IV B.tech R18 Basics of Psychology OE-1 Course File a.Y. 2022-23

COURSE FILE
Basics of Psychology
(Open Elective-I: Common to all branches)
IV B.Tech. - I SEMESTER
R18- Choice Based Credit System
2022-23
CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

An UGC Autonomous Institution with NAAC ‘A’ Grade
(Approved by AICTE & Govt. of Telangana and
Affiliated to JNT University Hyderabad
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatan (M)
R.R. Dist, Pin – 501 510
Email: info@cvr.ac.in Web: http://cvr.ac.in
B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP-1

68403
BASICS OF PSYCHOLOGY
(Open Elective-I: Common to all the Branches)
Instruction : 3 Periods / week Continuous Internal Evaluation : 30 Marks

Tutorial : - Semester End Examination : 70 Marks
Credits : 3 Semester End Exam Duration : 3 Hours
Course objectives:
1. To provide comprehensive overview of psychology, its evolution and its significance in
different fields.
2. To develop understanding about several bases of human behavior.
3. To introduce inter and intrapersonal skills as self, motivation and personality.
4. To make students aware of their learning style, memory, perception and decision making
skills.
5. To enable students learn about psychological disorders and causative factors and various
therapies to cope up.
Unit I - Introduction to Psychology
Nature of Psychology, Meaning, Scope of Psychology, Evolution of the Discipline of Psychology

and developments in Psychology in India, role of Psychology in other disciplines, Schools of
psychology, emerging fields in Psychology, branches of Psychology
Unit II - The Bases of Human Behavior
Evolutionary Perspective on Human behavior, bases of human behavior, Brain and behavior:
structure and Relationship with Behavior Nervous System and Endocrine System, Genetic Bases
of Behavior, cultural bases of human behavior, Socialization: Enculturation and Acculturation.
Unit III - The Self, Motivation and Personality
Self: Self-concept: Self-Esteem and Self-Regulation; Culture and Self; Motivation: Definition and
types, Biological, Social and General motives, Maslow‘s Need Hierarchy Theory and
McClelland‘s Theory of Achievement Motivation.
Personality: Concept of personality, Type and Trait Approaches to Personality, Different trait
approaches: Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Behavioral and Cultural, Assessment of Personality:
self-Report Measures, behavioral Analysis, and projective Measures.
Unit IV - Cognitive Processes
Attention: Definition, Types of Attention, Factors Influencing Attention

Perception: Definition, Meaning and Nature, Principles of Perceptual Organization.
Learning: Definition, Meaning, Nature, Learning Styles.
Memory: Definition and Nature, Information Process, Stages, Kinds of Memory
Forgetting: Definition and Nature, Causes – Theory of Decay and Interference, Methods and
Techniques to Improving Memory.
Thinking: Definition, Nature, Types of thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, steps in Problem
solving & decision making.
Unit V - Psychological Disorders, Therapeutic Approaches and Counseling
Concepts of Abnormality and Psychological Disorders, Causal factors associated with abnormal
Behavior: biological factors, genetic factors, Classification of Disorders: DSM and ICD, Major
Psychological Disorders: Anxiety, Somato-form, Dissociative, Mood disorders, Schizophrenic.
Development and Behavioral disorders: ADHD, Autism, Substance Related.
Types of therapies: Psycho-dynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive, Behavior.

Counseling: Nature, Characteristics of an effective Counselor, Stages of Counseling.
Course outcomes:
CO 1: Students will realize significant role of mind in every field.

CO 2: Students will know scientific reasons of their behavior.
CO 3: Students will modify their behaviors by cultivating right perception and, positive self and
personality.
CO 4: Students will learn new methods of improving learning, attention and memory.
CO 5: Students will be able to recognize symptoms of abnormal behavior and will be aware of
right line of therapy.
Text Books:
1. Parameswaran, E.G. and Beena, C, an Invitation to Psychology, 1st Edition. Neel Kamal
Publications, Hyderabad, 2002.
2. Robert S. Feldman, Understanding Psychology, 10th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.
References:
1. Braj Kumar Mishra, Psychology: The Study of Human Behavior, PHI (EEE) India 2016
2. Morgan C.T., and King. R.A. Weisz, J.R. & Scholpler, J, Introduction to Psychology, 7th
Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill.
3. Girishwar Misra, Handbook of Psychology in India (Handbooks Series), Oxford Publications.
4. Butcher, James, N. Susan, Maneka, Abnormal Psychology, Pearson Education, 5th edition,
2002.
5. Saundra K. Cicceralli, Psychology, 5th Edition, Pearson.
6. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognitive Psychology, 8th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, International
student edition 2013.

