—Plane parallel to
faces—are important because they are cleavage planes. When it’s hit just a possible crystal face, where a
right, a diamond will split cleanly along a cleavage plane. Cutters can use diamond can split cleanly when
cleavage to divide distorted crystals into more workable shapes and to struck.
remove major inclusions to improve the clarity—and the value—of the
finished gem.
Twinned crystal—Crystal consisting
Surfaces parallel to the octahedral planes are also the hardest. They are
of two or more intergrown crystals
very resistant to scratching and impossible to polish.

with opposing crystal directions.
Macle—A flat, triangular twinned

diamond crystal.
DODECAHEDRONS AND DODECAHEDRAL PLANES
Now, imagine holding an octahedron. Slice off each side where the faces
meet to form a ridge. What’s left where each ridge was is a four-sided
face. You’ve made a dodecahedron.
You can build one by starting with a cube and adding successively
smaller—but still square—layers of cube-shaped blocks to each of the
cube’s six faces. Make each new layer one row of blocks smaller around
the outside.
Gem-quality dodecahedral crystals are fairly common in some diamond
deposits. Many scientists think the dodecahedron results when temperature
and pressure conditions within the earth’s crust change, and previously
formed shapes are partially dissolved. Most dodecahedral crystals are
rounded—few have perfectly flat faces. Like octahedrons, dodecahedrons
Alan Jobbins
are well suited for fashioning round brilliants.

Corner to corner, dodecahedral planes are harder than cubic planes, but
side to side, they’re diamond’s softest crystal directions. Because they’re
the softest directions, cutters try to polish along dodecahedral planes. It’s
important to remember that even the softest directions in diamond (Mohs
10) are five times harder than corundum (Mohs 9).
Dodecahedral planes are also alternative sawing directions. They’re
especially helpful if a piece of rough is distorted enough to make sawing
parallel to a cubic plane or cleaving parallel to an octahedral plane too
Thomas Hunn
much of a waste of gem weight. Under those conditions, the cutter would
In both macles, you can see the planes
probably saw parallel to the dodecahedral plane.

where the crystal directions changed as
they grew. Besides having opposing
crystal directions, macles are also flat.
The combination makes cutting one a
real challenge.
TWINNED CRYSTALS
Some crystals consist of two or more individual parts with common
atomic planes but different orientations. These are called twinned crystals.
There are several distinct types of twinned diamond crystals, and each has
a characteristic angular relationship between the crystal structures in the
two parts.
The most common twinned diamond crystal is the macle. It has two
opposing parts, each with the same crystal shape. The two parts are
oriented 60° or 180° from each other, so the macle looks like a flattened The macle is the most common
triangle. twinned diamond crystal.
23
Growth Marks
Growth marks are surface fea-
tures that reflect a crystal’s
development. Researchers
believe that some types of
growth marks are indentations
that form when conditions
change and cause the crystal
to partially dissolve.
Many growth marks are
unique to certain crystal faces.
Trigons—little triangular
depressions—occur on octahe-
dral faces. They point in the
Thomas Hunn
opposite direction from the

Growth marks on a rough diamond’s
surface indicate its internal crystal
point of the crystal’s triangular
directions. The dodecahedral faces
face. Cubic faces can have

on this crystal display distinctive
square or rectangular depres-

parallel grooves.
sions oriented at a 45° angle to

the square face outline.
Dodecahedral faces often have
parallel grooves running corner
to corner in the longest direction.
Growth marks are important
for two reasons: First, they’re
associated with specific crystal
faces and directions, so they can
help cutters determine fashion-
Joel Beeson/GIA
ing directions. Second, because
diamond growth marks are dis-
tinctive, they help to separate
diamonds from simulants.
Because of this, some dishonest
people have tried to disguise
simulants with fake growth
marks. But the similarity is
superficial and the deception is
obvious to anyone familiar with
Wilma Vander Giessen diamonds.
This rough diamond has trigons that
show the location of its octahedral
face (top). A 40X close-up shows
them in detail (bottom). Trigons are
always oriented in the opposite direc-
tion from the triangular face they’re
located on.
24
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
octahedral face
octahedron
twinning plane
macle
Tino Hammid/GIA
With careful cutting, a macle can

become a beautiful triangular brilliant-
twinning plane cut diamond.
octahedral face
Peter Johnston/GIA
A macle forms when crystal direction changes during growth. You can imagine
macle growth as an octahedron rotating 180 degrees around a central plane—called
the twinning plane—and then flattening. The red triangle represents the position of a
trigon on each crystal’s octahedral face.
Macles are a challenge to diamond cutters for two reasons. First, the
crystal structure reverses from one side to the other, so sawing and
polishing directions are not continuous through the stone. Second, macles
are usually so shallow that they can’t yield round brilliants without
significant weight loss. For these reasons, macles are usually used for
fancy shapes like pears, triangles, and hearts.
25
Aggregate—A solid mass of indi-

Aggregates are solid masses of individual, randomly oriented crystals.
AGGREGATES
vidual, randomly oriented crystals,
intergrown or held together by a The crystals have the same internal atomic patterns, and they’ve either
natural binding agent. grown together or they’re cemented by some sort of natural binding agent.
Sometimes, the individual crystals aren’t visible to the unaided eye. In
those cases, detecting the aggregate’s parts requires high magnification.
Carbonado is a diamond aggregate that’s used as an industrial abrasive.
It can be black, gray, or brown. Because its minute diamond crystals are
intergrown, carbonado is the toughest form of diamond.
EVALUATING ROUGH
Diamond rough’s value is based on its potential as a faceted gem. Sorting
begins with deciding if a rough diamond is cuttable (gem or near-gem) or
non-cuttable (industrial). To do so, sorters have to understand the impact
of the rough’s shape, clarity, and color.
Industrial-quality diamond rough nearly always lacks transparency and
uniform shape. Some industrial diamonds are cube-shaped, and can be
colored or colorless.
Gem-quality diamond rough tends to have the most uniform shape. It’s
usually transparent, with a shiny to slightly rough surface. Near-gem
diamond rough has transparent portions that can be removed and processed
by cleaving, sawing, or lasering. It might also be of a less desirable color,
such as brown, but still have potential as a fashioned gem.
Sometimes, diamond rough has an opaque coating that has to be
polished away before the buyer can judge its destiny as a finished stone.
Shape is the single most important value factor for cuttable rough diamond.
CUTTABLE ROUGH CHARACTERISTICS
One piece of rough that’s comparable to another in weight, clarity, and

Diamond rough’s potential as a
color can be worth 10 times as much due to its shape alone. That’s because
faceted gem depends on its shape,
clarity, and color. shape tends to determine ultimate yield. A 10.00-ct. flat macle might yield
little more than a few small baguettes, but a 10.00-ct. octahedron might
yield two round brilliants of 3.50 and 1.50 cts. each.
Shape is so important that diamond cutters have coined special terms
to describe diamond rough’s potential. A makeable, or whole stone, is
diamond rough that can be polished without sawing, cleaving, or splitting.
The final shape is a single stone that’s often similar to the shape of the
rough. A sawable is diamond rough that will yield more weight if it’s
divided to produce two stones. A splittable, or clivage, is diamond rough
that can be divided into small, but valuable, segments by lasering or
cleaving. A flat is a flat crystal that’s very limited in its potential shape.
Cleavage applies to a piece of diamond rough that broke cleanly along
a cleavage plane. The Diamond Trading Company uses the term for broken,
irregularly shaped pieces of diamond rough that weigh over 1.80 carats.
Many of the world’s largest—and most famous—rough diamonds were
cleavages.
26
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
HOW DIAMOND CRYSTAL SHAPE AFFECTS VALUE
MORE VALUABLE
sawable
round brilliants or
princess cuts
makeable
round brilliants
splittable
round brilliants or
fancy cuts
macle
fancy cuts
LESS VALUABLE flat

baguettes or similar
small stones
Peter Johnston/GIA
The shape of diamond rough determines the size, shape, and value of the stones
fashioned from it. Sawables and makeables can yield large gems and yield more
profit than macles and flats, which might only yield a few small gems.
27
Tino Hammid/GIA
Well-shaped rough, like this 9.46-ct. octahedron, allows the cutter many options,
including dividing it into two large gems or into a number of small ones.
Well-shaped rough presents a number of options to the cutter, and

buyers must consider those options in terms of their potential marketability.
For example, even if a piece of well-shaped rough can be fashioned into
one large round brilliant, it might be better to cut smaller gems from it.
This is because the smaller gems might be easier to sell than a single
large one.
Cutters must consider both marketability and weight retention when
they decide the shape of a finished diamond. The round brilliant might be
28
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Nicholas DelRe/GIA
Diamond color can be affected by stains from radiation (left) or by colored internal grain lines (right).
the most marketable choice, but it’s not necessarily the most profitable
shape to cut from every piece of diamond rough. If a piece of rough would
lose too much weight as a finished round, the cutter might choose to cut
Inclusions can limit a rough
a fancy shape from it. diamond’s potential shape.
Clarity also affects diamond rough’s potential yield. If inclusions don’t
allow the cutter to orient the rough for best weight retention and yield, the
potential value of the rough’s shape is limited. Inclusions are often hidden
behind the frosted or blemished surface of a piece of rough. As you’ll
learn in Assignment 9, the cutter can polish a tiny “window” in the surface
to provide a clear view into the diamond.
If rough does contain inclusions, the cutter can plan the shape and type
of cut to remove them. If the cutter can’t remove an inclusion, he will try
to position the inclusion in the finished diamond in a way that minimizes
its impact on value. Inclusions have the least negative influence on the
clarity grade if they’re positioned where they’re less visible or less likely
to affect the diamond’s durability.
Judging color in rough is different from judging it in a finished diamond.
Rough diamond’s color can be affected by surface texture or stains. The
number, size, and location of inclusions can also affect the color of the
rough. In addition, color might not be evenly distributed throughout the
rough. Instead, it can occur in bands, layers, or spots that might end up
being cut away. This can be good or bad, depending upon how desirable
the color is.
Most diamond colors are light shades of yellow, brown, and gray.
Colored rough can be even more valuable than colorless rough if the color
is deep enough to be considered fancy.
29
To prepare diamond rough for cutting, an expert must analyze its structure carefully and mark it for sawing or cleaving.
Ke y C o n c e p t s CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND CUTTING

As you’ve learned, every diamond has internal crystal planes. These
planes are parallel to each pair of its possible cubic, octahedral, and
The cubic, octahedral, and dodecahe-
dodecahedral faces. Each set has as many parallel planes as there are
dral planes are the most important
layers of atoms. For example, a cube has six parallel faces—three pairs—
directions to a diamond cutter.
so there are three sets of cubic planes. Similarly, there are four sets of
octahedral planes and six sets of dodecahedral planes in every diamond
crystal.
The cubic, octahedral, and dodecahedral planes are the most impor-
tant directions from a diamond cutter’s point of view because, as you’ve
read, some planes are best for sawing or polishing and others for
cleaving.
Each plane in a set has a definite geometric relationship to the planes
of the other sets. Their relative positions and the angles between them are
always the same. This means that even if only one of the planes is obvi-
ous, cutters can determine the positions of the other two. It allows them
30
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Diamond-cutting professionals understand every internal angle and feature of diamond

rough. They know that careful analysis is the key to a beautiful finished gem.
to analyze the rough for maximum weight retention and plan their work
with reasonable certainty.
The differences in directional hardness created by the crystal planes
also dictate the mechanical processes required to fashion a piece of rough
into a gem. Directional hardness is particularly important in diamond
cutting. With other gemstones, cutters can always use an abrasive that’s
harder than the material they’re trying to fashion. Since there’s no natural
material harder than diamond, cutters have to take advantage of diamond’s
softer directions.
This assignment and the ones that follow will help you gain a better
understanding of the unique properties that make diamond one of the
world’s most sought-after gems. The next assignment will show you how Diamond manufacturers use a rotary
diamond’s crystal structure interacts with light. In Assignment 9, you’ll
saw with a diamond-coated blade to
learn how a diamond cutter takes advantage of a diamond’s basic structure

divide diamond rough and prepare it for
and its interaction with light to design and execute the perfect cut for that
faceting.
particular piece of rough.
31
Maha Tannous/GIA
©Harold and Erica Van Pelt
Many designers recognize the natural beauty of rough diamonds and incorporate
them into their jewelry designs. The crystals might be octahedrons (top) or irregular
crystals with lovely color (bottom).
The knowledge of diamond’s basic structure that you’ve gained in

this assignment will help you in many areas of the diamond industry. If
you’re involved in the finished diamond wholesale market, it will help
you appreciate and judge the quality of the diamonds you buy and sell.
If you work with rough diamond wholesalers and cutters, the more you
know about what they know, the better. In a retail setting, it will help
you speak intelligently to customers about diamond properties.
Altogether, these skills will give you the confidence you need to excel in
the diamond industry.
32
THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL
Covalent bonds are the strongest of all atomic Cubic planes provide the most efficient sawing
bonds. directions for dividing large, regularly shaped
crystals.
Diamond’s atoms are more closely bonded than
the atoms of any other natural material. The macle is the most common twinned diamond
crystal.
The most common habit of gem diamond is the
octahedron, but perfectly shaped octahedral rough Diamond rough’s potential as a faceted gem
is rare. depends on its shape, clarity, and color.
Diamonds belong to the cubic or isometric crystal Inclusions can limit a rough diamond’s potential
system, the most symmetrical of the crystal shape.
systems.
The cubic, octahedral, and dodecahedral planes
Shape is the most important factor in a rough are the most important directions to a diamond
gem diamond crystal’s potential value. cutter.
33
Key Terms
Aggregate—A solid mass of individual, randomly Glide plane—Crystal distortion caused during growth
oriented crystals, intergrown or held together by a when one part of the lattice is offset in relation to
natural binding agent. the rest.
Cleavage plane—Plane parallel to a possible crystal Graining (grain lines)—Visible, shadow-like lines in
face, where a diamond can split cleanly when struck. a diamond caused by irregularities in the crystal
structure.
Covalent bond—A chemical bond formed by two
atoms sharing electrons. Habit—Characteristic crystal shape of a specific
mineral.
Crystal—Solid matter with atoms arranged in a
regular, repeating pattern. Macle—A flat, triangular twinned diamond crystal.
Crystalline—Composed of crystals or related to Octahedron—A form with eight equal triangular faces.
crystals.
Singly refractive (isotropic)—Possessing the same
Crystal planes—Internal directions parallel to a physical or optical properties in all crystal directions.
mineral’s unit cell surfaces.
Specific gravity (SG)—Ratio of the weight of a
material to that of an equal volume of water.
Crystal shape (form)—Geometric shape of a
well-formed crystal. Tetrahedron—In diamond, a group of five carbon
atoms with one at the center.
Crystal structure (lattice)—Regular, repeating
arrangement of atoms in a mineral. Thermal conductivity—The relative ability of a
material to transfer heat.
Crystal systems—Categories of crystals based on
their symmetry and internal structure. Thermal expansion—Capacity of a material to
expand when it’s heated.
Doubling—The appearance of double images of a
gemstone’s facet junctions on the side opposite the Trace elements—Atoms in a gem that aren’t part of
viewer. its essential chemical composition.
Doubly refractive (anisotropic)—Possessing different Twinned crystal—Crystal consisting of two or more

physical or optical properties in different crystal intergrown crystals with opposing crystal directions.
directions.
Unit cell—Smallest group of atoms with the charac-
Glassie—A well-shaped, transparent, octahedral teristic chemical composition and the basic crystal
diamond crystal with sharp, square edges. structure of a mineral.
34
Diamonds and Light 8
An Introduction to Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Transmission and Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Critical Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Light and a Diamond’s Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Brightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Scintillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Cut-Grading the Round Brilliant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Visual Evaluation of Face-Up Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
35
• Understand the basic science of light behavior.

• Explain how light interacts with a diamond’s unique structure.
• Define and describe a diamond’s properties of brightness, fire, and scintillation.
• Understand the basic assessments involved in the GIA diamond cut grade.
36
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
Diamond has a special relationship with light that’s apparent only after the gem is fashioned by a skilled cutter.
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

A polished diamond’s beauty lies in its complex relationship with the light
around it. When diamonds and light interact, the result can dazzle the eye.
The main elements of the relationship between diamonds and light are
how the light strikes the surface, how much of it enters the diamond, and
how and in what form the light returns to your eye. Each element depends
on diamond’s optical properties as well as on the quality of its cut.
Cutters understand that a diamond’s primary optical display happens in
and around the crown. This means that diamonds are meant to be seen
Eric Welch/GIA
face-up. Motion also helps to show off a fashioned diamond’s beauty. By

Diamond professionals use motion to
rocking and tilting a diamond, you can create constantly changing view-
assess a diamond’s beauty and market-
ing angles. Diamond professionals use this to assess a diamond’s beauty

ability. Rocking and tilting the diamond
changes lighting and viewing angles.
and marketability.
A fashioned diamond is a three-dimensional object. When light enters,
it follows complex paths within the diamond. GIA researchers have stud- A fashioned diamond’s optical display
ied and mapped the intimate relationship between light and a diamond’s is meant to be seen face-up and in
interior. Their research led to an understanding of how different facet motion.
37
scintillation
brightness
fire
Eric Welch/GIA
Diamond’s special relationship with light

gives it white light reflections called
brightness, flashes of color called fire,
and a combination of contrasting light
and dark areas called scintillation.
Peter Johnston/GIA
When light enters a diamond, it follows complex pathways as it bounces off the
diamond’s interior surfaces.
Brightness—The effect of all the sizes, arrangements, and angles can improve or diminish a gem’s optical
diamond’s internal and external performance. This understanding led to the development of the state-of-
reflections of white light. the-art GIA Diamond Cut-grading System.
A beautiful diamond looks the way it does because of three optical
effects: brightness, fire, and scintillation.
Fire—The flashes of color you see
Brightness—called brilliance by many in the trade—is the combined

in a polished diamond.
Scintillation—The flashes of light effect of all the diamond’s surface and internal white light reflections. Fire
and the contrasting dark areas is the display of spectral colors created by the interaction of white light
you see when the diamond, the with a diamond’s facets. Scintillation consists of the flashes of light and
light, or the observer moves. the contrasting dark areas you see when a faceted diamond, the light
source, or the observer moves. Together, these factors give the diamond
life and determine its visual appeal.
Proportions—The angles and
When diamond rough is unearthed, its brightness, fire, and scintillation

relative measurements of a
are still locked inside. As you learned in Assignment 6, it takes a lot of

polished gem and the relationships
processing to separate diamonds from their surrounding host rock. Even

between them.
after separation, some diamond crystals might have thick, dark coatings—
layers of lower transparency that must be polished away before cutting
can begin.
Ke y C o n c e p t s A skilled cutter knows how to make the right choices to unlock the
potential in a rough diamond. The proportions of a polished diamond—
its angles and relative measurements and the relationships between
A skilled cutter’s faceting and pro-
them—have a dramatic effect on how light performs when it strikes that
portion choices unlock a diamond’s
unique optical potential. diamond. The cutter’s choice of faceting style and proportions converts
diamond rough into a beautiful, dazzling gem.
38
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
Georges Gobet/AFP
Diamond crystals are rarely beautiful in

their rough form. They often don’t look
much different from the other minerals
in a miner’s basket.
Christie’s Images Inc. Eric Welch/GIA
Skilled cutting releases a diamond’s brightness, fire, and scintillation. These three The cutter unleashes a diamond’s opti-
properties are essential to its ability to dazzle the eye. cal potential by transforming a rough
crystal into a glittering gem.
You’ve already been introduced to the crystal structure of diamond.

This assignment will help you understand how light interacts with that
structure and the cutter’s skills to bring out a diamond’s matchless
beauty.
39
Facet Arrangement of a Standard Round Brilliant
Table Number of Facets

Table 1
Bezel facet
Bezel 8
Star facet Star 8
Upper Half 16
Upper half facet
Pavilion Main 8
Crown
Lower Half 16
Girdle Culet 0 or 1
Total 57 or 58
Culet
Pavilion
Lower half facet
Pavilion main facet
Peter Johnston/GIA
Crown—Top part of a faceted gem, above the girdle.