Unit 1
Introduction to Psychology
Nature and Scope of Psychology
The word psychology is derived from two Greek words “psyche” and “logos.” Psyche means soul and
logos mean the study. Thus, originally psychology was defined as the study of “soul” or “spirit.” But later
on, philosophers defined psyche as mind. Because of this, psychology began to be regarded as the study of
an individual’s mind or mental process. As the mind does not exist as an object: and cannot be observed
and measured objectively this definition was also given up. Hence the most widely and accepted definition
of psychology is that it is the science of human and animal behavior and mental processes. Thus, there are
three parts to the definition. Firstly, psychology is a science because it systematically tries to gather data by
carefully observing and recording events or behaviors of humans and animals under controlled
experimental conditions. Thus, measurement of behavior is as objective as possible in psychology. The
knowledge that is gained collecting data with the help of experiments and other methods of observation, is
then applied to solve real-life problems. Secondly, the term behavior in the definition implies the overt
actions and reactions. Whatever the animals or humans do, that is of interest, can be recorded, such as
actions, thoughts, emotions, attitudes, etc. Lastly, the term mental processes refer to all the covert or
internal processes, such as thinking, feeling and remembering. Succinctly said, psychology is a science that
seeks to understand and predict human and animal behavior (Morgan, King, & Robinson,
1984).Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. The discipline embraces all aspects of the human
experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for
the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental health care services, “the
understanding of behavior” is the enterprise of psychologists.
Scope of Psychology
Psychology helps us to develop a basic understanding about human nature and facilitates us to deal with a
number of personal and social problems. The study of human starts with the biological system. Under
biological perspective, we study the functions of nervous system, endocrine system etc. It studies how
socio-cultural enviro interacts with biological, intellectual and social attributes of a child and facilitates
healthy development. We come across through a lot of stimulation. Through Attention and perception, we
process the information and store it in our memory and retrieve it later. All these processes come under
cognition. Psychology helps us to understand the processes involved in learning and attaining different
level of accomplishment. Psychologists study the motive behind the behaviour. Motivation focuses on the
investment of mental energy and consistency of effort towards achieving the set goals. Feelings such as
anger, fear, love, joy, and sadness which we experience during the course of our life are studied within the
realm of emotion.
Psychologists also study individual differences such as intelligence, personality, aptitude etc., which
facilitates them to select right person for a job and to provide guidance and counselling for various matters
of personal or professional concern. The understanding of individual differences also helps them to
differentiate between normative and abnormal behaviours.
Origin and Evolution of Psychology
In the beginning, psychology was a part of philosophy. It moved away from philosophy and became an
independent discipline approximately 138 years ago. Thus, Greek philosophers like Socrates (428-348
BCE), Plato (428-347 BCE) and Aristotle (384-322 BCE) tried to explain human mind and its relationship
to the physical body as early as 4 BCE. Socrates famous thought ‘know thyself’ emphasized on the
importance of self and personal reflection. Later, French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650)
considered pineal gland (body physiology) as the ‘seat of the soul’, the place where all thoughts are
formed.
B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 4
The success of experimental methods in physics motivated some scientists to use experiments to study
mind and behavior. One of the first scientists to study psychological processes was the German
physiologist Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887), who studied psychophysics, a branch of psychology.
The first laboratory was established in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm Wundt(1832-1920).In 1883
in the USA, the first formal psychology laboratory was set up in John Hopkins University by Wundt’s
student, G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924).There was much progress, but moving away from philosophy was
quite difficult. American Psychological Association (APA) started in 1892 and Hall became its first
president. William James (1842-1910) wrote the first textbook on psychology known as “The Principles of
Psychology” (1890). They attempted to find the laws relating to events in the physical world to a person’s
mental experience of those external events. For this, they did many experiments in the areas of imagery,
memory, thinking, and emotion. The experiments were done to study the mind and mental experiences.
Gradually, different schools of thought came up with different viewpoints about the nature of the study of
psychology. They emphasized that the focus should be on the study of behavior rather than the mind.
Fundamental questions were raised about what should be studied in psychology: Should psychology be
the study of mind, should it study behaviour, or should both mind and behaviour be included? Different
influential psychologists of the time held quite different views on the nature of mind and the proper subject
matter for psychology. Schools of thought formed around these leaders, as their students adopted their
ideas. These schools of thought are known as the schools of psychology. The early schools of thought were
Structuralism, Gestalt Psychology, Functionalism, Behaviourism, and Psychoanalysis.
Early Schools of Psychology
Structuralism: The focus is on analyzing the basic structures of the human mind. This view is known as
structuralism. It is associated with Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. Structuralism emphasized that
the subject matter of psychological research consists of images, thoughts, and feelings, which are the
elements, forming the structure of consciousness. For instance, the structuralists did experiments to find
the elementary sensations—such as red, cold, sweet and fragrant, for example—which provide, the basis of
more complex mental experiences. The main method used by the structuralists to discover these
elementary units of mind was introspection.
Functionalism: Influenced by Darwin’s ideas and theory of evolution, functionalists were, specifically,
interested in the fact that mind and behaviour were adaptive, as they enable us to adjust to a changing
environment. The focus of functional study was functions of mind and behavior (like learning, memory,
problem-solving and motivation). John Dewey (1859-1952) developed functionalism, focusing on what the
mind and behavior do and how they enable a person to adapt to new and complex situations. William
James (1842-1910), the main contributor, was concerned on how the mind allows people to function in the
real world. This approach came to be known as functionalism.
Gestalt Psychology: Later psychologists conducted experiments to study sensations to know how the mind
functions. In 1912, Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) and Wolfgang Kohler (1887-
1967) founded gestalt psychology in Germany. They emphasized upon the whole notion of sensory
experience, connecting the sensations to relations and organization as a whole. The German word Gestalt
means “form” or “configuration”, and the Gestalt psychologists maintained that the mind should be
thought of as resulting from the whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organisations
within this pattern.
Behaviourism: This school originated with John B.Watson (1879-1958) and Burrhus Fredrick Skinner
(1904-1990), who disregarded mind as the matter of study and stressed that psychology should study only
observable forms of behavior, ignoring the covert processes. They gave more importance to the study of
behavior and what activities animals, or humans engage in. Watson emphasized on conditioned responses,
learned behavior and animal behavior. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov concluded that stimuli other than food, may
produce salivation and this led him to study conditioned reflex in detail.Watson rejected the idea that mind
should be the subject of psychology, and instead, emphasized that psychology be restricted to the study of
behaviour . There are four important characteristics of behaviourism. First, its focus on behaviour, as the
proper subject matter of psychology.Second, it emphasised on conditioned responses (learned responses)
as the elements or building blocks, of behaviour. A third closely related feature of behaviourism was its
emphasis on learned rather than unlearned, behavior. Finally, the fourth characteristic of behaviourism was