Table facet—Facet at the top of the crown; usually the largest facet on
the stone.
Upper half facets—Facets that extend from the girdle edge toward the table.
Bezel facets—Kite- or diamond-shaped facets between the table and the
girdle.
Star facets—Facets that extend from the table edge toward the girdle.
Girdle—Narrow section that forms the boundary between a stone’s crown
and pavilion.
Lower half facets—Facets that extend from the girdle edge toward the
culet.
Pavilion—Lower part of a faceted gem, below the girdle.
Pavilion main facets—Kite- or diamond-shaped facets between the girdle
and the culet.
Culet—Small facet at the bottom of the diamond, where the pavilion mains
meet. Its purpose is to protect loose diamonds against abrasion and chipping.
40
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
Wavelength—The distance
AN INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT
What are the basic principles of light and its behavior?
between two adjacent high points
■ of an energy wave.
■ What happens to light when it strikes a diamond?
Diamonds and light interact in many ways. To understand their interac-

tion, you need to know a few things about light itself. First of all, visible
light is a form of radiant energy, or radiation. It’s a combination of electric
and magnetic (electromagnetic) energies, and it travels in waves. All elec-
tromagnetic energy, including light, is measured in wavelengths. A wave-
length is the distance between one high point and the next along the path
that an energy wave follows.
Light travels from its source to an object in a straight line, and then
bounces off the object to the viewer’s eye. If the object is transparent,
some of the light might also pass through it. Sometimes, the object and
the source are the same—the sun, a glowing coal, or a light bulb—and the
light goes directly from the source to your eye.
You can’t see a beam of light unless it meets your eye or falls on an
object. And you can see an object only if it scatters or reflects light. That’s
why a very clean window is almost invisible: The light passes through it
without being reflected or scattered.
Visible light is a small portion of the entire range of radiant energy,
which is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Besides visible light, the
electromagnetic spectrum also includes rays with very short wavelengths,
like gamma rays and X-rays, and very long ones, like radio waves.
Wavelengths in the visible spectrum are measured in nanometers, abbrevi-
ated nm. A nanometer is tiny: One nm equals a millionth of a millimeter.
Light is a form of radiant energy that
travels in waves.
wavelength
light source observer Visible light is a small portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum.
direction of travel
Peter Johnston/GIA
Light travels in waves along a straight line. A wavelength is the distance from one
high point in the wave to the next high point.
41
visible light
White light is a combination of all
the spectral colors.
infrared ultraviolet
740 610 570 500 450 357

590
wavelength (nm)
low energy high energy
Peter Johnston/GIA
Visible light, which consists of all the colors of the rainbow, is just a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The numbers mark the boundaries of the spectral colors.
In the electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet (UV) radiation falls just

below visible light. Shortwave UV includes wavelengths from about 200
nm to 280 nm, and longwave UV falls between about 315 nm and 400 nm.
The visible spectrum begins at about 400 nm and extends to approximate-
ly 700 nm.
Your eye sees the combined rays from the visible spectrum as white
light, but that white light is really a combination of the spectral colors red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.
Valerie Power/GIA
TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION
When light strikes any transparent material, including diamond, some of
The light reflecting from the car’s window
it is transmitted, which means it enters the material. The rest bounces off.
shows an image of a neighboring car,
That’s called reflection.

while transmitted light lets you see the
interior.
You experience transmission and reflection when you pass a store

window. You can see the displays inside because the window glass transmits
much of the light. The transmitted light strikes the merchandise inside the
window and comes back through the glass, making the display visible to
you. At the same time, some of the light reflects off the window’s surface
on the outside, so you can see yourself in the glass.
Transmission—The passage of
light into or through a material.
How much light enters a diamond and how much reflects from its surface
depends on a number of factors. First, it depends on the angle at which the
Reflection—The bouncing back of
light strikes the diamond’s surface. At right angles—perpendicular—to the
light when it strikes a surface.
surface, there’s maximum transmission of light. If light strikes nearly parallel
to the diamond’s surface, there’s maximum reflection.
Angle of incidence—The angle at
The angle at which light hits a diamond’s surface is called the angle of
which a ray of light strikes a sur-
face, measured from the normal.
incidence, and the angle at which the light bounces off is known as the
42
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
Angle of reflection—The angle

between the normal and a
angle of reflected ray of light.
incidence
Normal—An imaginary line per-
angle of pendicular to the point where a
reflection ray of light strikes the surface.
= normal
When a light ray strikes the inner or outer surface of a diamond, the angle at
which it strikes is measured from the normal. The closer the light’s direction is to
the normal, the more of it travels into the diamond, and the less of it reflects off the
diamond’s surface.
The angle of incidence always equals
the angle of reflection.
Both by Peter Johnston/GIA
Racquetball and table tennis players know that the ball will bounce back from a
surface at the same angle at which it hit. The same applies to light bouncing off a
diamond’s interior and exterior surfaces.
angle of reflection. Both are measured from the normal, an imaginary line
at a 90-degree angle to the point where the light strikes the surface. The
angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection. This is true whether
the light rays are reflecting off the outside or the inside of the diamond.
The game of racquetball utilizes this principle. Experienced players
know that the ball will hit the wall and bounce back at the same angle. So
a ball coming from the right will strike the front wall at a specific angle
(incidence) and bounce toward the left wall at an angle (reflection) equal
to the first one. A light ray bouncing around inside a diamond is like a ball
bouncing off the walls of a racquetball court.
43
Bettman/Corbis
When you try to cross a crowded city square, the crowd slows your progress. The crowded conditions also keep you from
following the most direct path. You’re like a ray of light encountering diamond’s densely packed atoms.
Light’s performance is affected in another way as it passes from air to

diamond or from diamond to air. As you learned in Assignment 7, diamond’s
atoms—unlike the atoms of other transparent gem materials—
A material’s optical density affects
are very tightly packed. This gives diamond its high optical density. The
the speed of the light that passes
through it. higher the optical density of a material, the more it slows light down. Light
that enters a diamond meets the resistance of its closely packed carbon
atoms and slows down. When the light leaves the diamond, it speeds up
again because of air’s lower optical density.
Here’s an illustration of the relationship between optical density and
light speed: Imagine that you have to walk across a town plaza. If there
are only a few people in the plaza, you can walk straight across without
slowing down much, if at all. Now imagine that the plaza is packed with
people, almost shoulder to shoulder. It would take you a lot longer to cross
the plaza because you’d keep bumping into people as you worked your
way through the crowd. The people in the crowd are just like the closely
packed atoms in a diamond, and you’re like the light, slowing down as
you move through them.
44
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
The Speed of Light
diamond: 77,000
miles per second
air: 186,000 miles per second
air: 186,000 miles per second
Peter Johnston/GIA
Diamond causes light to change direction and slow considerably as it passes

through. Once it crosses back into the air, it speeds up again.
The speed of light isn’t always the same: It depends on the substance
that it’s traveling through. Because the carbon atoms in diamond’s
crystal structure are so tightly bonded, they slow incoming light
dramatically. Other minerals, like quartz, corundum, and topaz, don’t
slow light as much as diamond because their atoms are of different
elements and aren’t as tightly packed.
In the near vacuum of interstellar space—with almost no interfer-
ence—light speed is about 186,000 miles (almost 300,000 kilometers)
per second. It slows down a little as it enters the earth’s atmosphere.
In water, light slows to about 140,000 miles (225,000 km) per second.
In glass, it slows to about 123,000 miles (197,000 km) per second. But
diamond really puts on the brakes! In a diamond, light slows to about
77,000 miles (124,000 km) per second—less than half its speed in
space. When light leaves a diamond and goes back into the air, it imme-
diately resumes its original speed.
45
Refraction—Change in speed
and possible change in direction
of light as it travels from one
material to another.
Refractive index (RI)—A measure

of the change in the speed and
angle of light as it passes from
one material to another.
Valerie Power/GIA
Refraction makes the straw appear to bend at the place where it enters the water.
It’s actually the light that’s bending.
REFRACTION
When light strikes a diamond perpendicular to the diamond’s surface, the
light slows down and goes straight into the diamond without changing
direction. When light strikes the diamond’s surface at an angle other than
perpendicular, it slows down and also changes direction. This change in
speed and possible change in direction is called refraction.
The change of direction occurs because, when a light ray strikes at an
angle, one side of the ray contacts the denser material first and slows down
before the other side of the ray. This causes the ray to bend as it enters the
material. The direction of the bending, which is measured from the normal,
depends on whether the light is passing into a denser material or a less dense
material. When light travels from the air into a diamond, it bends toward the
normal. When light leaves a diamond, it bends away from the normal
because it’s traveling into a less dense medium—air.
The amount of bending depends on the difference in optical density
between the materials. It’s described by a ratio known as refractive index
(RI). Instruments that measure RI—including the standard gemological
refractometer—generally measure the angle of each ray as it bends from
the normal.
The greater the difference in optical density between two materials, the
more the light bends. Diamond’s RI is 2.417, one of the highest among
natural transparent gem materials. Synthetic cubic zirconia (CZ), a common
diamond simulant, usually has an RI near 2.150. Synthetic moissanite,
another simulant, is more refractive than diamond: Its RI is about 2.670.
46
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
CRITICAL ANGLE Ke y C o n c e p t s
Each facet of a diamond provides a point of contact—or interface— Light rays that enter at the
between the diamond and the surrounding air. Light rays that arrive maximum angle of refraction form
perpendicular to a facet slow down and pass into the diamond without
bending. Rays arriving at angles other than 90 degrees slow and bend
a critical angle cone inside the
toward the normal when they enter the diamond. Rays that arrive almost
diamond.
parallel to the surface bend the most. They have the largest possible angle
of refraction.
Rays exiting a diamond—in any direction other than perpendicular to
a facet—cross the interface and are bent away from the normal at an angle
greater than their angle of incidence. The critical angle is the largest angle
at which light rays inside the diamond can escape. It’s the angle between
the normal and the maximum angle of refraction. The light rays that strike
the inner surface at the critical angle exit almost parallel to the diamond’s
surface. Critical angle—Angle between
All the light rays that strike a specific point on a facet’s inner or outer
the normal and the maximum
surface form a three-dimensional cone around the normal. The cone that’s
angle of refraction, which is the
formed by the light rays that strike an inner surface at the maximum angle
largest angle at which rays inside
of refraction is called the critical angle cone. The cone’s side-to-side

the diamond can escape.
measurement is twice the critical angle.
normal
critical
angle cone
These three light rays show what happens to light that’s

critical angle returning to the crown from the pavilion (left to right). If it
strikes within the critical angle, it exits the diamond to the
viewer’s eye. If it strikes at an angle close to the edge of the
critical angle, it exits almost parallel to the surface. If it strikes
outside the critical angle, it’s completely reflected back into
the diamond.
Light can exit a diamond only when it strikes inside the critical
angle. Ideally, a light ray should enter the crown, strike the
pavilion outside the critical angle, and reflect to the opposite
side. Once more, it should strike outside the critical angle and
return to the inner surface of the crown, where it strikes within
the critical angle and exits.
47
Peter Johnston/GIA
In a poorly proportioned diamond, most of the light strikes the pavilion within a critical
angle cone and exits the diamond without returning to the crown. This make the
diamond look dark.
If the pavilion is too deep (left) or too shallow (center), it allows light to strike the
interface inside the critical angle and exit. A properly proportioned pavilion (right)
controls the way light travels through a diamond and forces it to exit through the
crown, giving the diamond maximum brightness.
correctly proportioned too shallow too deep
Peter Johnston/GIA
In a well-proportioned diamond, a high percentage of the light rays reflect back to

the eye as brightness. If the gem is too shallow or too deep, a high percentage of
the light rays exit through the pavilion without contributing to brightness.
48
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
The higher a gem’s RI, the smaller
its critical angle.
Nicholas DelRe/GIA
When light exits through the pavilion of a diamond rather than through the crown, it
results in dark areas like these.
Light inside the diamond can exit only when it strikes within a critical
angle cone at an angle that’s less than or equal to the critical angle. When
the light strikes outside the critical angle cone, it reflects back into the
diamond. This is called total reflection.
The more a material bends light—the higher its RI—the smaller
its critical angle. Diamond’s high RI means it has a small critical angle—
24.5 degrees. The small critical angle is one reason why well-cut
diamonds can be so bright. A small critical angle gives light less oppor-
tunity to exit.
In a well-proportioned pavilion, light strikes repeatedly outside multiple
critical angles. This causes the light to reflect inside the diamond several
times before it strikes an interface within the critical angle and is finally able
to exit. These multiple reflections contribute to the diamond’s overall
brightness, fire, and scintillation.
If the pavilion is too deep or too shallow, it can force the light to strike
Peter Johnston/GIA
the interface inside the critical angle. When that happens, the light leaves
Most colored stones have lower RIs
than diamond, which means they have
through the pavilion, reducing the diamond’s optical performance. Even
larger critical angles. Their pavilions
if it reflects properly from the first pavilion interface, it might strike a

have to be deeper to compensate for
second pavilion interface within the critical angle and exit there.
this and achieve maximum brightness.
Most gems have much larger critical angles than diamond. The differ-
ences in gems’ critical angles are important to cutters because they require
variations in pavilion angles. Gems like quartz and beryl have lower RIs
and larger critical angles than diamond, so their pavilions have to be much
deeper to reflect the light back through their crowns instead of allowing it
to exit through the pavilions.
49
Diamonds and Grease

You might be wondering how the
principles of light return apply
to the everyday operation of a
diamond business. Well, RI isn’t
just a number. It also provides a
really good reason to keep dia-
monds clean.
Diamond has a remarkable
affinity for grease and oily sub-
stances. That means that grease
and diamonds stick to each other.
As you learned in Assignment 6,
miners took advantage of this
affinity by using a grease belt to
separate rough diamonds from
Peter Johnston/GIA
other minerals. They covered the

A layer of grease or oil on the pavilion
surface of the belt with a mixture

of a diamond reduces its optical
performance by increasing its critical
of wax and grease. When the
angle. This causes more light to
crushed ore mixture washed over

escape through the pavilion.
the grease belt, the waste materials washed away and the diamonds
stuck to the greasy surface.
The same property that made the grease belt possible is a disadvantage
when a diamond becomes part of a piece of jewelry. When it’s handled
or worn, it gradually accumulates a layer of skin oil and other greases,
losing its direct contact with the air. This changes the diamond-to-air
interface to a diamond-to-grease interface.
While the RI of air is 1.0, the RI of the grease layer is around 1.50.
In any area where a material with an RI between the values for air and
diamond contacts the gem with no air pocket in between, the diamond’s
critical angle increases.
A clean diamond’s critical angle is 24.5 degrees. Where grease
contacts a diamond’s surface, the critical angle increases to about 38
degrees—about 55 percent larger. This results in the loss of a lot of
the light that would have reflected from a clean pavilion. Instead of
going back out through the crown, it falls inside the wider critical
angle cone and leaks out through the pavilion. This diminishes the
Both by Maha Tannous/GIA
diamond’s overall brightness, even if it’s well cut.

Diamonds attract grease, and the grease
There’s an important lesson in these facts: Keep the diamonds you

layer interferes with light performance
(top). When a diamond is cleaned, its
brightness and luster return (bottom).
carry or display as clean as possible. Always handle them with tweezers
and rub them with a cleaning cloth before and after you present them to
your clients.
50
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
Peter Johnston/GIA
When white light passes through a prism, it’s broken up into its spectral colors
(above). This is called dispersion, and it causes fire (right), one of diamond’s most
important optical properties.
DISPERSION
As you learned earlier, white light is a combination of all the spectral
colors, each with its own energy and wavelength. When it strikes a material
that’s denser than air—like a glass prism—at an angle, the light slows,
bends, and separates into its component colors.
When mineralogists and gemologists determine RI, they use a specific
wavelength in the yellow portion of the visible spectrum as the standard
for measurement. They call this narrow yellow spectral portion, or band,
“sodium light.” Sodium light’s value falls within the visible spectrum at
589 nm. Scientists use the RI that corresponds to sodium light—2.417—
to define diamond’s RI.
In reality, the RI of most solid transparent materials, including diamond,
is different for different wavelengths of light. Light at both ends of the
Eric Welch/GIA
visible spectrum—the violet and red wavelengths—have different RIs.

Most diamond simulants are much more
The value for violet is 431 nm and the value for red is 687 nm. Their
dispersive than diamond.
differing values cause them to refract to different degrees within diamond. Dispersion—An optical property
This is what causes light to separate into a spectrum or rainbow when it that’s the difference between the
passes through a prism. RI values of specific violet and red
Diamond slows and bends some wavelengths of light more than others.
wavelengths of visible light for a
In diamond, violet and blue wavelengths slow and bend the most, while
given material.
red wavelengths slow and bend the least. Gemologists use the difference
in RI between the violet ray (2.451 RI) and the red ray (2.407 RI) to
mathematically define diamond’s dispersion as 0.044.
Diamond’s dispersion is among the highest of any natural transparent

White light breaks up into its
gem material, but there are some simulants that are more dispersive than
component colors when it passes at
diamond. CZ’s dispersion, for example, is 0.060, and synthetic moissanite’s
an angle into a denser material.
dispersion is 0.104. When you’re separating diamond from these simulants,
their higher dispersion provides an important visual clue: Their rainbow Each spectral color has its own RI
colors are more prominent than diamond’s. and angle of refraction.
51
Luster—The appearance of a
LIGHT AND A DIAMOND’S APPEARANCE
material’s surface in reflected
light. ■ Which proportions contribute the most to a diamond’s
brightness?
Adamantine luster—The highest ■ What factors influence the amount of fire a diamond displays?
degree of luster possible in a
transparent material. ■ What are the two components of scintillation?
A skillfully cut diamond’s proportions maximize its interaction with light.

Well-cut diamonds are brighter and more beautiful than poorly fashioned
ones, even if they’re of equivalent size, color, and clarity. When light
interacts with a fashioned diamond, the quality of its cut shows in its
brightness, fire, and scintillation.
BRIGHTNESS
As you learned earlier, cutters design most fashioned diamonds so a light
ray that enters through the crown strikes a pavilion facet outside the critical
angle, reflects to the opposite pavilion facet—again outside the critical
angle—and eventually reflects back toward the diamond’s crown. Many
light rays finally strike the crown facets within critical angles and exit
the gem to the viewer’s eyes, contributing to the diamond’s display of
brightness.
Diamond’s brightness is possible because of its extremely high luster—
the appearance of its surface in reflected light. The higher a gem’s RI,
the more light its surface reflects. Surface quality is also important. A
smooth, even surface produces a clear reflection. If the surface texture is
uneven, as on a piece of frosted glass or the unpolished girdle of a diamond,
the surface irregularities catch the light at many different angles and
reflect it in a lot of different directions. This produces fuzzy or diffuse
reflections.
As you’ve learned, diamond has an exceptionally high RI. And its
superior hardness allows it to take and hold a superior polish. These features
combine to give a finished diamond a distinctive luster described as
adamantine, which literally means “diamond-like.”
Excellent Good Poor

All by Eric Welch/GIA
A diamond’s level of brightness can limit its highest possible cut grade. These diamonds (left to right) have high brightness,
moderate brightness, and low brightness.
52
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
Eric Welch/GIA
Diamond’s hardness allows it to take a high polish, so it has the highest luster of all
transparent gemstones (left). Others, like turquoise (right), have lower luster than
diamond.
The polished surfaces of many other familiar gemstones lack the shine Ke y C o n c e p t s
of a diamond. Their luster is vitreous, which means “glass-like.” When
light strikes a well-polished diamond’s surface at a 90-degree angle, 17
All diamonds have the same
percent of that light is reflected and 83 percent enters the gem. Glass
dispersion value, but differences in
reflects only four percent of the light that strikes it at the same angle.
diamond cut bring out differing
Some gems, like well-polished garnets and zircons, have a luster
amounts of fire.
somewhat brighter than vitreous but still not equal to diamond. They’re
classified as subadamantine. The brightest luster, which occurs on fresh,
highly polished metal surfaces—or a gem like hematite—is labeled
metallic. At the other extreme, surfaces like those on unglazed pottery
have dull luster.
FIRE
Not all gems separate light enough for dispersion to be visible, but
diamonds do. Diamond professionals use the term “fire” to describe a
diamond’s display of dispersion. Fire is defined as the rainbow colors you
see when you move a well-proportioned diamond under the correct lighting.
Fire results from the arrangement of a diamond’s facets and the angles
between them. So, although every diamond has the same dispersion value,
not every diamond shows the same amount of fire. Four factors of the
interaction between diamonds and light contribute to the fire you see in
the face-up view of a diamond.
53
Diamonds have a special ability to break light up into its spectral colors, causing the
fire you see in these beautiful gems. Slight variations in their proportions cause
them to show differing amounts of fire.
First is the angle at which light enters the diamond. As soon as white
light enters a diamond, the spectral colors begin to spread and separate.
The greater the angle, the greater the refraction. If the angle of incidence
is one degree, for example, the difference between the angles of refraction
for violet and red is very small—less than one one-hundredth of a
degree—and you won’t see much fire. At the maximum interior angle of
incidence—24.5 degrees—the spread is closer to half a degree, and the
fire is a little more visible.
Second is the number of times a light ray interacts with the diamond’s
internal facets. Dispersion increases every time light reflects or refracts,
which happens many times within a well-cut diamond. The farther the
dispersed rays travel in a diamond, the greater the difference between
them, and the more visible the spectral colors become.
Facet junctions also influence fire. As a ray of light enters a diamond,
especially at a shallow angle, it begins to separate into its spectral colors. If
Peter Johnston/GIA
the colored wavelengths happen to strike on opposite sides of a facet junc-

The angle of incidence affects the way
light separates into its spectral colors.
tion, the colors can divide and take completely different paths as they travel
When a light ray strikes exactly perpen-
through the diamond. Each new set of spectral colors contributes to the dia-
dicular to a facet surface, it travels into
mond’s fire. The more times this happens, the more fire a diamond displays.
the gem without separating (left). At
greater angles, the spread of spectral
Finally, there’s the angle of the light rays as they exit the diamond.
colors widens (center and right).
Basically, the smaller the exit angle, the larger the angle of refraction.
This means that the colored bands will spread farther apart, creating the
appearance of greater fire. Some cuts are designed with increased numbers
of crown facets to take advantage of this effect.
54
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
AIR
facet DIAMOND
junction
white light
enters here
When a ray of white light enters a diamond, it begins to When white light enters a diamond at a shallow angle, it
separate into its spectral colors. The farther the dispersed begins to disperse immediately. If it strikes across a facet
rays travel within the diamond, the wider their spread. junction, it bounces off in more than one direction. This can
increase the amount of fire displayed by a diamond.
Lighting can affect a diamond’s display of fire. Fluorescent lighting (left) suppresses fire, while incandescent lighting (center)
emphasizes it. When the lighting is mixed (right), there’s more balance between brightness and fire.
Lighting can also affect fire. Diffuse lighting—such as that produced

by fluorescent lights—bounces off the surrounding walls and furnishings
so the light that strikes the diamond comes from all angles. This type of
lighting emphasizes a diamond’s brightness but suppresses its fire.
Directional lighting—also called spotlighting or point source lighting—
strikes a diamond only from certain angles. This type of bright illumination
contrasts with the surrounding dark areas to bring out the fire in a diamond.
A mix of fluorescent and incandescent lighting creates a balance between
brightness and fire.
55
Both by Eric Welch/GIA
Many jewelry retailers use directional spotlighting to bring out the fire in the store’s
diamond displays (top). Colored lighting and other background colors can produce
a false appearance of fire (bottom).
You can see fire only if the dispersed light waves travel separately to
your eye. This might not always happen because, just as white light spreads
out into colors as it enters the diamond, colored light can recombine into
white light as it exits. Because diamonds are best appreciated face-up,
cutters direct the greatest display of fire through the gem’s crown. That’s
why the best way to see how much fire a diamond has is to rock and tilt
it and change its orientation.
Sometimes background colors—like clothing or objects of contrasting
color surrounding a diamond—can produce the appearance of fire.
56
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
SCINTILLATION
Scintillation has two components: sparkle and pattern. Sparkle appears as 2
flashing spots of light. In an attractive diamond, they’re evenly distributed
1
and balanced in size. Pattern is the relative size, arrangement, and contrast
of the bright and dark areas, as seen in the face-up position. 3
The bright areas result from surface and internal reflections. The dark
areas might represent a loss of light through the diamond, or reflections
from the diamond—both of which direct light away from the viewer’s
eye—or they might be reflections of dark objects around the diamond.
They might also be a combination of two or three of these factors.
A diamond’s face-up pattern reveals almost every choice the cutter
2
made to fashion the gem. A steep crown or deep pavilion, for example,
1
probably makes a diamond darker than it would be if it had a crown or

pavilion of more standard dimensions. An off-center culet causes a
3
diamond’s pattern to be off-center.