its focus on animal behaviour. Watson argued that there are no essential differences between human and
animal behaviour. He also believed that we could learn much about our own behaviour from the study of
what animals do.
Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis was founded by Austrian psychiatrist, Sigmund Freud (1856-1938) in

Vienna, Austria. Psychoanalysis has had a significant impact on the thinking and theorizing of many
psychologists. Freud developed a theory of behaviour and mind (the psychoanalytic theory), on the basis of
his practice with neurotic patients, which held that much of what we think and do is due to our urges,
drives, and desires, which seek expressions in our thought and behaviour. Freud proposed that unconscious
motivation plays an important role in nervous disorders and stressed the importance of early childhood
experiences in personality development. Freud believed that urges and drives are expressed in behavior
and thought. The focus is on the role of unconscious thoughts, memories, and feelings. These unconscious
thoughts and memories were revealed through free-talk and dream interpretation, in a process called
psychoanalysis.Freud believed that during our childhood, certain events have great influence on how our
personality is shaped, which carries over into our adult lives.In a book called "Interpretation of Dreams,"
Freud laid out a topographical model of three mental systems, conscious, preconscious, and unconscious,
and how the mind is structured and how it functions. The analogy he used for how the three work together
is an iceberg in water. The conscious mind is the part of the iceberg that is above the surface of the water.
Just below the surface of the water lies the preconscious. The unconscious mind is below the preconscious
and is deep below the surface of the water.Freud came up with a second topographic model that explains
certain aspects within the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious parts of the mind and has to do with a
person's personality. These parts are id, which resides in the unconscious part of our mind, ego, which
mainly resides in the preconscious and conscious parts of the mind, and superego, which resides in all
three parts.The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. The id is a part of the
unconscious that contains all the urges and impulses, including what is called the libido, a kind of
generalized sexual energy that is used for everything from survival instincts to appreciation of art.The ego
is the only part of the conscious personality. It's what the person is aware of when they think about
themselves, and is what they usually try to project toward others. Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e.,
tension reduction) and avoids pain, but unlike the id, the ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy
to obtain pleasure.The superego is a part of the unconscious that is the voice of conscience (doing what is
right) and the source of self-criticism. It reflects society's moral values to some degree, and a person is
sometimes aware of their own morality and ethics, but the superego contains a vast number of codes, or
prohibitions, that are issued mostly unconsciously in the form of commands or "don't" statements.
Modern Schools of Psychology

Humanistic Perspective: Also known as ‘third force’ in psychology, focused on people’s ability to direct
their own lives. The key features are free-will, freedom to choose one’s destiny, strive for self-
actualization, and achievement of one’s own potential. The main founders are Abraham Maslow (1908-
1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987).
Cognitive Perspective: The gestalt approach and the development of computers stimulated interest in
studying higher-order mental processes. This perspective gained prominence in 1960s and focused on
memory, intelligence, language, problem-solving, and decision-making. Main contributors are German
psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), who started the study on memory by investigating the
formation of associations by learning serial lists of nonsense syllables, and the English psychologist, Sir
Frederic Bartlett (1886–1969), who studied the cognitive and social processes of remembering.
Sociocultural Perspective: The focus is on social and cultural factors that influence behavior. Research
from this perspective is important because it can highlight the different influences of environment, social
norms, class differences, ethnic identity, etc. Sociocultural psychologists concluded that norms of western
cultures are primarily towards individualism and norms from east Asian cultures are primarily oriented
towards collectivism or interdependence. Social psychologist Leon Festinger (1919-1989) proposed
cognitive dissonance theory that states that a person is aware at some level if she or he acts inconsistent
with her or his belief, attitude, or opinion.

Biological Perspective: It is concerned with the biological bases of behavior and mental processes. Role of
nervous system, hormones, brain chemicals, and glandular system are the biological causes of behavior,
and they are the focus of research.
Evolutionary Perspective: Evolutionary psychologists believe that the behavioural predispositions or