There must be enough contrast between the bright and dark areas to
give the pattern a crisp, sharp look. A diamond that lacks contrast can look
dull and gray.
Unattractive diamonds tend to have obvious or prominent dark areas

Motion under incandescent light caused
that detract from their face-up appearance. They might also have combi-
changes in this diamond’s pattern of
light and dark. The small but distinct
nations of patterns that give them an overly dark appearance. If a diamond’s
changes are most obvious in the
patterns are excessively dark, it’s probably because the cutter took steps
numbered areas.
to retain more weight from the rough. These steps often lead to light
leakage from the diamond, which diminishes its optical performance.
The diamond pattern called a fisheye is a pale gray reflection of the
girdle just inside the diamond’s table facet. Another diamond pattern is the
Pattern—The relative size,
dark center—a dark area in the center of the table. Stones with this pattern
arrangement, and contrast of
bright and dark areas that result
are sometimes referred to as “nailheads.” The pattern known as dark from a diamond’s internal and
radiating mains is a dark spoke-like pattern of radiating pavilion mains. external reflections.
A polished diamond’s interaction with light is very complex. Not all
diamonds with high brightness and fire have attractive patterns. Some
patterns detract from a diamond’s appearance more than others. Fisheyes
and dark centers are very detrimental to a diamond’s appearance. Dark
radiating mains aren’t too distracting unless the dark mains extend beyond
the table facet, cause the center of the gem around the culet to appear dark
from the face-up view, or both.
A diamond’s face-up pattern reveals
almost all of the cutter’s fashioning
choices.
All by Al Gilbertson & Barak Green
Diamond patterns that contribute to scintillation include the fisheye (left), dark
center (center), and dark radiating mains (right).
57
The Evolution of the GIA Cut Grade

The relationship between a dia-
mond’s cut and its appearance is
complex. To develop the cut grade
for standard round brilliant
diamonds, GIA researchers con-
sidered the same question that
diamond cutters have pondered
for decades: What effect do vari-
ations in a diamond’s proportions
have on its appearance?
GIA researchers developed
a computer-modeled “virtual”
diamond for initial study. It was
a digital model of a standard 58-
facet round brilliant with a fully
faceted girdle. The model was
completely colorless and flawless,
with perfect symmetry and polish.
After using this computer model to arrive at preliminary values for
Al Gilbertson/GIA
GIA researchers studied computerized

brightness, fire, and scintillation, researchers turned to real diamonds
to confirm and refine their findings.
diamond models as well as real diamonds
A combination of scientific research and real-life observation

to arrive at specific criteria for the GIA
cut grades. The grades apply to standard
led GIA researchers to conclude that while every facet matters, a
round brilliants.
diamond’s appearance arises from the combined effect of all its

proportions. Based on this conclusion, they introduced a cut-grading
system for the round brilliant diamond.
Rather than considering individual proportions in isolation, the
system considers how those proportions relate to each other.
For example, if one proportion is more extreme than the others, an
otherwise well-cut diamond might get a lower cut grade.
The system also recognizes another research finding—that no
one set of angles or proportions is the only way to make a beautiful
diamond. In fact, there are many possible combinations. Each cut
grade allows for a variety of appearances, so two diamonds with the
same grade won’t necessarily have the same appearance.
The GIA cut-grading system considers both global and individual
preferences. Some consumers prefer bright diamonds, while others
prefer more fire. Some like to see particular symmetrical patterns in
a diamond’s face-up appearance. But the system also represents a
consensus: Not many people like diamonds in the lower cut grades,
while almost everyone likes diamonds in the two top grades.
58
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
CUT-GRADING THE ROUND BRILLIANT

■ What are the cut grades in the GIA system?
■ Why is proper lighting important to diamond cut grading?
Each facet in a well-cut diamond contributes its share of optical magic. They
work together like a tiny set of mirrors to interact with light and create the
gem’s face-up appearance. Contributing to that interaction are the diamond’s
basic proportions and the precision of its facets. Every angle and every facet
affects the amount of light returned or lost.
GIA has developed a cut-grading system for standard round brilliant
diamonds in all clarities across the D-to-Z color range. The system
assigns one of five cut grades: Excellent (Ex), Very Good (VG), Good
(G), Fair (F), and Poor (P).
Excellent Very Good There are five GIA cut grades for
standard round brilliant diamonds.
GIA diamond cut grades apply to
standard round brilliants in all clari-
ties across the D-to-Z color range.
Good Fair
These diamonds are examples of each

of the GIA cut grades.
Poor
59
Variations in lighting and surroundings
can affect a diamond’s appearance.
Diffused fluorescent lighting helps

you evaluate a diamond's brightness
and pattern, while spotlighting helps
you evaluate its fire.
Christie’s Images Inc.
The best-quality diamonds are always well cut. They’re extremely beautiful because
the cutters plan their angles for maximum light return.
VISUAL EVALUATION OF FACE-UP APPEARANCE
You can estimate a diamond’s cut grade by visually evaluating its bright-
ness, pattern, and fire. An important first step is to make sure the lighting
environment allows for consistent and repeatable results.
Diamonds interact with light so completely that the same diamond can
look quite different when it’s viewed under different types of lighting
in different positions. Diamonds also reflect everything around them, even
nearby furniture and a grader’s head and clothing. That’s why a standardized
viewing environment and neutral background are essential for consistent
Eric Welch/GIA grading results.
The GIA DiamondDock™ provides a
Diffused fluorescent lighting from an overhead or desk lamp can help
you evaluate a diamond’s brightness and pattern, but the same light
neutral background and consistent
suppresses its fire. Spotlighting emphasizes a diamond’s fire, but if it’s too
lighting for diamond cut grading.
strong it can overwhelm everything else and make the gem appear dark.
The GIA DiamondDock™ is designed to provide consistent and
repeatable viewing conditions for every diamond a grader assesses. It
features daylight-equivalent diffused fluorescent light for judging
brightness and face-up pattern and an array of light emitting diodes (LEDs)
for judging fire.
60
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
After cleaning the diamond, the grader places it face-up in a grading Symmetry—The exactness of a
tray that’s then placed into the DiamondDock™ or other lighting finished gem’s shape and the
environment. placement of its facets.
The grader turns on the fluorescent light first to assess the diamond’s Polish—The overall condition of
brightness and pattern. Depending on how “lively” the stone looks, it gets the facet surfaces of a finished
a brightness rating of Excellent to Poor. The grader then assesses the diamond.
amount of contrast and the balance between the bright and dark areas to
assign a pattern grade of Excellent to Poor.
Next, switching to spotlighting, the grader evaluates the diamond’s
fire. Based on the flashes of fire that are visible, the diamond’s fire can be
rated Excellent to Poor.
The initial cut grade estimate is based on the lowest rating assigned for
brightness, fire, or pattern. For example, if a diamond’s brightness and fire
rate Very Good but its pattern rates Good, the cut grade estimate that
results from this visual assessment is Good.
After the visual assessment of face-up appearance, the next steps
involve a detailed evaluation of the diamond's proportions. Finally, to
arrive at an overall cut grade, the grader assesses the exactness of the
diamond’s shape and facet placement, called symmetry, and the overall
condition of its facet surfaces, called polish. You’ll learn about these steps
in the cut-grading process in Assignments 14 and 15.
To check for brightness, the grader turns on the fluorescent light (top left) and
places the diamond in the neutral gray tray (bottom left). The grader then tilts the
tray to examine the diamond at different angles (right).
61
Eric Welch/GIA
Denise Conrad/GIA Denise Conrad/GIA
The grader switches from fluorescent Although the DiamondDock™ is the best cut-grading option, you can assess a
light to LED spotlighting (top) and diamond’s fire using a penlight or small flashlight. A microscope’s overhead
places the diamond in the tray, then tilts fluorescent light is also an acceptable alternative for grading brightness and pattern.
it in different directions to observe the
diamond’s display of fire (bottom).
Eric Welch/GIA
Careful, skilled cutting takes advantage of diamond’s crystal structure to make it the
exquisite and much-loved gem that it is.
Diamond’s crystal structure and optical properties make the final result
possible, but it’s skilled cutting that maximizes a diamond’s brightness, fire,
and scintillation. This special combination of nature’s creation and human
skill is what makes a fashioned diamond so unique. In the next assignment,
you’ll discover how cutters turn diamond rough into beautiful, glittering gems.
62
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
A fashioned diamond’s optical display is meant to be seen White light breaks up into its component colors when it
face-up and in motion. passes at an angle into a denser material.
A skilled cutter’s faceting and proportion choices unlock a Each spectral color has its own RI and angle of refraction.
diamond’s unique optical potential.
All diamonds have the same dispersion value, but differences
Light is a form of radiant energy that travels in waves. in diamond cut bring out differing amounts of fire.
Visible light is a small portion of the electromagnetic A diamond’s face-up pattern reveals almost all of the cutter’s
spectrum. fashioning choices.
White light is a combination of all the spectral colors. GIA diamond cut grades apply to standard round brilliants in
all clarities across the D-to-Z color range.
The angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection.
Variations in lighting and surroundings can affect a diamond’s
A material’s optical density affects the speed of the light appearance.
that passes through it.
Diffused fluorescent lighting helps you evaluate a diamond's
Light rays that enter at the maximum angle of refraction brightness and pattern, while spotlighting helps you evaluate
form a critical angle cone inside the diamond. its fire.
The higher a gem’s RI, the smaller its critical angle.
63
Key Terms
Adamantine luster—The highest degree of luster Polish—The overall condition of the facet surfaces of
possible in a transparent material. a finished diamond.
Angle of incidence—The angle at which a ray of light Proportions—The angles and relative measurements
strikes a surface, measured from the normal. of a polished gem and the relationships between
them.
Angle of reflection—The angle between the normal
and a reflected ray of light. Reflection—The bouncing back of light when it
strikes a surface.
Brightness—The effect of all the diamond’s internal
and external reflections of white light. Refraction—Change in speed and possible change in
direction of light as it travels from one material to
Critical angle—Angle between the normal and the another.
maximum angle of refraction, which is the largest
angle at which rays inside the diamond can escape. Refractive index (RI)—A measure of the change in
the speed and angle of light as it passes from one
Dispersion—An optical property that’s the difference material to another.
between the RI values of specific violet and red
wavelengths of visible light for a given material. Scintillation—The flashes of light and the contrasting
dark areas you see when the diamond, the light, or
Fire—The flashes of color you see in a polished the observer moves.
diamond.
Symmetry—The exactness of a finished gem’s shape
Luster—The appearance of a material’s surface in and the placement of its facets.
reflected light.
Transmission—The passage of light into or through a
Normal—An imaginary line perpendicular to the point material.
where a ray of light strikes the surface.
Wavelength—The distance between two adjacent
Pattern—The relative size, arrangement, and contrast high points of an energy wave.
of bright and dark areas that result from a diamond’s
internal and external reflections.
64
The Evolution of Diamond Cutting 9
The History of Diamond Cuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
The Point Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
The Table Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
The Rose Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Seventeenth-Century Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Early Brilliant Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
The Modern Brilliant Cut. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Contemporary Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Ideal Cuts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fancy Brilliant Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Cutting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
The Crucial Planning Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Establishing Crystal Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Considering Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Computer-Aided Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Cleaving and Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Laser Kerfing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Laser Sawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Bruting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Automated Bruting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Automated Polishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Keeping Up with the Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
65
• Explain the history and development of diamond cutting.

• Identify most historical and modern diamond cuts.
• Describe the many steps required to transform diamond rough into a finished gem.
• Explain how diamond cutters have incorporated modern technology.
66
THE EVOLUTION OF DIAMOND CUTTING
Contemporary jewelry features finished diamonds in a wide variety of shapes, sizes,

and colors.

As the story goes, a little girl was watching a sculptor chisel a block of
marble. Slowly, a figure took shape before her eyes. Suddenly, the surprised
girl asked, “How did you know there was a lion in there?”
Talented sculptors who know their tools and materials can create
magnificent images from cold stone. In the same way, diamond manu-
facturers can unleash a sparkling diamond from unfashioned rough.
Cut—the shape of a finished gem and the number and angles of its
facets—plays a big part in a diamond’s value. A rough diamond’s exterior
hides the finished stone’s potential power to reflect, bend, and break up
light. Its potential for fire and flash can only be reached by cutting and
polishing facets onto its surface.
Every diamond crystal is unique, and that’s why its rough shape is
crucial to the beauty and value of the finished gem. The nature of a
diamond’s crystal structure influences the decisions manufacturers
67
The manufacturer’s goal is to get the

most value from a piece of rough. This
involves carefully examining it before
making the first cut.
Lovely finished gems can emerge from almost any shape of diamond rough, thanks
to technical advances in all phases of the cutting process.
make—from where and how to divide rough to the potential weight, cut,
and clarity of the finished gem. These decisions affect a diamond’s
ultimate value.
A rough diamond’s shape and crystal
When cutters decide how to get the most value out of a rough diamond,
structure influence the number, size,
they consider not only its crystal structure, but also its outward shape. To
and value of the finished gems it
yields. retain the most weight, cutters follow the shape of the rough as closely as
possible. For example, a triangular piece of rough wastes the least amount
of material when cut into a triangular finished stone.
In this assignment, you’ll learn how diamond manufacturers analyze a
rough diamond and plan its transformation into a finished gem. You’ll
also learn about the revolution in diamond-manufacturing technology, and
how new developments help manufacturers create new diamond cuts for
today’s market.
68
Thousands of years ago, people left rough diamonds uncut, especially naturally
beautiful octahedrons like this one.
THE HISTORY OF DIAMOND CUTS

■ When and where did the first cut diamonds appear?
■ What were the earliest diamond cuts?
■ How did the brilliant cut develop?
■ What are some of the newer diamond cuts?
Thousands of years ago, people considered diamond rough too sacred to

cut or shape. They believed that tampering with it would destroy its super-
natural powers. Only rulers were allowed to wear this mysterious gift of
the earth—and only if they left its magic undisturbed.
Uncut diamonds appeared in Europe in the fourth century BC, when
Alexander the Great’s expeditions opened up limited trade between East
69
Early illustrations provide important clues to historical cutting styles. The upper part
of the engraving shows fifteenth-century jewelry craftsmen at work. The lower part
shows views of famous diamonds of the period: (left to right) the Great Mogul, the
Florentine or Tuscany diamond, and two brilliants owned by the king of France.
70
The first polished diamonds appeared
in Europe around 1380.
Nicholas DelRe/GIA
An early fashioning method involved using one diamond as a tool to engrave another.
The Arabic inscription on this historic 2.65-ct. flat diamond reads “Ya Allah,” an invo-
cation of God.
and West. At the time, India was the only known diamond-producing
country, and diamonds still ranked well below ruby and sapphire in
value.
Around the mid-1300s, European and Indian gem cutters began to cut
and shape rough diamond. By that time, caravans were transporting rough
from India to Venice, Italy—an established trade center. Methods for
reshaping and polishing rough traveled back and forth with the caravans.
The first polished diamonds appeared in Europe around 1380, but travel
between Europe and Asia was still extremely difficult, so most of India’s
diamond bounty remained in Asia.
In 1499, the explorer Vasco da Gama found a sea route around South
Africa’s Cape of Good Hope. This reduced travel time and difficulty and
increased the amount of quality diamond rough entering Europe from
India. Soon, the cities of Bruges, Antwerp, and Amsterdam joined Venice
as bustling diamond trade centers. These cities fed the growing appetite of
European royalty for polished diamonds.
Compared to modern brilliant cuts, ancient finished diamonds were
very plain. Actual examples of these diamond cuts are rare: A few old
Cutters in Europe and India began
shaping diamond rough in the four-
rings survive, but many of the diamonds from jewelry made in the Middle
teenth century. This 189.62-ct. diamond
Ages were later recut and reset into more contemporary styles. Like
is an example of an early fashioning
detectives, diamond experts rely on descriptions and images of jewelry in

style called the mogul cut. The diamond
in the Russian Imperial Scepter—named
old paintings, catalogs, and diaries to understand what the first cut
the Orloff—was a gift to Catherine the
diamonds looked like.

Great from Count Grigori Orloff in the
late 1700s.
71
THE POINT CUT

The point cut was the earliest diamond cut, and it was popular into the
fifteenth century. It closely followed the rough’s octahedral shape. Cutters
used a stationary polishing surface coated with diamond grit and olive oil
to polish off bumps and growth marks from the sides. They used olive oil
because it was able to tolerate the heat created by the friction. The polishing
changed the natural octahedron’s angles by only a few degrees, which
made point cuts difficult to tell apart from natural octahedral rough.
THE TABLE CUT

In the mid- to late-1400s, cutters began fashioning existing point cuts into
a new style: the table cut. To create a table cut, the cutter removed the top
point of the octahedron’s double pyramid by rubbing it on a board treated
with diamond dust and olive oil. This resulted in a square polished facet
that resembled a tabletop.
Often, cutters also removed the lower point to make a smaller square
facet called the culet. The result was that, when viewed from above, the
table cut looked like a square within a square. This appealed to
Renaissance Europe’s interest in classical proportions.

The point cut is considered the earliest
diamond cutting style. This fourteenth-
Another important quality of the table cut was that it greatly improved
century gold ring contains one of the
the amount of light returned to the viewer. This gave table-cut diamonds
few surviving point cuts.
more brilliance and fire than point-cut gems. Point-cut diamonds became
scarce as they were gradually reshaped into table cuts.
Table cuts dominated diamond jewelry through the 1500s and into the
1600s. Variations included rectangles, tapered shapes, and diamond shapes,
called lozenges.
The point cut and other early
diamond cuts followed the shape of
octahedral rough.
Early cutters used boards treated

with diamond dust and olive oil to
shape diamond rough.
The 56.71-ct. light pink Shah Jahan table-cut diamond (left) belonged to a seven-
teenth-century Indian ruler. The religious pendant from the 1600s (right) features
small table-cut diamonds.
72
Robert Weldon/GIA
These drilled diamonds, which are

thought to have belonged to Indian
royalty at one time, are cut in a style that
evolved from the rose cut. Later dubbed
the briolette, it resembles an elongated
double rose.
©Harold and Erica Van Pelt Peter Johnston/GIA
Rose-cut diamonds are very brilliant, but have very little fire. The 55-ct. Sancy The rose cut’s design made efficient
diamond (left) is a double rose cut, with faceted domes on both sides. The cross use of flattened rough.
pendant (right) from eighteenth-century Europe features rose-cut diamonds,
silver, and gold.
THE ROSE CUT Ke y C o n c e p t s

The rose cut appeared in the early sixteenth century and was popular until
the nineteenth century. Unlike the table cut, it wasn’t designed for octa-
The single cut was the basis for the
hedral rough. Instead, it provided an efficient way to produce the largest
full-cut modern brilliant.
possible gem from flattened rough.
Rose-cut gems have flat bottoms and triangular facets that come to a
point at the top. The rose cut’s facets produce considerable brilliance, but
little fire. Cutters also developed variations on the rose cut: Instead of a Single cut—A simple diamond cut,
flat bottom, the double rose has faceted peaks on both sides. The briolette
with a table, eight crown facets,
resembles an elongated double rose.
eight pavilion facets, and some-
times a culet.
SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY CUTS
After creating the table cut and rose cut, European gem cutters experi-
mented with other cutting styles. Much of the religious jewelry of the
early 1600s included diamonds. Cutters designed a faceted diamond at the
request of France’s Cardinal Jules Mazarin. The Mazarin cut, also called
the double cut, was cushion-shaped, with a total of 34 facets.
Cutters of the mid-1600s introduced the single cut—or eight cut—based
on the shape of octahedral rough. This simple style had more potential for
brilliance than the table cut because it had more facets: a table, eight
crown facets, eight pavilion facets, and sometimes a culet.
The single cut served as the basis for the full-cut modern brilliant.
Peter Johnston/GIA
Even today, the faceting of small diamonds often stops when they reach
The single cut was developed in the
the single-cut stage.

1600s. Because it had more facets than
a table cut, it also had more brilliance.
73
Old-mine cuts showed much more

brilliance and fire than previous cuts
because they took better advantage of
diamond’s impressive optical properties.
Archivo Iconografico, S.A.
When gold miners stumbled upon diamond rough in Brazil in the early 1700s, the
country quickly became the world’s premier diamond source. The new supplies
inspired interest in developing new diamond cuts.
EARLY BRILLIANT CUTS

In the early 1700s, while sifting through river gravel for gold in Minas
Gerais, Brazil, miners found some odd crystals among the pebbles. The
miners used them to keep score during their card games until an official
who was familiar with diamond rough realized what they had dis-
covered.
The new sources were alluvial, and they yielded quantities of diamonds
of good enough quality to affect the European diamond markets. Brazil’s
deposits rivaled those of India, whose diamond supplies were already
shrinking. During the first half of the nineteenth century, Brazil became
the main source for Europe’s diamond-cutting centers.
74
Old-mine cut—An early cushion-

shaped brilliant with a high crown,
deep pavilion, and 58 facets
including a large culet.
Old European cut—An early

brilliant cut with a circular girdle.
©Harold and Erica Van Pelt Tino Hammid
The 1799 brooch (left) contains old-mine-cut Brazilian diamonds, and was probably
worn by a member of the nobility. The floral brooch from the late 1800s (right) also
contains old-mine cuts, but its diamonds came from the newly discovered and much
more prolific South African mines, so it was affordable for a new class of consumers.
Brazil’s diamond deposits developed along with the industrial revolution,

which brought with it mass production and the modernization of the
cutting process. Improved gas lighting and an increasing interest in optical
science inspired diamond cutters to experiment with ways to improve a
fashioned diamond’s relationship with light. The beginnings of modern
technology stimulated people’s imaginations and pocketbooks, creating a
wider and more appreciative market for diamonds. All of these factors
helped bring about the development of the first brilliant cuts.
Diamond rough from Brazil was used for early brilliant cuts such as
the old-mine cut—a cushion shape with a high crown, deep pavilion, and
large culet. The old-mine cut had the same number of facets—58—as the
modern brilliant, but its pavilion was deeper, so it displayed less brilliance
and fire. Still, the old-mine cut played an important part in the development
of the modern brilliant cut. “Old-miners” became the most popular cut
diamonds of the eighteenth century.
In 1750, a London jeweler named David Jeffries wrote that the new
Tino Hammid/GIA
brilliant cuts were passing fads and that the rose cut would outlast them
The old European cut was an early
all. He was wrong: The public preferred brilliants. This prompted the
brilliant cut. Its round face-up outline
was unusual at the time.
widespread recutting of rose cuts into brilliant cuts, despite the smaller
diamonds that resulted.
Old-mine and other early brilliant cuts—such as the old European cut,
with a circular girdle that was unusual for that time—became models for
later diamond cut designers.
75
POINT CUT
Eric Welch/GIA
TABLE CUT
In 1919, Marcel Tolkowsky published his recommendations for the best proportions
of a brilliant-cut diamond.
THE MODERN BRILLIANT CUT

More than 500 years of experimentation led to the introduction of the
modern brilliant cut in the early 1900s. Its intricate proportions showcase
a diamond’s brilliance and fire with dazzling effectiveness.
SINGLE CUT
The modern round brilliant has a round girdle outline, symmetrically

placed triangular and kite-shaped facets, a table that’s larger than 50 percent
of the girdle diameter, and a small culet or none at all.
The earliest development of the modern round brilliant can actually be
traced to the late 1800s. Henry Morse, a Boston diamond cutter, had been
trying to achieve an optically efficient cutting design. After much trial and
MAZARIN CUT
error, Morse discovered the proportions that produced the effect he was
looking for. But the cutting establishment rejected Morse’s ideas in favor
of the old-mine and old European cuts. Many of Morse’s proportions were
very similar to those published years later—in 1919—by Marcel
OLD-MINE CUT Tolkowsky.
Tolkowsky’s recommendations for a brilliant-cut diamond’s best
angles and proportions influenced diamond manufacturers, especially
those who fashioned large, high-quality rough. But not all round brilliant
diamonds were cut to Tolkowsky’s suggested proportions. Some cutters
preferred slightly different proportions, and lower-quality rough was still
cut to retain maximum weight.
OLD
EUROPEAN CUT
Soon, variations on the modern round brilliant became popular world-

wide. Manufacturers even modified its facet arrangement to fit other
shapes, such as the marquise, pear, cushion, and oval. It remains the
MODERN dominant diamond cut in the marketplace today.
BRILLIANT CUT
Peter Johnston/GIA
CONTEMPORARY CUTS
Diamond cutters still link artistic flair and technical skill to develop cut
Diamond cuts evolved through many
styles that increase diamond’s allure. Many modern cuts allow gem-quality
stages before the brilliant cut was
finished diamonds to be fashioned from oddly shaped or poorly colored

developed. Each stage improved upon
the one before it.
rough. The most profitable new cuts achieve this goal with minimum
weight loss and maximum brilliance.
76
In the 1990s, many manufacturers and retailers promoted “ideal cut”

IDEAL CUTS
round brilliants, which were marketed as having the best proportions for
maximum brilliance and fire. They used proportions within certain math-
ematical limits, pleasing consumers who researched diamond purchases
and were attracted to the idea of specific standards for diamond cut
evaluation. But standards for ideal cuts vary, and there’s no proof that any
one set of proportions is truly “ideal.”
Today’s diamond customers are more knowledgeable about differences
in diamond proportions. Technical advances allow jewelers to show
customers how one diamond cut compares to another. Special viewers exist
that allow customers to examine the relative proportions and symmetry of
various diamonds.
Centuries of cut evolution led to the
modern round brilliant in the early 1900s.
Many diamond experts contend that proportions don’t tell the whole
The cut improved both brilliance and fire,
story when it comes to diamond appeal. Results of GIA scientists’ cut

and it remains the most popular diamond
research suggest that many different proportion combinations succeed

cut in today’s market. This anniversary
ring features a trio of modern round
equally well.
brilliants.
In the end, the perceived beauty of the diamond is what really counts.
The modern round brilliant remains popular among consumers, even though
its table facet is usually larger and its crown height is usually shallower
than those of the various ideal cuts. Ultimately, consumers must decide
which set of proportions looks best to them.
The marquise and pear had already been around for centuries, but the
FANCY BRILLIANT CUTS
success of the round brilliant inspired manufacturers to apply the brilliant

style to fancy shapes. Their aim was to bring the round brilliant’s superior
beauty to odd-shaped and low-color diamond rough, and to increase their
output of desirable, high-quality, and profitable finished diamonds.
The round brilliant is the dominant
diamond cut in today’s market.
Cutters apply the brilliant cut to

fancy shapes to get maximum profit
from oddly shaped or low-color
rough.
The success of the round brilliant inspired cutters to apply the brilliant style to a
variety of fancy shapes.
77
Tino Hammid/GIA
The triangular brilliant retains maximum weight from flat rough. The cutting process
is shown from right to left. The 3.04-ct. flat macle is partially blocked, fully blocked,
ready for faceting, and finally finished as a 1.17-ct. triangular-cut gem.
An important development was the triangular brilliant, which made

efficient use of flat rough. Leon Finker developed a triangular brilliant in
the early 1960s and named it the Trillion. It became so popular that people
began referring to any triangular brilliant as a “trillion.” About the same
time, Milton and Irving Meyer marketed their own variation, which they
called the Trilliant. They registered the name in 1978. Because the word
trillion had passed into common use, Finker re-registered his triangular
brilliant as the Trielle in 1992.
Like triangular brilliants, rectangular and square brilliants made
efficient use of diamond rough. In the late 1970s, Henry Grossbard
patented a rectangular brilliant-cut diamond that he named the Radiant.
This popular cut was the first rectangular shape to have brilliant-cut
facets on both crown and pavilion—a major development. Radiant cuts
only lose about 40 percent of the rough, while round brilliants normally
lose about 50 percent.
A square or rectangular brilliant called the princess cut appeared soon
after the Radiant. The princess cut used the rough even more efficiently,
The princess cut makes excellent use
of diamond rough. It minimizes waste
with a weight loss of only about 20 percent. In 1981, Ambar Diamonds,
and also emphasizes the diamond’s
Inc., introduced the Quadrillion®—a brilliant-cut square with straight

brilliance.
edges and sharp corners.

Fancy brilliant cuts make excellent use of oddly shaped rough. They can
also make the best of a diamond’s color. By changing a fancy brilliant’s
proportions, for instance, cutters can cause the color to appear slightly
lighter or darker from a face-up view. You’ll learn more about fancy
brilliant cuts later in this course.
78
Robert Weldon/GIA
Experimental fancy cuts like Gabi Tolkowsky’s marigold cut are creative efforts to The Quadrillion®, a brilliant-cut square
increase rough yield or improve the look of low-color rough. with straight edges and sharp corners,
was introduced in 1981.
New technology aids the quest for new and improved diamond cuts.
Manufacturers often rely on computer software and high-tech equipment
to create new cuts. Even the round brilliant has been refined and improved
The cutter’s challenge is to produce
with the help of engineering breakthroughs. Automation has also been the most attractive and most
crucial in the development and production of highly symmetrical, propri- profitable finished gem at the lowest
etary diamond cuts, such as branded cuts. The next section examines the production cost.
ways diamond manufacturing continues to evolve in response to manu-
facturer goals and public demand.
THE CUTTING PROCESS

■ What is the cutter’s main challenge?
■ Why is the planning stage so crucial?
■ What are the main steps in the cutting process?
It’s not easy to transform diamond rough into a polished gem. Because of
diamond’s hardness and crystal structure, it takes patience and skill to
release its beauty.
Whenever one of the Four Cs of diamond value increases or decreases,
the other value factors can also be affected. For example, to maintain or
increase the carat weight of the finished gem, the cutter might compro-
mise on cut proportions. The manufacturer must consider the effect that
each choice has on the finished diamond as a whole.
To maximize profits, manufacturers try to end up with the best cut and
the most carat weight possible at the lowest production cost. With so
much at stake, a diamond manufacturer’s job demands tough decisions.
79
Maurice Maruel/Corbis
It’s a challenge to produce fine gems economically, but the results can be impressive. Harry Winston’s
company created three beautiful solitaire diamonds and a magnificent diamond necklace from one large
diamond crystal like this one.
80
Andy Lucas/GIA
The cutting process requires a series of difficult decisions. Each stage involves
careful inspection of the rough (above) as well as consideration of the right tools
needed to perform the cut most efficiently (right).
Cutters must also pay attention to market demand for various diamond Planner—The person who decides
cuts and focus on producing the styles most in demand. This means they where to mark diamond rough for
might have to choose styles that don’t necessarily match the most obvious fashioning into the most profitable
style choices based on the rough’s shape. For example, the shape of a polished gem.
piece of rough might be perfect for a heart-shaped diamond. But if hearts
aren’t in demand, the cutter might choose a different, more sought-after,
shape that can still be profitably cut from that rough.
For commercial-quality gems, many diamond-cutting stages are now
automated. But most top-quality diamond rough is still fashioned by
hand. That’s because it requires special expertise to achieve the highest
value from a finished gem. But whether the process is mechanized or
manual, diamond cutting involves the same basic steps it did hundreds of
years ago. For typical sawable rough, the steps are:
• Planning
• Cleaving or sawing
• Bruting
• Polishing
A polished diamond must also pass a final inspection. This occurs after
the diamond is boiled in a solution of hydrochloric and sulfuric acids to
cleanse it of oil, diamond powder, and debris.
THE CRUCIAL PLANNING STAGE

The planner—also called the marker—plays a vital role in diamond man-
ufacturing. The planner decides where to mark the rough for cutting to
produce the largest possible gem with the best clarity and proportions.
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Cleaving—Dividing a diamond into

two or more pieces along a cleav-
age plane.
Sawing—Dividing diamond rough

into sections, either mechanically
or by laser.
Eric Welch/GIA
When the planner finally decides where to divide a rough diamond, he or she marks
the location directly on the stone in ink.
Top plane yields:

The planner’s decisions affect profits. Diamond value generally
increases with carat weight. As you learned in Diamond Essentials, this is
One 0.78-ct. diamond
especially true of “magic sizes.” A diamond that weighs 1.02 cts. is only
about 4 percent heavier than a 0.98-ct. diamond. But the per-carat price
difference can be as much as 35 percent. Careful planning can make a
0.05 mm substantial difference in the value of a finished diamond.
As you learned in Assignment 7, all diamond rough has a hidden crystal

ESTABLISHING CRYSTAL DIRECTION
structure. Before the actual cutting begins, planners use their knowledge
about diamond’s crystal structure to make critical cutting decisions.
Establishing the rough diamond’s crystal direction is the crucial first
Lower plane yields:
4.00-ct. crystal
step. The planner must understand the rough’s structure in order to mark
it properly for cutting. And incorrect marking can result in shattered

rough or a less-profitable yield.

Peter Johnston/GIA
Understanding crystal orientation also helps cutters determine which

The planner has to consider cutting
cutting technique to use. If the rough’s crystal direction makes one cutting
options carefully before marking
diamond rough. The mark must be
located to achieve the highest yield. In
method impractical, another method might work much better.
Some pieces of rough can yield a single desirable gem with very little
the example above, a tiny—0.05-mm—
waste. But if the planner decides that a piece of rough can yield two or
difference in the location of the mark on
a 4.00-ct. rough crystal makes a
more desirable finished gems, then the rough must be divided. There are
$3,000 difference in the value of the
two methods for dividing diamond rough: cleaving and sawing.

finished gems. This is because the
upper mark allows one cut gem to be
Cleaving involves breaking the rough diamond along one of its cleavage
over 1.00 ct. in weight.
planes, where the crystal structure is weakest. Cleaving is similar to

splitting a piece of wood along its grain.
82
cleavage plane
Cleaving involves splitting the rough

along one of its cleavage planes, where
the crystal structure is weakest. A
cleavage plane is indicated by the
shaded area in this illustration. Each
octahedral face has its own parallel
Thomas Hunn cleavage planes, providing many
Growth marks, like the trigons on a regularly shaped octahedron, indicate the options for dividing the rough or for
rough’s internal crystal direction. Understanding this helps planners make critical removing unwanted areas.
cutting decisions.
This diamond crystal is irregularly shaped (left), but it has trigons that can help the
cutter find its octahedral faces. High magnification reveals those trigons (right).
dodecahedral plane
Sawing involves dividing the rough along one of the crystal’s cubic
planes, or in some cases along its dodecahedral planes. Planners usually
mark octahedral rough for sawing when they decide to create two smaller
brilliants. Rarely, they might also use it to remove the point from an octa-
hedron to make one large brilliant.
The planner’s decision to saw rather than cleave—as well as where to
saw—is based on maximizing profit by saving weight and improving
cubic plane
clarity. The shape of the rough dictates the outcome of this decision-
making process.
Planners can use their technical knowledge to visualize crystal structure
even when the rough’s outward form doesn’t make it obvious. They
know that octahedral rough has cleavage planes parallel to its faces. They
Sawing involves dividing diamond rough
also know that the sawing planes of octahedral rough intersect with its
along one of its cubic or dodecahedral
planes. Sawing can make it possible to
cleavage planes at a predictable angle.
cut two diamonds from a single piece of
octahedral rough.
83
It’s much more difficult to detect the crystal structure of an irregular

piece of diamond rough. Planners use growth marks on the rough’s surface
to help determine its internal crystal directions. Once the planner knows the
Growth marks on the rough’s surface
cleavage direction, he or she can then determine the sawing direction.
help determine its internal crystal
directions.
Crystal direction affects the weight of the finished diamond, but the planner
CONSIDERING CLARITY
Computer technology reduces some
must also consider the nature and placement of inclusions. When he or she
of the diamond planner’s risk.
considers inclusions, it affects the finished diamond’s clarity.
Most diamond rough has inclusions. When planners find inclusions, they
can plan the cut to exclude them from the finished gem or to position them
where they’re least noticeable. A planner must balance the potential clarity
of a finished gem against the maximum weight obtainable from the rough.
It’s a challenge to predict the clarity of a finished diamond at the planning
stage. That’s because the rough might have a frosty or non-transparent
surface that makes it difficult to look inside. A cutter can polish a small,
flat facet, called a window, to see into the rough.
Even if the rough’s surface is fairly transparent, an uneven surface might
make pinpointing the exact location of an inclusion tricky. Refraction can
cause confusion about an inclusion’s actual location. And reflection might
cause confusion between the actual inclusion and its multiple reflected
images. An experienced planner can see through this “hall of mirrors” into
the diamond rough’s true character.
Sometimes, achieving a high-clarity diamond means cutting away
some rough and sacrificing weight. The planner must choose between a
smaller finished diamond with excellent clarity and a larger diamond with
some inclusions.
Sometimes, diamond rough has an opaque or frosted surface. When that happens,
a cutter can polish a small, flat facet called a window that makes it easier to see the
stone’s interior.
84
COMPUTER-AIDED PLANNING
As you’ve learned, deciding where to mark a rough diamond for sawing
or cleaving is both important and challenging. Recent innovations in
computer-aided planning have reduced some of the planner’s risk.
One of these innovations is image-processing software, which con-
structs a detailed model of the rough’s outline. The planner consults this
computerized rendering—which includes cutting suggestions—when
deciding how to achieve maximum profit and quality from the rough. The
manufacturer can also use this digital model to monitor the status of the
stone throughout the polishing process. James E. Shigley/GIA
Until recently, the usefulness of image-processing software was limited. Computer software can help today’s
Early versions couldn’t detect surface holes or indentations. This changed
cutters determine how to get the most
with the development of mapping technology that uses a low-level laser to

from a piece of rough.
read the rough’s entire surface. So far, however, no mapping software can
see inside the rough to locate internal inclusions.
CLEAVING AND SAWING

You’ve learned that planners must consider both crystal orientation and Kerf—A notch scratched into
inclusions when deciding where and how to cut diamond rough. The diamond rough to prepare it for
manufacturer’s goal is to produce the most profitable finished diamonds cleaving.
possible, so the planner must decide whether the rough is suitable for
cleaving or sawing. Once that decision is made, the actual cutting
process begins.
To prepare for cleaving, the cleaver cements the rough to a wooden
holder to lock it in place. Using a sharp piece of diamond, he scrapes a
notch—called a kerf—in the marked rough. Next, the cleaver pushes a
steel cleaving blade into the notch. Then he raps the blade with a hammer,
Before dividing a rough diamond, a cleaver uses another diamond to scrape a notch
called a kerf into the marked stone (above). The cleaver then pushes a steel blade
(right) into the kerf and raps the blade with a hammer to split the stone. One wrong
move during this delicate process can shatter a diamond.
85
Before sawing a stone, the cutter cements it to a holder, or dop (left), to hold it
steady. Today, sawing (above) is the preferred method for dividing diamond rough.
The rotary saw that’s used to cut diamond rough has a very thin, diamond-coated
cutting blade (left). After sawing, the section of diamond rough remains cemented
to the dop for further processing (above).
86
BEFORE ROTARY SAWING AFTER ROTARY SAWING
Peter Johnston/GIA
Before the invention of the rotary diamond saw, there was only one option: to grind
the top off a piece of octahedral rough. This wasted a lot of rough and resulted in a
single diamond with a high crown and a small table. The saw allowed cutters to save
weight by fashioning two stones instead of one from a piece of rough. This led to
efforts to achieve a pleasing balance of optical properties. It also gave cutters the
choice of cutting the rough off-center to produce a large and a small diamond, or on-
center to produce two equally sized diamonds.
forcing the blade to spread the notch and split the diamond cleanly in two. Ke y C o n c e p t s
This final step requires much skill and concentration. One mistake can The rotary saw gave cutters the
destroy the diamond. ability to manufacture more than
For sawing, the rough is fastened to a holder called a dop. Then the
sawyer lowers it onto a spinning circular blade embedded with diamond
one fashioned stone from a piece of
dust mixed with oil. The diamond particles on the blade wear through
octahedral rough.
the stone. Sawing is generally safer for the rough than cleaving, but
there is some danger that the heat generated by the process might cause
the diamond to shatter.
The introduction of the rotary diamond saw around 1900 had a huge
Dop—A holder that secures a
impact on diamond cutting. It allowed cutters to fashion two stones with
diamond during sawing, bruting,
larger tables instead of grinding the rough down into one stone with a
or polishing.
small table. This practice saved rough weight and led to efforts to
achieve the most pleasing balance of brilliance, fire, and scintillation
by experimenting with the relationships between crown angles and
table sizes.
Sawing actually removes a little bit of the rough, something planners
keep in mind. An octahedron can be sawn off-center to save weight.
Center sawing divides the crystal at its thickest location, resulting in the
loss of a considerable amount of rough that could have become part of the
finished diamond. Off-center sawing, in contrast, usually retains a higher
percentage of rough weight.
87
2.20-CT. ROUGH DIAMOND
0.50-ct. fashioned diamond
CENTER SAWING
total value $5,000
OFF-CENTER SAWING
total value $4,500
OFF-CENTER SAWING
total value $10,000
CENTER SAWING
total value $6,500

Peter Johnston/GIA
If size is the only difference and all other quality factors are equal, a cutter’s deci-
sion on where to saw an octahedral diamond crystal usually depends on its size.
With smaller crystals, center sawing results in two equally sized gems that might be
worth more than the gems resulting from an off-center cut. On the other hand, if a
crystal is large enough to produce a finished gem of a carat or more, it’s usually
much more profitable to cut it off-center.
88
Laser sawing allows more cutting
options than mechanical sawing.
Andy Lucas/GIA
Laser sawing was introduced in the 1970s. It uses a laser beam instead of a
saw blade. The process is automated: A holder moves the rough under the fixed
laser beam.
Traditional kerfing methods were time consuming, and mastering them

LASER KERFING
required years of study and practice. Today, most diamond manufacturers

use lasers to kerf rough. Laser kerfing is more efficient than hand kerfing.
Several stones can be kerfed at the same time, and it’s much faster than the
old method of scraping diamond across diamond.
Another advantage is that the laser beam can follow the marked line on
diamond rough more precisely. The laser also creates a narrower and
shallower notch than traditional kerfing, wasting less rough. Laser kerfing’s
efficiency means higher profits, especially for manufacturers who handle
large quantities of diamonds.
Laser sawing was first introduced in the late 1970s. It substitutes a laser
LASER SAWING
beam for the metal saw blade. The laser burns into the rough and
vaporizes it as it slices a narrow channel through the diamond rough. A
mechanical device moves the rough back and forth and from side to side
under the fixed beam.
Laser sawing is faster and much more versatile than mechanical
sawing. Diamond rough that could not be sawn easily with a blade can be
Peter Johnston/GIA
Laser sawing can divide rough in any

sawn accurately with a laser. Mechanical sawing must be done parallel to
crystal direction. As the diamond moves,
the diamond’s cubic—or sawing—planes, but the laser can burn through
the fixed laser beam gradually slices
a rough diamond in any crystal direction. Without the limitations imposed

through it.
by crystal direction, laser sawing allows planners more freedom to mark

rough based on considerations like size, shape, and clarity.
89
Bruting—Forming the basic

face-up outline of a round or
rounded-shape diamond to
prepare it for faceting.
Charles O’Rear/Corbis
Bruting rounds the corners of diamond rough, gradually forming the outline of a
finished gem. Two diamonds are attached to dops, then the diamond being bruted
is spun on a lathe with the bruting diamond pressed against it.
BRUTING
Bruting follows sawing. It’s a time-honored way to shape a rounded girdle
outline by forcing one diamond against another. During the bruting
process, the diamond rough begins to look more like the finished gem.
Bruters use two dops, one for the rough diamond and one for the
diamond used for bruting. They fasten the dop with the rough diamond
onto a rotating lathe. The bruter carefully presses the bruting diamond
against the spinning rough. This rounds the corners of the rough, gradually
forming the outline of a finished gem. The bruting diamond begins to take
on a rounded outline as well. Sometimes, it’s fashioned into a finished gem.
But it might also be used to brute other diamonds until it’s completely
ground down.
90
Eric Welch/GIA
An automated bruting machine keeps the stones centered, so it can produce stones
of maximum diameter with little weight loss. Several machines can be operated at
the same time by a single operator, without delays for checking and adjusting.
Traditional bruting was a trial-and-error process. The gem cutter inter-

AUTOMATED BRUTING
rupted the process frequently to make sure the rough was centered
properly, because diamonds that are bruted off-center can lose a significant
amount of weight. Because of these interruptions, and because cutters
were limited to shaping one stone at a time, the bruting process took up
valuable time and labor.
Bruting was fully automated in the late 1980s. Today, two stones can
be bruted simultaneously—each stone shaping the other. The new auto-
mated machines need little supervision—one skilled cutter can monitor
and adjust several machines at once. Automated bruting has virtually
eliminated bearding, and it results in more consistent roundness.
91
Polishing—Placing and finishing Today, automatic centering systems move the stone holder so that the
facets on a rough diamond. center of the future polished diamond aligns precisely with the centers of
the dop and the bruting machine. No longer a difficult job subject to
Scaife—A rapidly spinning human error, the entire centering process now takes about 30 seconds per
horizontal disc coated with diamond, compared to several minutes or longer by traditional methods.
diamond powder, used to polish And it produces diamonds that retain as much rough as possible with the
diamond rough. least amount of waste.
Laser bruting was introduced in 1992. It’s used for all rounded diamond
shapes. It’s especially useful for fancy shapes, because it can create
outlines that are precise and symmetrical. In Israel, fancy shapes with
curved outlines—such as marquises and ovals—are bruted by laser.
POLISHING
Polishing is the last phase of the cutting process. It gives the diamond its fin-
ished dimensions. In diamond cutting, faceting and polishing happen at the
same time. People in the trade usually use the two words interchangeably.
The polisher uses a large, rapidly spinning horizontal disc called a
scaife to polish the rough. The scaife, usually made of cast iron, is coated
with diamond powder that’s cemented to its surface.
Before modern manufacturing methods developed, scaives were powered
by hand. Workers pushed and pulled a lever to spin a drive wheel connected
to the scaife’s shaft. As technology advanced, scaives were driven by
horses, then steam power, and eventually by electric motors.
Before polishing, the dop with the bruted diamond is fixed firmly into
a device called a tang, which rests on a steady surface near the scaife.
Eric Welch/GIA
Polishing, also known as faceting, gives a diamond its final appearance. It’s a detailed task that requires
precision equipment.
92
Blocking is a crucial stage because
it establishes the gem’s basic
symmetry.
Eric Welch/GIA
Before polishing, the diamond—still This marquise is completely blocked,

attached to its dop—is fixed firmly into a which means that its first 17 or 18 facets
holder called a tang. The tang allows have been polished, establishing its basic
the polisher to control the angle of the symmetry. It’s held in place by metal jaws
diamond against the spinning scaife. instead of a dop.
The tang allows polishers to adjust and maintain the diamond’s angle in Tang—A device that holds the dop
relation to the scaife. This is important because diamond must be and allows polishers to adjust and
polished across the grain—in a direction not parallel to a cleavage maintain a diamond’s angle during
plane—and it’s impossible to properly facet an improperly positioned polishing.
diamond.
A crucial part of the polishing stage is called blocking. In this step, a
Blocking—Placing the first 17 or
18 facets on a diamond.
blocker polishes the first 17 or 18 facets: the table and sometimes the
culet, plus eight crown main and eight pavilion main facets. At this point,
the diamond is a single cut. The process stops here for some small
diamonds.
Blocking must be done carefully because it establishes the gem’s basic
symmetry. If the blocked gem is uneven or if the crown and pavilion
facets are not aligned at the girdle, it must be blocked again. This results
in weight loss.
To block the entire gem, the blocker must turn it several times. Usually
the blocker polishes a facet, then repositions the stone and polishes
another facet directly opposite the one just completed. Skilled blockers
fashion gems accurately by eye, lining up facet reflections and the corners
of intersecting facets.
93
Brillianteering—Placement and
polishing of the star and upper
and lower half facets.
Brillianteering, when the star and upper and lower half facets are created, is one of
the final steps in polishing a diamond.
The final facets—usually the star and upper and lower half facets—
are polished by a specialist called a brillianteer. The process is called
brillianteering. Sometimes, especially with fine-quality stones, the
ROUGH
brillianteer facets the girdle as well.

A diamond doesn’t always proceed straight through the stages of
bruting, blocking, and polishing. It might have to return to an earlier
stage in the process if it needs modification or refinement of its shape
or proportions.
SAWING
BRUTING
As you’ve learned, diamond’s crystal directions play an important role

AUTOMATED POLISHING
in the polishing process. In traditional polishing, the gem cutter had to

search for the best polishing direction. Sometimes, this involved
attempting to polish a facet, then stopping to check it to see if the
BLOCKING
polishing was successful. If not, the cutter had to try another polishing
direction.
This changed with the development of automated polishing machines
BRILLIANTEERING
like the Piermatic Diamond Polishing Machine, developed by De Beers.

The first machines appeared in the early 1970s and enabled an operator to
Peter Johnston/GIA
polish several diamonds at one time on a single machine, as well as to

The cutting process is basically the
monitor multiple machines.

same whether it’s done by hand or
by machine. The octahedral crystal is
In the early 1990s, polishing machines with “grain-seeking capability”

divided, usually by sawing. Then the
were introduced. This innovation combines mechanical and electronic

basic outline is formed by bruting.
processes and can even be used for stones with irregularities in their
Blocking results in placement of the
first 17 or 18 facets. Finally, brillianteer-
crystal structures.
ing involves polishing and finishing the
diamond’s final facets.
94
Eric Welch/GIA
Automated polishing machines allow cutters to polish several diamonds at once. Mechanical and electronic
processes automatically detect the proper polishing direction for any individual facet.
The polishing machine lowers the diamond until its surface touches the
spinning scaife. A sensor registers whether polishing is occurring. If not,
the sensor indicates that the facet didn’t take the polish, and the machine
High-tech diamond manufacturing
automatically changes the facet orientation. It continues this process until
can increase efficiency and result
it finds the best polishing direction. The machine polishes until the facet in consistently symmetrical finished
is completed, then turns to the next facet until all are cut according to diamonds.
programmed angles.
There are also machines that can create polished or faceted surfaces on
diamond girdles. Previously, these “finishing touches” had to be done by
hand, and the process was slow and labor-intensive.
KEEPING UP WITH THE COMPETITION

To stay competitive, diamond manufacturers must keep up with
advances in manufacturing technology. They continue to invest in
equipment that incorporates computer and laser technology to automate
much of the cutting process. The goal of these technologies is the same
as that of the traditional methods: to maximize quality and lower costs
while creating exceptional diamonds.
Modern diamond-manufacturing methods have resulted in many
positive changes for the industry. The benefits include increased efficiency,
easier cutting decisions, and higher-quality finished gems.
New diamond-cutting technology brought standards of precision and
symmetry that were difficult to achieve with conventional cutting
methods. It’s now possible to produce virtually identical gems with
consistently tight tolerances and infinitely repeatable angles and proportions.
95
Eric Welch/GIA
The ultimate goals of diamond manufacturers are to maximize quality and lower production costs while
creating captivating finished gems. Automation makes this possible.
This led to a renewed emphasis on ideal cuts. It also allowed manufacturers

to create and establish some proprietary cuts. Without the diamond-cutting
advances of the late twentieth century, these cuts would be much more
labor-intensive, and too expensive to mass-produce.
But modern diamond manufacturing has its limitations. For one thing,
an electronic planning device can’t yet detect inclusions within a diamond.
Humans must still make the necessary choices between saving weight and
eliminating clarity characteristics.
In addition, many modern methods require equipment that is expensive
to set up and operate. The cost to open a diamond-manufacturing facility
with all the latest high-tech equipment can be many times higher than for
a traditional factory.
Once in operation, however, the modern factory can actually save
money, especially if it’s located in an area where labor costs are high.
That’s because modern manufacturing methods produce more diamonds
and require fewer operators. This makes production cost per diamond
lower than for a traditional cutting factory.
Modern technology has benefits and drawbacks for the labor force as
well. Some workers lose their jobs when they fail to adjust to new equip-
ment. However, new jobs can be created as production rises. Working
conditions have improved in many modernized factories because modern
equipment runs better in clean, well-ventilated surroundings.
96
The 203-ct. Millennium Star, fashioned from rough discovered in the Republic of
Congo in the early 1990s, is the spectacular result of modern technology combined
with human artistry.
The diamond-manufacturing industry began with the human touch, and

people are still a very important part of the process. Diamond planners
can now combine their own intuition, experience, and skill with the latest
technology. Each decision a planner makes draws from high personal and
technical expertise, until beautiful fashioned diamonds emerge from
rough. The results of those critical planning decisions come into play
when diamonds are graded. In the next series of assignments, you’ll learn
how graders judge the quality of finished diamonds.
97
A rough diamond’s shape and crystal The cutter’s challenge is to produce
structure influence the number, size, the most attractive and most profitable
and value of the finished gems it finished gem at the lowest production
yields. cost.
The first polished diamonds appeared Growth marks on the rough’s surface
in Europe around 1380. help determine its internal crystal
directions.
The point cut and other early diamond
cuts followed the shape of octahedral Computer technology reduces some of
rough. the diamond planner’s risk.
Early cutters used boards treated with The rotary saw gave cutters the ability
diamond dust and olive oil to shape to manufacture more than one fashioned
diamond rough. stone from a piece of octahedral rough.
The single cut was the basis for the Laser sawing allows more cutting
full-cut modern brilliant. options than mechanical sawing.
The round brilliant is the dominant Blocking is a crucial stage because it

diamond cut in today’s market. establishes the gem’s basic symmetry.
Cutters apply the brilliant cut to fancy High-tech diamond manufacturing

shapes to get maximum profit from can increase efficiency and result
oddly shaped or low-color rough. in consistently symmetrical finished
diamonds.
98
Key Terms
Blocking—Placing the first 17 or Planner—The person who decides
18 facets on a diamond. where to mark diamond rough for
fashioning into the most profitable
Brillianteering—Placement and polished gem.
polishing of the star and upper
and lower half facets. Polishing—Placing and finishing
facets on a rough diamond. Also
Bruting—Forming the basic face-up called faceting.
outline of a round or rounded-shape
diamond to prepare it for faceting. Sawing—Dividing diamond rough
into sections, either mechanically
Cleaving—Dividing a diamond or by laser.
into two or more pieces along a
cleavage plane. Scaife—A rapidly spinning hori-
zontal disc coated with diamond
Dop—A holder that secures a powder, used to polish diamond
diamond during sawing, bruting, rough.
or polishing.
Single cut—A simple diamond cut,
Kerf—A notch scratched into with a table, eight crown facets,
diamond rough to prepare it for eight pavilion facets, and some-
cleaving. times a culet.
Old European cut—An early Tang—A device that holds the dop
brilliant cut with a circular girdle. and allows polishers to adjust and
maintain a diamond’s angle during
Old-mine cut—An early cushion- polishing.
shaped brilliant with a high crown,
deep pavilion, and 58 facets
including a large culet.
99
Diamond Manufacturing Terms

Every industry has its own language, and the diamond trade is no exception. Sales
associates use special terms—words like carat weight, brilliance, and clarity—when com-
municating with diamond customers.
Suppliers, dealers, and cutters share a unique language, too. Most or all of these terms
might be unfamiliar to you. Many of them come from the Dutch language, which was
spoken in the countries where the first cutting centers started. Most customers don’t
know these terms—and probably don’t want to know them. But you’ll find them useful
whenever you work with jewelry colleagues who specialize in diamond manufacturing.
Bast—Frosted rough diamond. “Bark” in Sharp—A small diamond with a sharp

Dutch. edge, cemented into a dop and used to
kerf another diamond in preparation for
Cleaver—A person who cleaves, or splits,
cleaving. Or, a small diamond used to
a diamond along a cleavage plane. The
brute diamonds or round up a girdle in
cleaver might also be responsible for plan-
the final stages of polishing.
ning the fashioning of a polished gem.
Splitter—A person who splits a rough
Cross worker—A person who performs
diamond along a cleavage plane after it
the cross-working operations during
has been kerfed by a laser. Not to be
diamond polishing; sometimes called a
confused with a cleaver, who is a master
cross cutter.
craftsman.
Cross working—Placing the bezel and
Three-point diamond—A diamond with
pavilion facets on round and fancy shapes.
its table nearly parallel to a possible octa-
Sometimes combined with blocking, espe-
hedral face.
cially on smaller stones. Also called cross
cutting. Twisted stone—A diamond with grain
layers that are not on parallel planes, or
Foss—Irregular furrow or groove in the
one with partial twinning.
surface of a diamond, characteristic of
diamond crystals in the gray color range. Twisting—A blocking technique in which
the diamond is turned to position the
Four-point diamond—A diamond with
softest polishing direction against the
the table parallel to a possible cubic face.
polishing wheel.
Gletz—Dutch term for a feather in a
Two-point diamond—A diamond on
diamond.
which the table has been polished parallel
Kaps—Dutch term for a diamond that to a dodecahedral plane.
has been cleaved, split, or sawn, but
Water—A historic term once used in
not fashioned.
Europe to describe either the color or the
Naif—The natural, unpolished surface of transparency of a diamond.
a rough diamond.
Point naif—A seventeenth-century term for
a diamond octahedron or other crystal shape
on which the natural faces are apparent.
100
Finding and Identifying
Clarity Characteristics
10
Looking for Clarity Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Examining the Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
The First Look . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Step-by-Step Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Types of Clarity Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Inclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Internal Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Internal Inclusions Resulting from Crystal Structure. . . . . . . . . 119
Surface-Reaching Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Inclusions Caused by Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Blemishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Blemishes Caused by Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Blemishes Introduced in the Cutting Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Blemishes Resulting from Crystal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Other Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
101
• Understand why clarity characteristics are important.

• Identify the basic equipment required for clarity grading.
• Examine a diamond and locate its major clarity characteristics.
• Recognize the many types of diamond clarity characteristics.
102
FINDING AND I DENTIFYING CLARITY CHARACTERISTICS
Bill Videto/GIA
Some of the most striking inclusions in diamond are colored crystals like this garnet.
FINDING AND IDENTIFYING CLARITY

CHARACTERISTICS
One day in 1977, workers at South Africa’s Premier mine were taken by
surprise when something jammed the machinery. The culprit was a
magnificent 353.90-ct. rough diamond.
The Mouw Diamond Cutting Works in Johannesburg took on the difficult
task of cutting the giant rough. After a year of careful examination and
planning, their efforts yielded the 137.02-ct. Premier Rose, the 31.48-ct.
Little Rose, and the 2.11-ct. Baby Rose.
Most diamonds have some color, and nearly all diamonds have some
clarity characteristics, so it’s extremely rare for three diamonds from the
same rough to be both colorless and flawless. But the GIA Laboratory
graded all three Rose diamonds D-Flawless.
The GIA system for diamond grading is the sum of many parts.
Together, they make it possible for diamond professionals around the
world to evaluate and comment on any feature that affects the appearance
103
Tino Hammid/GIA
Most rough diamonds have inclusions,

making it a challenge for cutters to
create high-clarity finished diamonds.
The Premier Rose is both colorless and flawless. Along with its size, this makes it
an extremely rare diamond.
and value of a diamond. Clarity grading is one of the most important

aspects of that system.
Clarity grading is one of the most
Clarity grading begins with locating what gemologists and jewelry
important aspects of the GIA
professionals call clarity characteristics. Others—including customers and
Diamond Grading System.
even some jewelers—call them flaws or imperfections. But calling them
“clarity characteristics” reflects the fact that they can affect a diamond’s
appearance and value positively as well as negatively.
In this assignment and the next one, you’ll learn how graders deter-
mine the quality of a diamond’s clarity. This assignment describes the
Clarity characteristic—Internal or
characteristics themselves and explains how to find and recognize them.
external feature of a gemstone
The next assignment shows how graders evaluate the characteristics they
that helps determine its quality
find and assign a diamond’s grade.
and establish its identity.
104
John Koivula/GIA
Finished diamonds sometimes contain

interesting inclusions, like this diopside
crystal.
Bill Videto/GIA
Some collectors are fascinated with

unusual inclusions. This large garnet
crystal changes color under different
light sources. It would be unfair to call
this clarity characteristic a flaw.
Eric Welch/GIA
It’s important for a diamond professional to be able to find and evaluate the clarity
characteristics in a diamond. A diamond’s clarity is a major component of its value.
Whether you’re a wholesaler, retailer, or appraiser, you’ll benefit from

knowing how diamond professionals judge clarity. In the wholesale trade,
clarity-grading skills can help you decide what to buy from a supplier and
also whether the price is appropriate. In retail sales presentations, you’ll
be able to influence others’ buying decisions by speaking confidently
about clarity and how it influences value.
105
Extra facet Blemish
Surface-reaching
Feather inclusion
Internal inclusion
John Koivula/GIA Peter Johnston/GIA

Included crystal Blemishes are confined to a diamond’s surface. Inclusions are
either totally enclosed (“internal inclusions”) or they extend
into the stone from its surface (“surface-reaching inclusions”).
LOOKING FOR CLARITY CHARACTERISTICS

■ What makes clarity characteristics important?
■ What part of the inspection most influences a clarity grade?
■ What’s a basic procedure for examining a stone?
Graders assign a diamond’s clarity grade after they find its clarity characteristics, identify
them, and judge their visibility at 10X magnification. There are two types of clarity charac-
teristics. Inclusions are features that are enclosed within a gemstone or extend into it from the
surface. Blemishes are external features, confined to a gemstone’s surface.
106
John Koivula/GIA
Graders look for all of a diamond’s clarity characteristics and judge their overall impact
before they assign a clarity grade.
Clarity characteristics serve three purposes: Inclusion—Clarity characteristic

• They determine a stone’s clarity grade. In the GIA system, the grade totally enclosed in a polished
is based on the number, size, location, relief, and nature of a diamond’s gemstone or extending into it
characteristics. from the surface.
• They help determine a stone’s value. The presence or absence of clarity

characteristics is a major diamond value factor.
Blemish—Clarity characteristic
• They help identify a stone. Since no two diamonds have the same
that’s confined to the surface of a
polished gemstone.
clarity characteristics in the same locations, you can use the charac-
teristics to help tell one stone from another. Face-up—A position that orients a
When you grade clarity, you examine a stone in a systematic way, find
gemstone’s crown facets and
its clarity characteristics, identify them, and judge their impact.

table toward the viewer.
Sometimes, you must decide if a particular characteristic threatens the

stone’s durability. Although you can usually assign a grade without
naming every inclusion, it’s a good idea to locate and identify them all.
The photographs in this assignment will help you learn what to look for
and how to recognize what you see. You can learn only so much from photos,
however. Experience with the real thing is extremely valuable. If you work
for a wholesaler or in a jewelry store, start looking at the diamonds in your
stock right away. Examine as many diamonds as possible. The more stones
you examine, the more you’ll improve your clarity-grading skills.
EXAMINING THE STONE Ke y C o n c e p t s

There’s a saying that goes, “You never get a second chance to make a good Clarity characteristics determine a
first impression.” Assigning a clarity grade to a diamond is something like
that. For your first overall impression, look at the stone face-up through a
stone’s clarity grade, help set its
fully corrected jeweler’s loupe or a binocular gemological microscope at
value, and help identify it.
10X magnification. Then, with the same magnification device, inspect the
stone more closely. Even after the follow-up inspection, however, your Your first impression of a diamond’s
first look should strongly influence the gem’s clarity grade. face-up appearance should strongly
Use only a triplet loupe that’s been fully corrected for color distortion, influence its clarity grade.
called chromatic aberration, and for linear distortion, called spherical
107
Peter Johnston/GIA
Triplet loupes contain three lenses, held in place by a metal ring. In this good-quality
triplet, the first lens is the magnifier. The second lens corrects color distortions and
the third lens corrects linear distortions.
aberration. Chromatic aberration causes a rainbow effect around the

viewing field. Spherical aberration causes straight lines to appear to bend
at the edges of the viewing field. Corrected lenses eliminate these
distortions, so they’re extremely important for viewing small details in
gemstones. Achromatic lenses are corrected for color, and aplanatic lenses
are corrected for spherical aberrations.
A 10X triplet loupe and a gemological microscope are both good tools
for clarity grading. Each one has its advantages for different situations. A
loupe is portable and affordable. A microscope is stable, and you can adjust
its magnification, making it easy to locate and identify characteristics. But
it’s far less portable, so it’s probably most useful in a store or office. And
even if you use a microscope to find characteristics, you always base a dia-
mond’s clarity grade on its appearance in a 10X loupe.
Before you learn the exact procedure for examining a diamond, there
are some basic principles you should keep in mind. First, it’s extremely
important to keep the diamond as clean as possible. Use a pointer to
remove dust particles, and wipe the stone with a lint-free cloth to remove
smudges. Hold the diamond with tweezers so you don’t get skin oils on it.
Make sure you hold the stone firmly but gently in the tweezers. If you
squeeze too hard, you might flip the diamond out of the tweezers and send
it flying.
A good way to keep the loupe and tweezers steady is to rest your
elbows on a table or to brace them against your sides. If you use a
108
Denise Conrad/GIA
The GIA Diamond Grading System™

bases the final clarity grade on the dia-
mond’s appearance in a fully corrected
10X triplet loupe.
Eric Welch/GIA
Many in the trade use a microscope to locate and identify characteristics. This can
help make the grading process more efficient.
microscope, rest your tweezers on the microscope’s stage to steady them

as you examine the diamond. Hold the tweezers with the hand opposite
the one you write with. This frees your writing hand so you won’t have to
constantly switch hands or put the diamond down to make notes. A pointer
can help you tell the difference between bits of dust or lint and pinpoints
or scratches.
Bright light reflected off a facet can make it easier to see if and how an
inclusion breaks the surface. This isn’t the only way to identify surface-
reaching inclusions, but it’s very helpful.
109
Darkfield illumination—Lighting of
a diamond from the side against a
black, non-reflective background.
diamond
microscope stage
black plate
closed to
create dark
background
for stone
light source
Peter Johnston/GIA
With darkfield illumination, light enters the stone from the side. This causes its
inclusions to stand out against a dark background.
With a microscope, use darkfield illumination to search for and

examine clarity characteristics. Darkfield illumination lights the dia-
mond from the side against a black, non-reflective background. It lets you
see inside the diamond and causes its inclusions to stand out as bright
objects against a dark background. You’ll be able to see most inclusions
with darkfield illumination.
Some inclusions are best seen by illuminating the diamond from below.
This makes the inclusions stand out as dark objects against a bright back-
ground. To create this type of illumination, called brightfield, simply tilt
the diamond until light reflects off the opposing facet’s surface.
Most diamonds contain inclusions. It’s unlikely that you’ll come across
many Flawless stones unless you’re a wholesaler with Flawless stones in
Pascal Volery/Reuters/Corbis
your inventory or a retailer who specializes in them. When you examine

This 30.70-ct. diamond is Internally
diamonds for inclusions and blemishes, it’s important to approach the task
Flawless, which means it has no
inclusions and only minor blemishes.
in a consistent and systematic way. It’s also important to be thorough, and
This makes it extremely rare.
to inspect every part of the diamond.

To inspect a diamond’s interior, rock the diamond so the light source is
perpendicular to a facet. This helps you look into the stone as if you’re
looking through a window. If you want to examine its surface, tilt the dia-
mond so the light reflects off the surface as if it were a mirror. To examine
stones, clarity graders divide the diamond into wedges, or pie slices, and
examine one wedge at a time.
110
You should always start with an overall face-up impression of the stone at
THE FIRST LOOK
10X magnification. Using the tweezers, hold the stone girdle-to-girdle

and look directly through the table. If you see a hazy gray area near the
girdle, it’s probably a reflection of your tweezers.
As you focus on a point, anything within a certain distance above and
below that point will also be clear and sharp. That distance is called the depth
of field. As you increase magnification, the depth of field gets shallower.
You can use focus and depth of field to determine a characteristic’s
location. If you focus on the surface and the characteristic is in focus, it’s
a blemish or an inclusion that extends in from the surface or a totally
enclosed inclusion just under the surface. If the characteristic is out of
John Koivula/GIA
focus, it’s deeper and totally enclosed within the stone. The opposite is
A hazy gray area near the girdle of a
also true: If you focus on a characteristic and the surface is out of focus,
stone is probably a reflection of the
the characteristic is an inclusion within the stone.

tweezers or stoneholder.
Another way to distinguish between surface and totally enclosed char-

acteristics is to position the stone so the light source is at an angle to the
facet. That way, you’ll get light to reflect off the facet. Anything on the
surface will stand out, while the reflection will mask almost everything
within the stone.
To determine how deep an inclusion lies within a diamond, look for its
reflection. The closer the inclusion is to its reflection, the closer the inclu-
Depth of field—The distance
sion is to the surface. If the inclusion and its reflection appear to touch,
that’s clear and sharp above and
that proves the inclusion extends into the stone from the surface.
below a point you focus on with a
magnifier.
Vincent Cracco/GIA
Mirror reflections can help determine the depth of an inclusion. The closer the
inclusion is to its reflection, the closer it is to the surface of the stone. When the
characteristic actually touches its reflection, as the inclusion on the left does, it
means that the inclusion reaches the stone’s surface.
111
Vincent Cracco/GIA
John Koivula/GIA
Just because you see multiple inclusions face-up doesn’t mean that they’re actually
there. They’re probably reflections of a single inclusion. Both stones have inclusions
that are positioned so that they reflect many times throughout the stones.
Reflections can also confuse you. You might think you’re seeing
multiple inclusions when you’re actually looking at reflections of the
same inclusion. To check this, look at the inclusion from another direction.
The change of viewing direction usually eliminates the reflections and
proves there’s only one inclusion. Another way to check is to see if the
multiple “inclusions” look identical. That almost always means they’re
reflections. It’s highly unlikely that any two inclusions will look exactly
the same.
Remember that you can force any characteristic to reflect if you manipu-
late the stone into the right position. When you grade clarity, the reflectors
Arrangements like this, where you see
that appear as you view the stone face-up are the important ones.
the characteristic on both sides of a
facet junction, are called prism images.
They don’t indicate depth, but if the
characteristic lies just beneath the facet
you are looking through, that proves it’s
inside the stone. STEP-BY-STEP EXAMINATION
An important part of the clarity-grading process is a careful examination

of the entire diamond. You aren’t likely to miss a big feather, or break,
that’s located directly under the table. But without using a precise
method to examine a diamond, you might miss a small feather hiding
beside a pavilion main. It’s a costly mistake if it results in the wrong
clarity judgment.
Feather—A trade term for any
break in a diamond. A very useful method is called the wedge technique. It divides the
stone into eight sections—or wedges—so you can perform a systematic
search for clarity characteristics. From the pavilion view, each wedge
includes a pavilion main facet and two lower half facets, plus one-eighth
of the girdle. From the crown view, the wedge includes two upper half
facets, a bezel facet, half of two star facets, and one-eighth of the table.
112
THE WEDGE TECHNIQUE
CROWN
1
marker characteristic in wedge one
2 8
3 7
4 6
2 1 8
3 7
5 4 5 6
PAVILION
5
one bezel
4 6 facet per
wedge
one pavilion
main facet per
3
wedge
7
2 8
1
marker characteristic in
wedge one
Peter Johnston/GIA
The wedge technique divides the stone into eight equal parts to assist in an organized
examination procedure.
To help you number the wedges in your mind, try to find a marker
characteristic and use it as a starting point for counting the wedges.
Accurate clarity grading depends on
Choose a characteristic that is unique and easy to identify. It helps if you
a careful and systematic examination
choose one that’s closer to the girdle than to the center of the diamond. If of the diamond.
you can’t locate one, choose any characteristic that’s visible face-up or in
the pavilion view. Note the area as “wedge 1.”
113
Ke y C o n c e p t s The following steps assume you’re using a microscope. While a micro-

scope isn’t necessary for clarity grading, many in the trade use it to locate
and identify characteristics and to make the grading process more effi-
If a trained grader can’t see a clarity
cient. Also, increased magnification is sometimes needed to properly
characteristic at 10X, it doesn’t affect
the clarity grade. identify and document a characteristic.
As you progress with the examination, you can increase the magnifica-
tion if you have to zoom in for a closer look. But keep in mind that if a
trained grader can’t see a clarity characteristic at 10X, it doesn’t affect the
clarity grade.
1. Clean the diamond thoroughly with your gemcloth.
2. Hold the diamond girdle-to-girdle in tweezers and examine it face-up
under 10X magnification with darkfield illumination.
As you’ve learned, your first impression is very important when you
set the clarity grade. It will also influence how you proceed with your
examination. For example, a higher-clarity diamond would require a
more careful examination.
3. Hold the diamond table-to-culet with the pavilion in an upright
position, and rotate it once to familiarize yourself with the types of
characteristics present.
4. If the diamond is a round brilliant, divide it into eight wedge-shaped
sections.
5. Select a marker characteristic to designate the first section or wedge.
This will help you keep track of the sections you have already exam-
ined.
6. Thoroughly examine the first wedge. Start with the pavilion surface,
then look through the diamond from the pavilion toward the crown.
Slowly turn the diamond to examine the girdle area. Finally, turn the
diamond to the face-up view. Examine the crown surface and the
diamond’s interior.
7. Rotate the diamond from one section to the next and perform the
same thorough pavilion, girdle, and crown examination procedure
with each turn.
Always turn the diamond in a consistent direction—for example,
always to the right. Keep count of each section you examine. You know
you have examined all eight sections when you return to your marker
characteristic.
8. Hold the diamond face-up and girdle-to-girdle in tweezers. Examine
the table and culet areas that were previously covered by the tweezers.
After you complete your examination, you will assign a clarity grade
based on the type of characteristics present and their overall appearance
in a 10X loupe. For lower-clarity diamonds, you will also check for eye-
visible inclusions with your unaided eye. In Assignment 11, you will find
the definitions and descriptions of each clarity grade range.
114
Both by Vincent Cracco/GIA
The clarity characteristic in this oval diamond is a feather that isn’t readily visible from
the face-up view (top), but can be seen from the pavilion (bottom). It’s important to
examine a diamond in all directions to find all of its clarity characteristics.
Diamond grading is a little like being a detective solving the mystery

of a diamond’s clarity grade. The clues are the diamond’s inclusions and
blemishes. The grader analyzes the clues and comes to a conclusion: a
clarity grade that accurately represents the quality of the diamond.
As you learn more about what clarity characteristics look like and how
to examine a diamond to find them, try to get as much experience looking
at diamonds as possible. As you develop your “eye,” you’ll gain more
confidence and skill. Practice is the only way to develop your skills and
to ensure your success at every level of the diamond industry.
115
Unusual Inclusions Can Be Fun

In a sales presentation, it’s
always best to emphasize the
positive and downplay the
negative. For example, if a
round brilliant diamond has a
noticeable cavity at 10X magni-
fication, it would be unethical
not to disclose it, but you
probably wouldn’t promote it
either. It’s unlikely that bragging
to a customer about the big
hole in her prospective diamond
A. de Goutiére Robert Weldon/GIA
would close the sale. But what

A heart-shaped cloud might appeal to In this diamond, several feathers
romantic consumers. intersect to form an inclusion that
if that customer was a noted
looks like a prehistoric flying creature
historian, and the cavity looked

called a pterodactyl.
like Abraham Lincoln standing

on a pedestal?
There are many documented
examples of cavities, crystals,
or intersecting feathers that
take on the appearance of
something entirely different.
Jewelers, gemologists, mineral-
ogists, and lapidaries have
reported and photographed
characteristics that look like
birds, mammals, reptiles,
Tim Schuler/Schuler Gemological Services
human faces, zodiac signs, and

This group of feathers looks like a This inclusion might appeal to some-
even cartoon characters.

hummingbird or a fairy. one who likes sports. The group of
feathers looks like a man tossing a
The right buyer will eagerly

ball, which is actually an included
buy a diamond whose clarity

crystal.
characteristics are unique and appealing. A stone with feathers that

intersect to resemble a parachute might have a skydiver jumping to
buy the stone, while another diamond with feathers that intersect
to form a cross might be appealing to a devout Christian.
You’ve probably heard the saying “Beauty is in the eye of the
beholder.” That’s certainly true when it comes to unique and appealing
clarity characteristics.
116
TYPES OF CLARITY CHARACTERISTICS Ke y C o n c e p t s

■ What are the commonly seen inclusions and blemishes? Use abbreviations to note inclusions
■ What are some rare clarity characteristics? and blemishes.
When you examine a diamond, you should know the names of the char-
acteristics you might see. The following pages contain definitions,
descriptions, and photos of clarity characteristics. The abbreviations that
follow nearly all the characteristics are accepted throughout the industry.
Use them whenever you want to make a quick note about a characteristic
for your own reference.
INCLUSIONS
There are two categories of inclusions. Some are totally enclosed within
the diamond (internal) and others extend into the stone from the surface
(surface-reaching). Inclusions can become part of a diamond during for-
mation, during the manufacturing process, or as a result of damage to the
diamond after it is fashioned. Inclusions might also be introduced by
lasers during treatment.
A crystal (Xtl) is a mineral crystal contained in a diamond. Researchers

INTERNAL INCLUSIONS
have identified more than 24 different mineral crystals that might be

found in diamonds. The most common are smaller diamond crystals, but
you’ll also see olivine and, occasionally, garnet crystals. Crystals can be
almost any size, colored or colorless, and can occur alone or in groups.
You might hear some people call crystals “bubbles,” but that term is
incorrect. Gas bubbles occur as separate inclusions only in some synthetic
or artificial materials, and in some natural ones like amber and obsidian.
Some people call dark crystals “carbon spots,” but that’s another
incorrect and misleading term. Without complex laboratory equipment,
there’s no way to determine if they’re made of carbon or of something else.
When you look at an included crystal under high magnification, you can
usually see the flat faces and angular outlines of the inclusion’s crystal form.
Lighting also affects the appearance of included crystals. Under darkfield
illumination, they usually appear bright against a dark background. In
brightfield, they often look black against a bright background.
Vincent Cracco/GIA
Included crystals formed first, then the diamond grew around them. The crystals
might be diamond or some other mineral.
117
Both by Vincent Cracco/GIA
Needles are long, thin crystals that often occur in groups.
John Koivula/GIA
Pinpoints can be difficult to find. They might look like bright white dots against a
dark background.
A needle (Ndl) is a long, thin crystal that looks like a tiny rod at 10X
magnification. A needle can appear white, bright, or dark.
A pinpoint (Pp) is a very small crystal that looks like a tiny dot at 10X.
Pinpoints are most often white, but they can occasionally be dark.
A cloud (Cld) consists of many tightly grouped pinpoints. The pinpoints
might be too small to distinguish individually at 10X, but together they
look like misty white or gray patches, or like tiny flecks of white powder.
Some clouds are small, others spread throughout the stone. Some clouds
look like a light haze, while others are dense and almost impossible to
see through. If a cloud is large and dense, it can reduce a diamond’s
transparency and therefore its brilliance and beauty.
118
John Koivula/GIA Kay Reichel Morrow Vincent Cracco/GIA
Groups of pinpoints can form light, hazy clouds (left) or dense, highly visible clouds Twinned crystals often display twinning
that mimic the diamond’s crystal structure (right). wisps. It’s easy to see the twinning
wisps in this stone.
Jim Lucey/GIA Vincent Cracco/GIA
Graining in diamonds can be colored (left) or look like hazy brush strokes (center) or be bright and reflective (right).
Some inclusions are the result of crystal distortion during growth. The twin-
INTERNAL INCLUSIONS RESULTING FROM CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
ning wisp (TW) is one of them. It’s a series of pinpoints, clouds, or crystals
that forms in a twinned diamond’s growth plane. Twinning wisps appear flat
and ribbon-like, and usually radiate out from the diamond’s center.
Internal graining (IG) is also caused by irregularities in crystal growth.
Its appearance can take the form of lines, angles, or curves, and it might
be whitish, colored, or reflective. It might give part or all of the stone a
hazy texture and affect its transparency at 10X. It might also look like a
thin sheet of reflective plastic inserted into the stone, or like fine white or
colored streaks. Some types of internal graining resemble falling rain or
sleet, while others might look like vinegar in oil. Internal graining that
Vincent Cracco/GIA
appears colorless or transparent has no effect on the clarity grade.

Grain centers can look like tiny areas of
distortion in a diamond.
A grain center (GC) is a type of internal graining that consists of a

small, concentrated area of crystal growth distortion. It can be white or
dark, and it might have a thread-like or pinpoint-like appearance. Grain
centers can look like transparent tornadoes caught deep inside the dia-
mond. They can occur alone or in groups. They’re not visible from all
directions, so they can disappear and reappear as you rock the diamond or
move it from side to side.
119
SURFACE-REACHING INCLUSIONS
Some inclusions reach or touch the surface of a fashioned diamond or
extend from the surface into the stone.
As you’ve learned, a feather (Ftr) is a general term for any break in a
diamond. It’s called a gletz in many countries. Cleavage is a break that
occurs in a cleavage plane—a weak crystal direction along one or more of
diamonds’ four octahedral planes. A break in any other crystal direction is
called a fracture.
A feather might look shiny and white, glossy, or transparent, depending
Vincent Cracco/GIA
on the viewing direction. Some feathers catch the light and blink from
Etch channels often change direction
transparent to bright when you rock the stone.

and often have striations perpendicular
An etch channel (EC) is an angular opening that starts at the surface of

to their length.
the diamond and extends into it. It can be straight or curved, shallow or
deep, and it often has striations perpendicular to its length. It is thought to
occur when something etches, or chemically erodes, rough diamonds as
they travel to the earth’s surface.
A bearded girdle (BG) consists of minute or minor feathers running
perpendicular to a bruted girdle. A lightly bearded girdle has a few very
fine feathers scattered around the diamond’s perimeter. A heavily beard-
ed girdle has so many feathers that they create a fuzzy gray fringe all the
way around the stone. On a GIA report, a bearded girdle is referred to in
more general terms as feathers in the girdle.
A bruise (Br) is a tiny area of impact accompanied by very small root-
like feathers visible at 10X magnification. When viewed through an
opposing facet, a bruise appears cottony in texture as it radiates into the
diamond. A bruise is sometimes called a percussion mark.
A knot (K) is an included diamond crystal that extends to the surface after
fashioning. With magnification and proper lighting, you can see the bound-
ary between a knot and its host diamond. A knot is oriented differently from
its host diamond, so it can cause problems and slow the polishing process.
Knots sometimes look like slightly raised areas on a facet or group of
facets. In reflected light, you might see a knot’s outline on a facet surface,
and there might be a difference in polish quality between it and the
surrounding area. You might also see drag lines on one side of the knot.
John Koivula/GIA Vincent Cracco/GIA
Feathers can appear bright and glossy (left), white (center), or semi-transparent (right).
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Eric Welch/GIA
The traditional practice of bruting on a lathe often results in a bearded girdle.
John Koivula/GIA
A carefully bruted girdle might not be bearded (left). However, so-called feathers in
the girdle might remain after the girdle is polished or faceted (right).
John Koivula/GIA
A heavily bearded girdle appears as a fuzzy gray fringe all the way around the stone.
121
A patch of color is the result of naturally

occurring radiation present when the
diamond formed.
Both by Gary Roskin
A bruise might occur on a facet junction (left) or in the middle of a facet (right).
Both by John Koivula/GIA
When a diamond crystal is exposed at the surface of a fashioned diamond, it’s

called a knot (left). A knot is sometimes accompanied by drag lines (right).
Drag lines happen during polishing when minute fragments of diamond are
unintentionally dragged across the surface by the polishing wheel.
Patch of color (Patch) is a naturally occurring radiation stain that remains
on a polished diamond. It’s originally green, but heat from the cutting process
can turn it brown. It’s usually found on a natural surface, but it can also appear
on the plane of a feather. Patches of color are usually considered blemishes,
but if you can see that they penetrate the diamond at 10X, they’re inclusions.
A chip (Ch) is a shallow opening on the surface, located at the girdle
edge, facet junction, or culet. It’s the result of damage that occurs after fash-
ioning, so it won’t be accompanied by drag lines.
A cavity (Cav) is an opening on the surface that occurs when part of a
feather breaks away, or when a crystal drops out or is forced out, typically
during polishing.
An indented natural (IN) is a portion of the original crystal surface,
or skin, that dips below the polished diamond’s surface. The original
surface might have growth markings such as trigons or parallel grooves.
Chips, cavities, and indented naturals can be difficult to distinguish
from one another.
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John Koivula/GIA
Chips are shallow, and result from damage to an already fashioned stone.
Vincent Cracco/GIA John Koivula/GIA
Indented naturals are part of a diamond’s original crystal surface. They extend into
the diamond and might display growth markings.
A cavity usually looks angular (left). It might be accompanied by drag lines. The
opening of a cavity will appear dark in reflected light (right).
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Shane McClure/GIA Vincent Cracco/GIA
Most laser drill-holes extend straight into the diamond to reach an inclusion (left). Internal laser drilling
doesn’t reach the surface, but it creates a surface-reaching feather (right).
The laser drill-hole (LDH) is a tiny tunnel produced by a laser beam. The
INCLUSIONS CAUSED BY TREATMENT
tunnel extends from the surface to a dark included crystal. Internal laser
drilling (ILD) is a method that creates a surface-reaching feather or
expands a pre-existing feather around a dark inclusion. The feather is used
to provide access for bleaching. In this case, the drilling produces irregu-
lar channels that do not meet the surface.
After drilling, a technician might introduce acid into the surface-
reaching drill-hole or feather to dissolve or bleach the inclusion and make
➤
it less visible.
There are two ways for treaters to disguise laser drill-holes. Both
methods are attempts to make the holes look as much like natural clarity
characteristics as possible. In one, the treater etches slashes parallel to the
drill-hole to obscure its location. In the other, a twisted drill-hole follows
a cleavage plane and looks like etching along the cleavage surface. When
Vincent Cracco/GIA
At the surface, a laser drill-hole looks

you examine the stone under reflected light, you see the cleavage rather
like a tiny round opening.
than the drill-hole.

Laser drilling can improve a diamond’s appearance and marketability.
You must disclose the presence of a laser drill-hole. The GIA Laboratory
Fracture filling—Treatment that
grades laser-drilled diamonds because the drilling features are permanent.
involves injecting a molten glass
The presence of the treatment is clearly disclosed either on the plot or in
substance into a diamond’s
the report’s comments section.
surface-reaching feathers or
Laser drill-holes and surface-reaching feathers are sometimes filled

laser drill-holes.
Flash effect—A flash of changing with a molten glass substance in a treatment called fracture filling. The
color seen in a fracture-filled filler makes the characteristic less apparent. It can be difficult to detect,
diamond when you look parallel but the treatment leaves a telltale sign called the flash effect that can help.
to the filled inclusion and rock Look for the irregularity, then rock the diamond back and forth. If the
the diamond back and forth stone is filled, you’ll see a flash of color that changes to a second color
under magnification. when you tilt the stone. The GIA Laboratory doesn’t grade fracture-filled
diamonds because the treatment is not permanent.
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Both by Shane McLure/GIA
Before fracture filling, this diamond has a noticeably reflective feather (left). After treatment, you can see only the small, unfilled
areas near the surface (right).
Both by Shane McClure/GIA
The flash effect shows up as two distinctly different colors that appear when you Some feathers have stains. They don’t
rock and tilt a diamond in different directions. change color when viewed from different
directions and shouldn’t be confused
with the flash effect.
Iridescent feathers show a rainbow of colors from all directions. Don’t confuse them
with the flash effect.
When you look for the flash effect, don’t confuse it with iridescence Ke y C o n c e p t s
or with the orange-colored stains caused by included iron compounds. You must disclose the presence of
These two appearance factors sometimes occur naturally in cleavages and
fractures. You’ll learn more about laser drilling and fracture filling in
laser drilling.
Assignment 19.
125
Mitchell Moore/GIA
Nicks typically occur at the girdle edge, where the diamond might be exposed to wear.
The scratches are visible on this table (left), but they might be easier to find when
viewed through the opposite side of the diamond (right).
BLEMISHES
Blemishes, or external clarity characteristics, can be caused by wear or the
cutting process, or be a result of crystal structure. They all have one thing
in common: They don’t appear to have depth when you view them at 10X
magnification.
A nick (Nck) is a small notch on a facet junction, usually along the girdle
BLEMISHES CAUSED BY WEAR
edge or at the culet. It’s smaller and shallower than a chip and has no
readily apparent depth at 10X.
Abrasion (Abr) is a series of minute scratches or pits along a facet
Gary Roskin
junction. It gives the junction a white or fuzzy appearance. Abrasions

Abrasion occurs when diamonds rub
usually occur because people handle and store jewelry carelessly, and the
against each other in stone papers or in
pieces rub against each other. Abrasions can also occur when one
jewelry boxes.
diamond rubs against another in a stone paper. When that happens, the
diamonds might be described as “paper worn.”
A scratch (Scr) is a thin, dull, white line across the diamond’s surface.
It can be either curved or straight.
126
No matter how careful diamond cutters are, the process might result in blemishes
on a diamond.
BLEMISHES INTRODUCED IN THE CUTTING PROCESS
An extra facet (EF) is a facet that’s not required by the cutting style.
Though extra facets might occur anywhere on the diamond, they’re most
often located at the girdle.
Cutters sometimes intentionally place tiny extra facets near the girdle
edge on the pavilion to determine polishing directions for the star facets
and upper and lower half facets. Those extra facets might be removed, or
they might remain after fashioning is complete. A cutter might also inten-
tionally add an extra facet to remove or reduce an inclusion. This helps
retain weight by avoiding the alternative, which would be to repolish the
regular facet.
Cutters can unintentionally create extra facets by making tiny facet-
adjustment errors or by using an out-of-level polishing wheel. An extra
facet could also be the remains of a window. A window is a facet that a
cutter polishes on the rough before cutting begins, to make it easier for the
cutter to see inside a rough diamond.
Don’t confuse extra facets with additional facets. Cutters can place
extra facets without regard for the diamond’s symmetry, but they usually
127
John Koivula/GIA Vincent Cracco/GIA
Unlike naturals, extra facets are always flat, smooth, and It’s difficult to polish a perfectly smooth surface when the
polished. facet is very close to the octahedral crystal plane. This causes
“lizard skin.”
John Koivula/GIA Mitchell Moore/GIA
Polish lines can be white (left) or transparent (right). They never cross facet junctions.
place additional facets symmetrically, relative to a standard cutting style.

Additional facets are never considered blemishes.
A feature that resembles an extra facet but lacks a distinct or straight
facet junction is called a polish mark. There is very little difference in
angle between a polish mark and its bordering facet.
Lizard skin (LS) is a wavy or bumpy area on the surface of a polished
diamond. It occurs when the cutter polishes too close to the octahedral
plane or parallel to it.
➤
Polishing sometimes leaves fine, tiny, parallel grooves and ridges

called polish lines (PL). They can occur on any facet, but they don’t cross
This stone’s burned facets are reflected facet junctions. Polish lines on adjacent facets run in different directions
on diamonds. They’re transparent or white and can vary from heavy to
on its other side. This heat damage
faint. Although they’re on the surface, polish lines are usually easier to see
probably occurred during polishing.
if you look for them through the stone from the opposite side.
128
➤
John Koivula/GIA Gary Roskin
A rough girdle has a coarse, granular look. This diamond’s rough girdle also has Pits occur during cutting, so they might
two naturals. be accompanied by drag lines. This
diamond also has a large scratch.
Burn (Brn) is a hazy surface area that results from excessive heat
applied during polishing, or occasionally from a jeweler’s torch. A surface
burn caused by excessive heat at the location where the dop touches the
diamond is referred to more specifically as a dop burn (Dop).
Polishing a stone too fast can burn facets near the one being polished,
creating a clouded or frosted look, like a whitish film. You might see burn
on part or all of any facet. Like polish lines, it’s often easier to see from
the opposite side of the stone.
A rough girdle (RG) indicates the irregular, pitted, or granular surface
of a bruted girdle. A well-finished bruted girdle looks smooth and waxy,
with a frosted-glass texture. A rough girdle looks coarse, like the surface Mitchell Moore/GIA
of a sugar cube. This diamond’s laser manufacturing
A pit (Pit) is a small opening that usually looks like a tiny white dot.
remnants appear across the natural’s
Pits usually result when pinpoint inclusions are pulled from the diamond
surface and along the girdle.
during the polishing process.

A laser manufacturing remnant (LMR) is a characteristic created dur-
ing a laser manufacturing process, usually marking or sawing, that
remains on the surface of a finished diamond. When it appears as a sur-
face groove and shows no depth at 10X, it’s considered a blemish.
Sometimes, the laser penetrates into the diamond, causing an internal or
surface-reaching fracture. The fracture is considered an inclusion.
BLEMISHES RESULTING FROM CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

A natural (N) is a portion of the rough diamond’s original surface, or skin,
that remains on a fashioned stone. Because a natural is a remnant of the
original crystal, it sometimes shows growth marks, and it often has an
A natural can be considered a sign
uneven surface. When a cutter leaves a natural in place to save weight, it’s of efficient cutting.
considered a sign of efficient cutting.
129
Kay Morrow
Naturals might display growth marks such as trigons.
Naturals can display parallel grooves (above) or, more rarely, cubic depressions
(left).
You might see naturals anywhere on a diamond, but they’re usually on

or near the girdle, most often on the pavilion side. There might be two on
directly opposite sides of a stone. If the rough that the stone was cut from
was symmetrical, there might be four naturals in opposing pairs.
People sometimes confuse naturals with extra facets. However, extra
facets have smooth, polished surfaces, while naturals show growth features.
Surface graining (SG) consists of one or more transparent lines on the
surface of a finished diamond. It’s a visible indication of irregularities in
130
Vincent Cracco/GIA
Surface graining can look like creases

in cellophane.
John Koivula/GIA
Naturals can occur at the culet, but this isn’t very common.
John Koivula/GIA
Because diamonds are sawn along the cubic crystal plane, some might have
cubic graining on the table (above). If present, it might be easier to see through
the pavilion (right).
the diamond’s crystal structure. Surface graining is related to internal

graining and might appear in association with it.
Where grain lines exist, the polish might be better on one side of a
grain line than on the other. Unlike polish lines, surface graining might
change direction within a facet, might cross facet junctions, or it might
run in a direction different from polish lines. Surface graining is
almost impossible to remove because it’s part of a diamond’s distorted
crystal structure.
131
Mitchell Moore/GIA
An inscription that is confined to the surface when viewed at 10X has no effect on
clarity. This diamond is laser inscribed with its GIA report number for identification.
Vincent Cracco/GIA Mitchell Moore/GIA
This is a poorly rendered laser inscrip- An inscription, such as this one, might
tion. It has depth visible at 10X and is be totally enclosed within the diamond.
therefore considered a surface-reaching When it is, it’s considered an internal
inclusion. inclusion.
OTHER FEATURES
A diamond can have other features that are visible at 10X magnification, but
have no effect on the clarity grade. For example, a diamond might be
inscribed with text, numbers, or even a logo for purposes of identification or
branding.
Inscriptions are typically applied with a laser and are located on the girdle,
but other methods are possible. An inscription has no effect on clarity regard-
less of its location, as long as it’s confined to the surface when viewed at 10X.
An inscription with depth visible at 10X or that is totally enclosed within the
diamond is considered an inclusion and can affect the clarity grade.
132
Robert Weldon/GIA
Briolette-cut diamonds are often drilled for stringing or placement into a mounting.
John Koivula/GIA
The linear grooves, or setting channels, along this princess-cut diamond’s pavilion
will help secure it in an invisible setting.
You often see drill-holes on briolettes or faceted diamond beads.

Sometimes a manufacturer adds surface grooves to secure a diamond in an
“invisible” mounting—one without prongs. These mounting features are con-
sidered part of the diamond’s fashioning process. Unless they damage the dia-
mond with a feather, cavity, or other characteristic, they do not affect clarity.
Clarity characteristics are useful for many reasons. They can help
identify an individual diamond because no two diamonds ever have the
same characteristics in the same locations. And they can help you determine
a diamond’s clarity grade and value. Now that you’ve learned about the
clarity characteristics you’ll see in diamonds, the next assignment will help
you put your observations together to determine a clarity grade.
133
Clarity grading is one of the most important If a trained grader can’t see a clarity characteristic
aspects of the GIA Diamond Grading System. at 10X, it doesn’t affect the clarity grade.
Clarity characteristics determine a stone’s clarity Use abbreviations to note inclusions and
grade, help set its value, and help identify it. blemishes.
Your first impression of a diamond’s face-up You must disclose the presence of laser drilling.
appearance should strongly influence its clarity
grade. A natural can be considered a sign of efficient
cutting.
Accurate clarity grading depends on a careful and
systematic examination of the diamond.
Key Terms
Blemish—Clarity characteristic that’s Feather—A trade term for any break in a
confined to the surface of a polished diamond.
gemstone.
Flash effect—A flash of changing color
Clarity characteristic—Internal or external seen in a fracture-filled diamond when you
feature of a gemstone that helps determine look parallel to the filled inclusion and rock
its quality and establish its identity. the diamond back and forth under magnifi-
cation.
Darkfield illumination—Lighting of a dia-
mond from the side against a black, Fracture filling—Treatment that involves
non-reflective background. injecting a molten glass substance into a
diamond’s surface-reaching feathers or
Depth of field—The distance that’s clear laser drill-holes.
and sharp above and below a point you
focus on with a magnifier. Inclusion—Clarity characteristic totally
enclosed in a polished gemstone or
Face-up—A position that orients a gem- extending into it from the surface.
stone’s crown facets and table toward the
viewer.
134
Diamond Clarity Characteristics in Brief

INTERNAL INCLUSIONS
Crystal (Xtl)—A mineral crystal contained in a diamond.
Needle (Ndl)—A long, thin crystal that looks like a tiny rod at 10X.
Pinpoint (Pp)—A very small included crystal that looks like a tiny dot at 10X.
Cloud (Cld)—Many tightly grouped pinpoints that might be too small to
distinguish individually at 10X but together have a hazy appearance.
INTERNAL INCLUSIONS RESULTING FROM CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Twinning Wisp (TW)—A series of pinpoints, clouds, or crystals that forms
in a diamond’s growth plane; associated with crystal distortion and twinning
planes.
Internal Graining (IG)—Lines, angles, or curves that might appear whitish,
colored, or reflective or affect transparency at 10X; caused by irregularities
in crystal growth.
Grain Center (GC)—A type of internal graining that consists of a small,
concentrated area of crystal distortion; can be white or dark, and might
appear thread-like or pinpoint-like.
SURFACE-REACHING INCLUSIONS
Feather (Ftr)—General trade term for a break in a gemstone. Often white
and feathery in appearance.
Etch Channel (EC)—An angular opening that starts at the surface and
extends into the stone, often with striations perpendicular to its length.
Bearded Girdle (BG)—Minute or minor feathers that run perpendicular to
a bruted girdle; referred to more generally as feathers in the girdle.
Bruise (Br)—A tiny area of impact accompanied by very small, root-like
feathers visible at 10X magnification; typically occurs at a facet junction.
Knot (K)—An included diamond crystal that extends to the surface after
fashioning.
Patch of Color (Patch)—Naturally occurring radiation stain left on a
polished diamond. Typically a blemish, but can be an inclusion if it extends
into the stone when viewed at 10X.
Chip (Ch)—A shallow opening caused by damage to the stone’s surface;
typically occurs at a girdle edge, facet junction, or culet.
Cavity (Cav)—An opening on the surface that occurs when part of a feather
breaks away, or when a crystal drops out or is forced out, typically during
polishing.
Indented Natural (IN)—A portion of the rough’s original surface, or skin,
that dips below the polished diamond’s surface at 10X.
135
INCLUSIONS CAUSED BY TREATMENT
Laser Drill-Hole (LDH)—A tiny, surface-reaching tunnel produced by a laser

light beam.
Internal Laser Drilling (ILD)—Laser drilling within a diamond that doesn’t

reach the surface.
BLEMISHES CAUSED BY WEAR

Nick (Nck)—A small notch on a facet junction with no readily apparent depth
at 10X, usually along the girdle edge or at the culet.
Abrasion (Abr)—A series of minute scratches or pits along the facet junctions
of a fashioned diamond; gives the edges a white or fuzzy appearance.
Scratch (Scr)—A thin, dull white line across the diamond’s surface; shows
no apparent depth at 10X.
BLEMISHES INTRODUCED IN THE CUTTING PROCESS

Extra Facet (EF)—A small facet that’s not required by the cutting style,
placed without regard for the diamond’s symmetry; most often found near
the girdle.
Polish Mark—A feature that resembles an extra facet but lacks a distinct
or straight facet junction.
Lizard Skin (LS)—Wavy or bumpy area on the surface of a polished

diamond.
Polish Lines (PL)—Fine, parallel grooves and ridges left by polishing; can
occur on any facet but do not cross facet junctions; transparent or white.
Burn (Brn)—Hazy surface area that results from excessive heat during
polishing or occasionally from a jeweler’s torch.
Dop Burn (Dop)—A surface burn caused by excessive heat at the location
where the dop touches the diamond.
Rough Girdle (RG)—Irregular, pitted, or granular surface of a bruted girdle.
Pit (Pit)—A small opening that looks like a tiny white dot at 10X.
BLEMISHES RESULTING FROM CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Natural (N)—A portion of the original surface, or skin, of a rough diamond
left on a fashioned stone; usually on or near the girdle.
Surface Graining (SG)—Similar to internal graining, except it appears on

the surface; results from irregularities in the crystal structure.
136
Grading Clarity 11
Clarity Characteristics and the GIA System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Five Clarity Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Location (Position) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
The GIA Clarity Grading Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Flawless (FL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Internally Flawless (IF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Very Very Slightly Included (VVS1 and VVS2). . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Very Slightly Included (VS1 and VS2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Slightly Included (SI1 and SI2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Included (I1, I2, and I3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Understanding the Clarity Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
The Philosophy of Clarity Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Reading a Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
137
• Effectively communicate the meaning of GIA clarity grades.

• Understand the influence of different types of clarity characteristics on the
clarity grade.
• Communicate the details of the GIA clarity grading scale.
• Describe the relationship between clarity, rarity, and value.
• Read and interpret a detailed diamond plot.
138
G RADING CLARITY
©Greg Kinch
Busy diamond dealers can use a common language to describe clarity to each other.
GRADING CLARITY
Before the 1950s, people in the diamond business had no way to accurately
describe a diamond’s features so that everyone understood them in the
same way. Some grading systems did exist, but they weren’t very exact,
The GIA Diamond Grading System
so they left a lot of flexibility in the way the grades were applied. This
provides a universally accepted way
meant that a diamond’s features—as well as its overall quality—were to communicate diamond quality.
open to interpretation.
The GIA Diamond Grading System put an end to that confusion. Since
its introduction in 1953, it has given diamond professionals a way to
evaluate a diamond and communicate its quality to others. A dealer in
New York, for example, can describe a diamond according to the system
and know that a retailer in Minnesota will understand the level of inclusions
and blemishes in the stone. The system has also grown beyond the borders
of the US to become the internationally accepted standard for grading
diamonds.
In Diamond Essentials, you learned that the GIA clarity grading scale
has eleven grades: Flawless (FL), Internally Flawless (IF), two categories
139
The clarity scale is an

important element of
the GIA Diamond
Grading System.
Clarity is divided into
eleven grades, rang-
ing from Flawless
through three
levels of Included.
GIA reports are internationally recognized documents that detail

diamond quality. GIA offers the traditional Diamond Grading
Report for diamonds of any weight (top) and the Diamond
Dossier for diamonds under two carats (bottom).
each of Very Very Slightly Included (VVS1 and VVS2), Very Slightly
Included (VS1 and VS2), and Slightly Included (SI1 and SI2), and three of
Included (I1, I2, and I3).
Even if you don’t grade diamonds regularly, you should have a thorough
understanding of clarity and clarity grades. This is especially true if you
buy and sell diamonds. Knowing how to examine a diamond to confirm
140
G RADING CLARITY
©Kristall Smolensk
The GIA Diamond Grading System gives diamond professionals all over the world—
from graders at a factory in Russia (right) to dealers at an international diamond
exchange (above)—a universal way to communicate diamond quality.
Valerie Power/GIA
An understanding of clarity grades can help you discuss their impact on diamond
value with your customers.
the accuracy of its stated clarity grade is a very valuable skill. So is being
able to communicate your understanding of that clarity grade to a client
or to explain it to a retail customer.
This assignment will help you review the GIA clarity grades and intro-
duce some new details about each one. You’ll also learn how individual
inclusions and blemishes impact a diamond’s clarity grade.
141
The effect of clarity characteristics
on the clarity grade is based on their
size, number, location, relief, and
nature.
Large inclusions usually have the

greatest influence on the clarity
grade.
Tino Hammid/GIA
A diamond’s clarity grade is based on the overall effect of clarity characteristics on its
appearance. This beautiful diamond’s almost complete lack of clarity characteristics
earns it a VVS1 clarity grade.
CLARITY CHARACTERISTICS AND

THE GIA SYSTEM
■ What factors influence a clarity characteristic’s impact on a clarity
grade?
■ What characteristics determine where a diamond falls in the GIA
clarity grading system?
In Assignment 10, you learned about the different types of inclusions and
blemishes. In this assignment, you’ll see how different combinations of
those inclusions and blemishes add up to a clarity grade.
FIVE CLARITY FACTORS

Five factors determine the overall impact that an individual clarity char-
John Koivula/GIA
acteristic has on a stone’s appearance and grade. Those factors are:

Graders consider many factors before
• Size
determining a diamond’s clarity grade.
The combined effect of this diamond’s
• Number
large, bright feathers and centrally
•
located crystals will give it a low grade.
Location (position)
• Relief
• Nature
Sometimes, one factor makes more difference to the clarity grade than
the others. But it’s not always the same one. The relative importance of
each factor varies from diamond to diamond. For example, an inclusion
off to the side of a stone would have less impact on clarity than the same
size inclusion located directly under the table. In this case, the location is
probably the determining factor.
142
G RADING CLARITY
Occasionally, if an inclusion has the potential to cause damage to a

stone, it can affect the grade. But this is rare, and usually applies only to
Included (“I”) diamonds. A grader probably wouldn’t lower the grade of
a stone on this basis alone.
Size has a lot to do with how easy it is to see an inclusion. Generally, the
SIZE
larger and more visible an inclusion is, the lower the diamond’s clarity
grade will be. You must also consider the size of the inclusion in relation
to the size of the diamond.
In a diamond with inclusions of different sizes, one or two of the larger
inclusions usually establish the grade. If there are also smaller inclusions,
they seldom affect the clarity grade.
When all other factors are equal, the more inclusions or their reflections
NUMBER
you see face-up at 10X, the greater the effect on the clarity grade. Because
a diamond’s facets act like mirrors, inclusions might be reflected multiple
times. Even when a small inclusion is only somewhat easy to see, reflec-
tions can make it more apparent.
➤
John Koivula/GIA Gary Roskin
An inclusion’s size can determine its effect on clarity. The large knot in the round
brilliant (left) affects the stone’s clarity grade much more than the tiny crystal under
the table of the emerald cut (right).
A diamond with a great number of inclusions or reflections (left) generally gets a

lower clarity grade than one with only a few visible clarity characteristics (right).
143
Both by Gary Roskin

Relief—Contrast between an A central location increases an inclusion’s impact on a diamond’s clarity grade.
inclusion and its host gem. Crystals directly under the table (left) affect the grade more than the feather
under the star facet (above).
Keep in mind that grades are set by how readily you can see the inclusions
rather than by counting them. For example, a diamond with a number of
minute pinpoints can still qualify as VVS. On the other hand, a single
large, dark, or centrally located included crystal could drop the grade into
VS, SI, or even I.
LOCATION (POSITION)
Inclusions are most visible when they’re directly under the table. Inclusions
under the crown facets or near the girdle are usually more difficult to see—
that’s why you have to examine the stone from several angles to find all its
characteristics.
Relief is the contrast between an inclusion and its host gem. Relief can
RELIEF
vary from high, or more apparent, to low, or less apparent. Generally, the
more an inclusion differs in brightness, darkness, or color from its host,
the more visible it is and the greater its impact on the clarity grade.
John Koivula/GIA
Although most diamond inclusions are white or colorless, some are black,
brown, dark red, or—on rare occasions—green. Since colored inclusions are
easier to see, they might lower the grade more than a colorless inclusion.
Nature refers to the type of characteristic and its effect on the diamond.
NATURE
Inclusions have more impact on clarity than blemishes. Graders must

sometimes refine the clarity grade to a higher or lower level because of
Vincent Cracco/GIA
nature.
Inclusions that threaten a stone’s
For example, internal graining is an optical irregularity that has far less
durability, like this surface-reaching
feather (top), affect the clarity grade
impact on a diamond’s clarity than a physical break of similar size and
more than harmless inclusions like the
appearance. A minute feather would have less impact on clarity than an

cloud centered under this diamond’s
table (bottom).
144
G RADING CLARITY
Gary Roskin
Vincent Cracco/GIA
The more an inclusion stands out, the more it affects the clarity grade. These red
(top right) and black (bottom right) included crystals stand out boldly against the
diamond’s background. The diamonds that contain them would get lower clarity
grades than the diamond with the barely visible grain centers under its pavilion
facet (above).
included crystal of similar size and appearance due to its superficial

nature.
Another factor to consider is an inclusion’s potential risk to the stone.

Generally, a stone with significant durability problems wouldn’t survive
the friction and pressure of the cutting process, so durability rarely affects
clarity. However, very deep feathers that extend from the crown to the
pavilion, or that penetrate one-third of the way or more into the diamond,
pose durability concerns and can lower the grade.
145
Because no two diamonds are alike,
it’s difficult to develop a precise
description of any clarity grade
Diamond Clarity Grades
except Flawless.
Blemishes very rarely have an effect

on grades lower than IF.
Flawless and IF
A clarity grade is usually determined VVS
by the largest or most visible charac-

teristics. VS
SI
Peter Johnston/GIA
The pyramid shows the relative rarity of fashioned diamonds of different clarity
grades. As clarity improves, diamonds increase in rarity. Very few diamonds qualify
for the Flawless and IF grades at the tip of the pyramid. Most diamonds on the
market are in the SI to I range.
146
G RADING CLARITY
Eric Welch/GIA
Displays of diamond jewelry sometimes include references to GIA Diamond Grading Reports. A GIA report is a reliable indicator
of a stone’s quality.
THE GIA CLARITY GRADING SCALE

The clarity characteristics in diamonds come in an endless variety of com-
Grade-setting characteristics—
Inclusions or blemishes that
binations, so there can never be one single description that automatically establish the clarity grade of a
describes a grade. As you read through the definitions of the 11 grades in diamond.
the GIA clarity grading scale, remember that it’s difficult to develop an
exact definition of any clarity grade except Flawless.
There are a few other things to remember. First, the descriptions of
VVS through I list only typical inclusions—not blemishes. That’s because
blemishes rarely have much effect on grades lower than IF.
Remember, too, that clarity grades describe typical grade-setting
characteristics: inclusions or blemishes that establish the grade of a
diamond. Other characteristics might be present, but they don’t affect the
grade. An I-graded diamond, for example, might have pinpoints, just like
a VVS. But it will also have other inclusions that make the presence of
the pinpoints an insignificant factor. The grade, then, is not the sum of
everything you see in the stone. It’s usually based on the largest or most
visible characteristics.
Finally, remember that the clarity grade is based on the diamond’s
overall appearance in a fully corrected 10X loupe. Many of the descriptions
147
Valerie Power/GIA
Graders at the GIA Laboratory use sophisticated equipment that includes fully
corrected magnification and darkfield illumination.
also apply most closely to round brilliants in typical jewelry sizes.

Inclusions are often easier to see in large stones and—as you’ll learn in
Assignment 16—also in some fancy shapes.
Some industry professionals use variations on the terms “purity” or
“quality” to describe the overall clarity of a diamond. For example, a
gem with good purity or high quality would be one with few clarity
characteristics. But to accurately describe a diamond, it’s best to use the
following internationally accepted clarity grades.
148
G RADING CLARITY
Eric Welch/GIA Gary Roskin
Flawless diamonds are so rare that many people in the trade will never see one.
Vincent Cracco/GIA
Under 10X magnification, it’s obvious that the inscription on this diamond doesn’t
penetrate beyond its surface. This diamond can still get a Flawless grade if it meets
the rest of the grade’s standards.
FLAWLESS (FL)
A Flawless diamond shows no inclusions and no blemishes when exam-
ined under 10X magnification.
A diamond can have these features, visible at 10X, and still qualify as
Flawless:
• Extra facets not visible face-up at 10X
• Naturals entirely confined to the girdle as long as they don’t thicken
the girdle or distort its outline
• Internal graining that’s not reflective, white, or colored, and that
doesn’t significantly affect transparency
• Inscriptions that aren’t internal and don’t appear to penetrate the surface
when viewed at 10X
• Mounting features
INTERNALLY FLAWLESS (IF)

An IF diamond shows only insignificant blemishes—no inclusions—
when examined under 10X magnification.
GIA added this grade in the 1970s to describe diamonds that don’t meet
the stringent requirements for the Flawless grade. Normally, the blemishes
on an IF diamond can be removed by very minor repolishing. Surface
graining is an exception because it usually can’t be polished away.
149
The GIA Clarity Grading System—A Flawless Pedigree

In 1952, Richard T. Liddicoat, then president of
GIA, started working on a diamond grading
system. GIA staffers Lester Bensen and Joe
Phillips assisted him, with input from Robert
Crowningshield and Bert Krashes. Their proposed
system—they called it a “diamond grading and
evaluation appraisal”—was composed of three
main segments: color, clarity, and make. (“Make”
is an industry term that describes the relative quality of a finished
diamond’s proportions and finish).
Other clarity grading systems were in use at the time, but there
was no single system that everybody used and understood. The
terms Flawless, VVS, VS, SI, and I were in use before GIA started
working on its own system. But the definitions of those grades were
so broad that it was impossible to get an accurate picture of a diamond
from its grade.
In early 1953, after months of work, Liddicoat unveiled the new
system. At that time, the system had nine grades—Flawless, VVS1,
VVS2, VS1, VS2, SI1, SI2, I1, and I2—and “I” stood for Imperfect.
Richard T. Liddicoat (top) felt that education was the cornerstone of a standardized
diamond grading system. In the 1950s, he started teaching students the fundamentals
of diamond grading (above).
150
G RADING CLARITY
At GIA world headquarters in Carlsbad, California, US (above), graders maintain

the integrity of the system Mr. Liddicoat worked hard to create (below).
In April of that same year,

Liddicoat, assisted by Robert
Crowningshield, taught the first
diamond grading class. The class
took place in New York, and
drew 11 students, some from the
neighboring states of Pennsylvania
and Massachusetts. Since then,
thousands of people have followed
in residence classes, distance
education, and traveling extension
classes held in countries all over
the world.
Valerie Power/GIA
The clarity grading system stayed more or less unchanged until the
1970s. Then the IF grade was added because, as Liddicoat said, “Too
many stones were being butchered by removing surface blemishes (in
order to) achieve the Flawless grade. Proportions and symmetry were
frequently ruined.” The I3 grade was also added in the 1970s to account
for stones with large, obvious inclusions. In the 1990s, the Imperfect
grade was renamed Included.
151
Eye-visible—Visible to the unaided

eye, without magnification.
➤
Shane McClure/GIA John Koivula/GIA
This diamond’s internal graining is visible This VVS2 diamond has barely detectable
only through the pavilion, setting its reflecting pinpoints between its culet and
clarity grade at VVS1. girdle.
VERY VERY SLIGHTLY INCLUDED (VVS1 AND VVS2)

VVS diamonds contain minute inclusions that are difficult to see under
10X magnification. The inclusions in a VVS1 diamond are extremely
difficult to see in the face-up position, or they might be visible only
through the pavilion. In VVS2, they’re very difficult to see. (The GIA
system uses words like “extremely” and “very” to describe subtle
differences in difficulty or ease of viewing inclusions.)
Under 10X, a typical VVS1 stone might show a pinpoint or two, or
reflective internal graining that’s visible only through the pavilion or very
faintly through the crown. If these characteristics show up more clearly
through the crown, the stone would get a VVS2 grade. Surface-reaching
inclusions such as minute feathers, chips, or cavities might set the grade
John Koivula/GIA
at either VVS1 or VVS2, depending on their size and face-up visibility.

The heavy bearding on this diamond’s
girdle sets its grade at VS1.
VERY SLIGHTLY INCLUDED (VS1 AND VS2)

VS stones contain minor inclusions that range from difficult (VS1) to
somewhat easy (VS2) to see under 10X magnification. All types of inclu-
sions are possible. The grade depends on their overall visibility when
considering all five clarity factors. Typical inclusions that might set the
grade include small crystals, knots, distinct clouds, or minor surface-
reaching inclusions such as feathers, cavities, or indented naturals.
In very rare cases, a VS stone might actually contain an eye-visible inclu-
sion. You have to consider the size, nature, location, number, and relief of
the inclusion in relation to the size and shape of the stone. For example, an
emerald cut that’s more than one carat in size can have an eye-visible
included crystal under the corner of the table and still be in the VS range.
Gary Roskin
SLIGHTLY INCLUDED (SI1 AND SI2)

SI stones contain noticeable inclusions that are easy (SI1) or very easy
This VS2 diamond has a group of
needle-like inclusions and a small
(SI2) to see under 10X. All types of inclusions are possible. The grade
crystal in its lower right portion.
152
G RADING CLARITY
VS, SI, and I stones can have eye-
visible inclusions.
These SI1 diamonds have noticeable inclusions, like clouds (left) and large crystals
(right), under their tables.
Vincent Cracco/GIA John Koivula/GIA Gary Roskin
SI2 diamonds have noticeable inclusions that are easy to see at 10X magnification, This diamond is graded SI3. This grade
like reflectors (left) and large knots and feathers (right). is not part of the GIA clarity scale, but
some people in the trade use it, and
you might see it on diamond price lists.
depends on their overall visibility when considering all five clarity fac-
tors. Typical inclusions that might set the grade include crystals, feathers,
clouds, and twinning wisps.
As is the case with the VS range, a stone with an eye-visible inclusion
can be graded SI, but in general the characteristics in an SI1 diamond are
not usually visible face-up without magnification. You’ll see eye-visible
inclusions more often in an SI2 stone.
INCLUDED (I1, I2, AND I3)

Diamonds in the I range contain inclusions that are obvious under 10X
magnification. One or more of the following is typical of these inclusions:
• They can be seen face-up without magnification
• They seriously affect the stone’s durability
• They’re numerous or large enough to affect transparency and brightness
153
Vincent Cracco/GIA John Koivula/GIA
The obvious feathers under this diamond’s A large feather across the table and an
table earn it an I1 grade. abundance of twinning wisps, clouds,
crystals, and needles make this an I2
diamond.
I3 diamonds have inclusions that are extremely easy to see and often affect
the stone’s durability. These I3 diamonds are so heavily included that they lack
transparency.
The inclusions in I1 diamonds are usually quite visible to the unaided

eye. In I2, they are easily visible. In I3, they are extremely easy to see and
might affect the stone’s durability. Often, rough at this clarity level is used
for industrial purposes. It’s faceted only if the current market demands it.
UNDERSTANDING THE CLARITY GRADE

■ What are some of the variables that affect a clarity grade?
■ How do you match a diamond’s plot to its clarity characteristics?
You’ve already learned the key elements of clarity grading. Assignment

10 introduced individual clarity characteristics. So far, this assignment
has defined the clarity grades and demonstrated how the size, number,
location, relief, and nature of the diamond’s clarity characteristics relate
to their overall visibility and effect on the final clarity grade.
154
G RADING CLARITY
Plot—A map of a diamond’s

inclusions, blemishes, and facet
arrangement.
Eric Welch/GIA
Each diamond has its own combination of clarity characteristics that can act as
identifying features. Learning how to assess these characteristics and arrive at a
clarity grade requires experience with a variety of diamonds.
John Koivula/GIA
Clarity characteristics can be very obvious, as they are in this I1 diamond.
In this section, you’ll learn a little more about analyzing clarity. You’ll
also learn how to use your knowledge to read a plot and use it to examine
the diamond it describes.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF CLARITY GRADING

Think of clarity grades as a range of visibility. Inclusions and blemishes
range from nonexistent or barely visible in the higher grades to obvious
in the lower grades. Flawless stones, of course, are essentially free of
inclusions and blemishes. IF stones have only blemishes. Beginning at
VVS, inclusions become more and more visible until they detract from
the stone’s appearance. In the lowest grades, they’re probably the most
apparent features of the stone.
Beginning graders often have trouble deciding how much importance
they should place on the many characteristics—and combinations of
155
Ke y C o n c e p t s characteristics—they see in a diamond. These questions make those

decisions easier:
•
Accurate clarity grading includes
consideration of the size and shape How big are the characteristics?
of the diamond in relation to its • How many characteristics are there?
clarity characteristics. • Where are the characteristics located?
• What color are the characteristics, and do they stand out from the
background or blend into it?
• What kinds of characteristics are there?
The graders are looking at the size, number, location, relief, and nature
1
2 8 as they ask and answer these questions. But they also have to look at these
factors in relation to each other. A stone might have a big included crystal,
but if it’s located close to the girdle—under the crown facets—it isn’t very
3 7 noticeable.
The definitions of the clarity grades are also important, and this set of
questions might help the grader arrive at a conclusion:
• Are there any blemishes or inclusions? If not, the grade is Flawless.
4 6
5
• Are there only blemishes? If so, the grade is IF.
• Are the inclusions extremely difficult or very difficult to see (in other
words, are they minute)? If so, the grade is in the VVS range.
• Are the inclusions in a range from difficult to somewhat easy to see
5 (in other words, are they minor)? If so, the grade is in the VS range.
• Are the inclusions easy to very easy to see (noticeable)? If so, the
4 6
grade is in the SI range.
3 7
• Are the inclusions all very easy to see (obvious)? If so, the grade is in
2 8
1
the I range.
The size and shape of the diamond is also a factor. If there are two
inclusions of equal size, but one is in a 0.25-ct. diamond and the other is
in a 1.00-ct. diamond, they’re going to have different impacts on the
A numbering system will help you align
clarity grade of each stone. Also, some fancy shapes have large tables,
which makes it easier to see inclusions.
the crown and pavilion orientations
when you create or read a plot.
READING A PLOT
As you learned in Diamond Essentials, a plot is a map of a diamond’s
clarity characteristics. Diamond graders create plots by drawing clarity
symbols on crown and pavilion facet diagrams. The symbols indicate the
type, location, relative size, and sometimes the shape of the characteristics
being plotted.
Graders use green, red, and black inks to plot clarity characteristics. Each
color has its own meaning:
• Green ink indicates blemishes, with the exception of extra facets
• Red ink indicates most inclusions, even those that reach the surface
156
G RADING CLARITY
Hands-On Experience
This course is a good start
toward acquiring the
knowledge you need to
understand and use the
standards and procedures
of the GIA International
Diamond Grading
System™ to system-
atically evaluate a dia-
mond’s quality. But it
takes practical experience
to become a consistent
and skilled grader.
The GIA on-campus
Graduate Diamonds
program and the GIA
Diamond Grading Lab
Class give you hands-on
practice with carefully
selected diamonds and
top-of-the-line gemologi-
cal instruments. Trained
Eric Welch/GIA
GIA instructors are there

Hands-on training will help you develop
to provide their support

important skills, including clarity grading
(above). Earning a Graduate Diamonds
and guidance as you
diploma (right) requires the completion of
develop your grading

both written and practical coursework.
skills.
Earning the GIA Graduate Diamonds diploma requires successful
completion of your written coursework as well as fulfillment of the
additional practical requirements.
• Red and green inks, used together, indicate cavities, indented naturals,
knots, etch channels, and laser drill-holes
• Black ink indicates extra facets and, if the stone is mounted, the
position of the metalwork
Graders plot most characteristics on the crown diagram only. But if the
plot includes blemishes, they’re plotted wherever they occur. Characteristics
visible only from the pavilion view are plotted on the pavilion diagram.
Another exception is characteristics that break the surface: They’re plotted
in every location where they reach the surface.
157
PLOTTING SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Internal Inclusions Blemishes
Crystal (Xtl) Natural (N)
Needle (Ndl) Extra facet (EF)
Pinpoint (Pp) Surface graining (SG)
Cloud (Cld) Pit (Pit)
Twinning wisp (TW) Nick (Nck)
Internal graining (IG) Scratch (Scr)
Polish lines (PL)

Grain center (GC)
*
Burn (Brn, Dop)
Surface-reaching Inclusions Lizard skin (LS)
Laser drill-hole (LDH) Abrasion (Abr)
Knot (K) Rough girdle (RG)
Feather (Ftr) Polish mark
Bruise (Br) Laser manufacturing

remnant (LMR)
Chip (Ch)
Cavity (Cav) Other Features

Indented natural (IN) Inscription (Ins)
Etch channel (EC) Mounting feature
Bearded girdle (BG) Metalwork (Metal)
There are no plotting symbols for internal laser drilling or patch of color. Symbols
shown in the gray areas are not plotted on a GIA report. However, you might see
them on other trade documents such as appraisals.
158
G RADING CLARITY
The plot for this IF diamond shows only The small crystals under this diamond’s
minor abrasions. table qualify it for a VS1 grade.
You might never pick up a plotting pen, but you should know how to
read a plot. You should also know that plots differ, based on where they
come from and what they’re used for. Plots can come from many different
sources. The most common ones are appraisers, in-store gemologists,
diamond dealers, and gemological laboratories.
Not all characteristics are plotted. In fact, some grade-setting character-
istics aren’t plotted at all, even on a laboratory report. Many diamond
professionals plot only the characteristics that identify the stone, that set
the grade, or that are important in establishing the diamond’s condition.
The last is especially important in an appraisal. Some characteristics that
aren’t plotted might be mentioned in a report’s comments section.
159
The large knot in this SI2 diamond is very The large feathers, cavities, and centrally
easy to see. The knot that’s visible face- located crystals set the grade for this I1
up is plotted on the pavilion because diamond.
that’s where it breaks the surface.
Internal graining, for example, can set the grade for a VVS1 stone, but
it probably won’t be plotted. The grader will simply note it in a comments
section. And, since blemishes seldom set the grade, they’re seldom plot-
ted. Naturals and extra facets are often plotted because they’re useful as
identifying features.
Some plots are easier to read than others. Often, the fewer the clarity
characteristics, the more difficult it is to match the plot to the stone. A pin-
point inclusion can be the grade-setter in a VVS2 diamond, but it can be
hard to locate if it’s hidden under a crown facet.
160
G RADING CLARITY
Both by Valerie Power/GIA
Like a detective, a grader carefully examines each diamond in minute detail before
assigning its clarity grade.
Whether you are plotting a diamond or simply reading a plot, the best
method for orienting the diamond to the diagram is to use the numbering
system and step-by-step procedure, called the wedge technique, that you
learned in Assignment 10.
As you proceed with your table-to-culet examination, counting from
one wedge-shaped section to the next, rotate the diagram so it aligns with
your view of the diamond. For example, if you’re examining the crown of
the third wedge in the 12 o’clock position, rotate the plot so its section
number three is also in the 12 o’clock position.
When grade-setting inclusions are visible face-up and plotted on the
crown diagram, you might find that a quick look in the face-up view is
sufficient to match a diamond to its plot. In this case, hold the diamond
girdle-to-girdle and examine it under 10X magnification. Rotate the plot
to match your view of the diamond.
Maps have keys, and so do plots. After plotting a diamond, the grader
creates a key to symbols that lists the characteristics and symbols shown
on the plot. This is an essential tool for anyone who reads the plot.
The grader lists the characteristics in order of importance. When present,
laser drill-holes are listed first to ensure clear disclosure of the treatment.
Grade-setting inclusions are listed next, followed by other inclusions in
the order of their severity. Naturals and extra facets are listed last.
161
Daniel Portnoy/AP Wide World Photos
Most of the diamonds that are set in fine-quality jewelry are high in all Four Cs,
including clarity.
Diamond grading is a little like being a detective. To solve the mystery

of a diamond’s clarity grade, you start by searching for clues—its inclusions
and blemishes. Then you analyze the clues to come to a conclusion—a
clarity grade that accurately represents the quality of the diamond. It works
the other way around when you read a plot. Someone else has already
done the work of grading the diamond, but you have to match their
illustrated clarity characteristics with the real ones in the diamond.
You now know what clarity characteristics look like and how they
influence a clarity grade. Try to get as much experience looking at dia-
monds and reading plots as possible. As you develop your clarity grading
skills, you’ll gain more confidence. Practice is the best way to develop
your diamond grading skills and to ensure your success at every level of
the diamond industry.
162
G RADING CLARITY
The GIA Diamond Grading System provides a Blemishes very rarely have an effect on grades
universally accepted way to communicate lower than IF.
diamond quality.
A clarity grade is usually determined by the
The effect of clarity characteristics on the clarity largest or most visible characteristics.
grade is based on their size, number, location,
relief, and nature. VS, SI, and I stones can have eye-visible
inclusions.
Large inclusions usually have the greatest
influence on the clarity grade. Accurate clarity grading includes consideration of
the size and shape of the diamond in relation to
Because no two diamonds are alike, it’s difficult to its clarity characteristics.
develop a precise description of any clarity grade
except Flawless.
Key Terms
Eye-visible—Visible to the unaided eye, Plot—A map of a diamond’s inclusions,
without magnification. blemishes, and facet arrangement.
Grade-setting characteristics—Inclusions or Relief—Contrast between an inclusion and

blemishes that establish the clarity grade of its host gem.
a diamond.
163
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND G RADING BOOK 2
PHOTO COURTESIES
The Gemological Institute of America gratefully acknowledges the following people and organizations for their assistance in gathering or producing some of the images used in this assignment book:
Ambar Diamonds Lauren Stomel Advertising

Ashton Mining Limited Lili Diamonds, Israel
Benjamin Zucker, Precious Stones Company, New York The Natural History Museum, London
Diamond Trading Company Neil Lane, Inc.
Diamond Promotion Service Omer and Betty Dean Collection
ENH International Rose, Joe, and Jacques Mouw
Field’s Jewelers Rose Sawing, Inc.
Finell’s Jewelers Rosy Blue, Mumbai, India
Gemworld International, Inc. Schmuel Schnitzer
Glodiam Ltd. Israel Stanley Kahn family collection, Pine Bluff Arkansas
Hans D. Krieger, Idar-Oberstein, Germany Steinmetz
Hasenfeld Stein, Inc. Suzanne Tennenbaum
Hearts On Fire Venus Jewel, Surat, India
Jeweler’s Circular Keystone William Goldberg Diamond Corporation
K.R. Gems & Diamonds International Wilma Vander Giessen
Kristall Smolensk The Zales Corporation
Lazare Kaplan Zareh Boyadjian
164
FOR FURTHER READING
For Further Reading

Gems & Gemology (G&G), GIA’s professional journal, provides in-depth feature
articles on the latest gemological research, from gem treatments, lab-grown gems,
and the evaluation of gem quality to developments in gem production, market
sources, and more.
To give you the opportunity to learn more about the subjects you are studying
and enrich your gemological knowledge, a list of G&G articles relevant to each
Scan the QR code above or go to
Diamonds & Diamond Grading assignment is provided below. It is important to https://www.gia.edu/library to
note that this reading is optional. You will not be tested on the content of these access articles for further reading.
articles.
All G&G articles are available for download free of charge on GIA’s website, www.gia.edu. Copies of these articles
are also available at your GIA campus location. Check with your instructor for access to them.
Assignment 7: The Diamond Crystal

Kautsky J. (2016) Begin with the End in Mind: Tips, Tools to Evaluate Diamond Rough. GIA Research & News
https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/begin-end-mind-tips-tools-evaluate-diamond-rough
Sucher S.D. (2009) A Crystallographic Analysis of the Tavernier Blue Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 45, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2009-crystallographic-analysis-tavernier-blue-sucher
Diehl R., Herres N. (2004) X-Ray Fingerprinting Routine for Cut Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 40, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2004-x-ray-fingerprinting-cut-diamonds-diehl
Sunagawa I. et al. (1998) Fingerprinting of Two Diamonds Cut from the Same Rough. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 34, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1998-diamonds-cut-same-rough-sunagawa
Seal M. (1962) The Surface Structure of Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 10, No. 10
https://www.gia.edu/doc/summer_1962.pdf
Ball S.H. (1948) Industrial Diamonds and Their Uses. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 6, No. 2
Holmes R.J. (1947) Color Range and Form Variations in Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 5, No. 10
Assignment 8: Diamonds and Light

GIA (2016) Cut: The 4th C. GIA Research & News
https://www.gia.edu/diamond-cut/cut-grade-research-background
Gilbertson A. et al. (2009) Cutting Diffraction Gratings to Improve Dispersion (“Fire”) in Diamonds.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 45, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2009-fiery-diamonds-gilbertson
Moses T.M. et al. (2004) A Foundation for Grading the Overall Cut Quality of Round Brilliant Cut Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2004-grading-cut-quality-brilliant-diamond-moses
Reinitz I.M. et al. (2001) Modeling the Appearance of the Round Brilliant Cut Diamond: An Analysis of Fire, and
More about Brilliance. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 37, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2001-modeling-appearance-round-brilliant-cut-diamond-reinitz
Hemphill T.S. et al. (1998) Modeling the Appearance of the Round Brilliant Cut Diamond: An Analysis of Brilliance.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1998-an-analysis-of-brilliance-hemphill
165
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING BOOK 2
Assignment 9: The Evolution of Diamond Cutting

Shor R. (2016) Polki Diamonds: A ‘New’ Fashion Statement from Mogul India. GIA Research & News
https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research/polki-diamonds-new-fashion-statement-mogul-india
Stone-Sundberg J. (2015) Gem News International: Diamond Slices. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 51, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2015-gemnews-diamond-slices
Hsu T., Lucas A. (2014) Visit to Chow Tai Fook Diamond Cutting Factory in Foshan, China. GIA Research & News
https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-chowtai-fook-hsu
Allen T. (2013) Lab Notes: Diamond with Unusual Laser Manufacturing Remnant. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 49, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/FA13-LN-laser-manufacturing-remnant
Shor R. (2013) Diamonds: A Slice off the Old Rough. GIA Research & News
https://www.gia.edu/research-news-diamond-slices-shor
Pay D. (2013) Describing 58-facet Round Brilliant-Cut Diamonds at GIA. GIA Research & News
https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-round-brilliant-cut-diamond-pay
Gaillou E. et al. (2010) The Wittelsbach-Graff and Hope Diamonds: Not Cut from the Same Rough.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2010-diamond-wittelsbach-graff-gaillou
Sucher S.D., Carriere D.P. (2011) The Use of Laser and X-Ray Scanning to Create a Model of the Historic
Koh-I-Noor Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 44, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2007-model-koh-i-noor-diamond-sucher
Caspi A. (1997) Modern Diamond Cutting and Polishing. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 33, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-1997-diamond-cutting-polishing-caspi
Kerr W.C. (1982) A Report on the New Watermeyer Split-Facet Diamond Cuts. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1982-diamond-kerr
Baker D.M. (1981) Revolution in Diamond Cutting: Laser Sawing of Diamond Crystals. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 17, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1981-diamond-cutting-baker
Tillander H. (1966) Six Centuries of Diamond Design. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 12, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/doc/fall_1966.pdf
Assignment 11: Grading Clarity

King J.M. et al. (2006) The Impact of Internal Whitish and Reflective Graining on the Clarity Grading of D-to-Z
Color Diamonds at the GIA Laboratory. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 42, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2006-internal-whitish-reflective-graining-king
Kane R.E. (1980) The Elusive Nature of Graining in Gem Quality Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 9
166

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Diamonds &

7. The Diamond Crystal

8. Diamonds and Light

9. The Evolution of Diamond Cutting

10. Finding and Identifying Clarity Characteristics

11. Grading Clarity

Assignment 7 The Diamond Crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Assignment 8 Diamonds and Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Assignment 9 The Evolution of Diamond Cutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Assignment 10 Finding and Identifying Clarity Characteristics . . 101

Assignment 11 Grading Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Cover photos (top to bottom):

An octahedral diamond crystal is one of nature’s most exquisite creations.

THE DIAMOND CRYSTAL

Basically, a crystal is any bit of solid matter with atoms arranged in a

The symmetry of diamond’s crystal

ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF DIAMONDS

No description of diamond’s internal construction can begin without an

A mineral is a solid material that forms in nature, not as the result of

to a mineral group. In the gemstone world, garnets and feldspars are

the most-familiar mineral groups.

DIAMOND’S UNIT CELL

One characteristic of mineral crystals is that their internal structures are

Unit cells connect to build crystal shapes or crystal forms. Crystal

The octahedron is the most common

Crystal shape (form)—Geometric

Octahedron—A form with eight

Gold is a cubic mineral, like diamond.

DIAMOND’S CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Mineralogists and gemologists classify crystals by their geometric

Naming Crystal Forms

number roots are:

Individual roots can be com-

Hexocta = (6×8) = 48 Peter Johnston/GIA

Next, add the base word

hedron, which means “face.” So,

an octahedron has 8 faces, a

dodecahedron 12, and a trisocta-

Well-formed cubic crystals are evenly proportioned and balanced. Garnet,

Crystal structure affects diamond in ways that are especially important

The Cullinan rough, unearthed in 1905 in South Africa, weighed an extraordinary

professionals can detect a simulant simply because it weighs more than

refractive, or isotropic. Crystals that form in less symmetrical crystal

travel at different speeds. These crystals are called doubly refractive, or

FOREIGN ATOMS AND CRYSTAL IRREGULARITIES

The doubling is fairly obvious in this

isometric, tetragonal, hexago-

crystals in the other six systems

study of other gems.

• Kunzite, jade, and moon-

other crystal systems when

Glide plane—Crystal distortion

Graining (grain lines)—Visible,

Grain lines reveal irregularities in diamond’s crystal structure. They’re caused by

Diamond’s chemical composition is simply carbon, but it can incorporate

its appearance. One of these irregularities is called a glide plane, in which

crystal structure becomes deformed.

Diamond often surrounds crystals of

Rough diamonds vary widely in appearance. They can be perfectly sym-

Thermal Expansion and Conductivity

The energy makes them vibrate,

and they move farther apart. The

for different materials. Even