tendencies, such as ‘aggression’, is determined by genes and which is transferred from one generation to
the next. Research from evolutionary perspective examines behaviour (aggression, mating, etc.) in
different species, which may be influenced by evolution. They also give importance to sociocultural factors
that could effect behavior.
6. Developments in Psychology in India
Psychology was a stream that was embedded in Philosophy whether in the western psychology or the
Indian psychology and since there was a lot of western influence on the psychologists in India, they
became more western in their training and orientation.
In India, however the roots of psychology can be traced back to the vast philosophical and religious
literature: namely, Vedic and Epic literature. In particular, Vedas, Yoga Sutras, Bhagavad Gita are the
Indian sources for analysing various aspects of man's behaviour and mind. It was around this time that Sri
Aurobindo made significant contribution to psychology from the Indian tradition.
The study of Psychology in India was first initiated in the University of Calcutta, in 1916, though the
syllabus was prepared by Sir Brojendra Nath Seal (Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University), way back in
1905. Dr. N. N. Sengupta was the first faculty who was also a Harvard-trained scholar. Western model was
adopted in research and teaching. The first generation of psychologists after independence were people
from the background of Philosophy. In the early 20th century, Girindra Shekhar Bose, a psychoanalyst
became the first president of the Indian Psychoanalytic Society (1922). He was the first person to blend in
Hindu thought with Freudian concepts, and this was evident in his doctoral thesis in 1921 on “Concept of
Repression”. In 1924, Psychology courses started in Mysore University. The Indian Psychological
Association was established the same year. And after two years the first psychology journal “ Indian
Journal of Psychology” was founded which was much more advanced than its contemporaries at that time.
In 1932, Psychology courses started in Aligarh Muslim University. Psychology courses started in Madras
University in 1943. In 1957, psychology was introduced at the Masters level in University of Delhi with
philosophy and psychology. However, in 1964, the psychology department established itself as an
independent department under the guidance of Late Prof. Ganguli. In 1924, Mr. M.V.Gopalswamy was
heading the department in Mysore and he was trained in psychological assessments. The National Institute
of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) was startedin Bangalore in 1974. In 1961, Prof.
Durganand Sinha started psychology department in Allahabad University. At present, Psychology in India
focuses on the study of human behavior using indigenous techniques and methods along with the western
models. The Indian Psychological association was founded in 1924 and the Indian Journal of Psychology
appeared a year later. The department also started an applied psychology wing in 1938 when Jung, Meyers
and Spearman were invited to the Silver Jubilee session on the Indian Science Congress.The term Indian
Psychology refers to the psychologically relevant materials in ancient Indian thought. Usually this term
does not cover modern developments in Psychology in India.Modern Psychology at the beginning of the
century emphasized sensation, perception and psychologists in India took out Indian theories of sensation
and perception from the classics and created an Indian Psychology. For example Indian theories emphasise
the notion that in perception the mind goes out through the senses and assumes the shape of the objects. As
soon as Western Psychologists started studying cognition, Indian Psychologists started looking for Indian
theories of cognition. Later on modern Psychology started emphasizing emotions.The major part of ancient
Indian scriptures (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain) emphasize self-realization, samadhi or nirvana. After 1960
Humanistic Psychology emerged and Psychologists became interested in paranormal dimensions of
growth. Maslow's theory of self-actualization and transcendental self-actualization established the link to
the major part of ancient Indian theories and methods and almost the whole of ancient Indian writings
became psychologically relevant. Psychology of Consciousness, Parapsychology, Psychology of
Mysticism, Psychology of Religion and Transpersonal Psychology borrow extensively from Indian
writings. The terms Oriental Psychology, Buddhist Psychology, Yoga Psychology, Jain Psychology, etc.
are frequently found in modern psychological literature now. Many book lists in Psychology now include
books on Yoga, Buddhism and Zen. There seems to be a paradigm shift in Western Psychology, a shift
from the notion of mental disease and healing to personal growth, the reference point shifting from the
statistical average or "normal" to the ideal or upper limits of man's potentiality.
The rudiments of the theory of consciousness can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization (6000 to
1500 B.C.). Artifacts of a man sitting in Padmasana have been obtained in excavations. The Swasthika
symbol was used in Indus valley script. Buddhist thought and methods (6th century B.C.) are in line with
the objective spirit of modern science and the law of parsimony of science and Buddhism can be easily
incorporated into a scientific framework. The Psychological relevance of the four noble truths and eight-
fold path and Sunyavada of Buddhism and Buddhist techniques of meditation are of considerable relevance
in modern Psychology. Similarly Jain scriptures also are found to be relevant to Psychology in more than
one way. The Vedas date from about 1500 B.C. However, Upanishads (appendices to the Vedas, which
date from 600 B.C.) which describe the Vedanta philosophy and provide the theoretical foundation of
Jnana Yoga are of more direct relevance to Psychology. The Bhagavat Gita gives a quintessence of Indian
way of life and philosophy and it describes the four yogas, Karma, Bhakthi, Raja and Jnana. Several books
have come on the psychological relevance of Gita. Maslow's theory of Meta-motivation is very similar to
the concept of Nishkama karma outlined in the Gita.
Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga is a very systematic presentation of Raja yoga. Both Bhagavat Gita and
Ashtanga Yoga are supposed to have been written around the turn of B.C. to A.D. Sankara's writings (8th
century A.D.) on the different yogas as well as his Advaita philosophy are considered as classics in the
area and are of great value to the Psychology of consciousness as well as personal growth. Modern interest
in relaxation can be traced to studies on Savasana. Rising popularity of meditation practice links
Psychology to Oriental religious practices and philosophy. Indian literature on aspects of consciousness is
vast, considering the classics and their commentaries. Mental states have been analyzed, classified and
differentiated in detail. Similarly paranormal powers (siddhis) have been classified in detail.
The psychosomatic relationship was well known and salient in ancient times. The very first invocatory
stanza of Ashtangahridaya (the main text in Ayurveda, written in 4th century A.D.) describes how
emotions like desires lead to both physical and mental diseases. Many attempts are being made to integrate
ancient Indian Psychology with modern Western Psychology. Personality inventories based on the Triguna
theory (Satwa, Rajas and Tamas) of Kapila (Sankhya philosophy, 6th century B.C.) were also developed.
Concept of Behavior
Behaviour in its broader sense includes all types of human activities that can be directly observed.
Behaviour is both mental and bodily. Mental behaviours are thinking, reasoning, imagination and other
mental experiences or processes. Bodily behaviour refers to the movements and actions of the body in
response to a situation. It is the reaction of an individual to a particular environment which exerts influence
which is called stimulus. The stimulus in turn arouses an activity from the individual and this is called the
response.Behaviour shows growth and development from the early years of infancy to maturity and old
age. Psychology as a science studies how behaviour grows and develops from infancy to old age and also
studies behavioural differences between people. Behavior is measurable and observable.It has three
components:Behaviour has ABC. A (Antecedents) ⇒ B (Behaviors) ⇒ C (Consequences).
Basic fields of Psychology
Biopsychology: Studies the biological bases of behaviour. All behaviour occurs through bodily processes.
The brain plays a very important role in coordinating and organising the functions of the different organs
of the body. Hence, there is an intimate relationship between psychology and neurology, neurophysiology,
neurochemistry and other branches of knowledge which are directly involved with the study of the nervous
system, particularly the brain. Genetics, the branch of the biology which deals with the nature of
inheritance of different qualities is also an important discipline from the point of view of psychology.
Cognitive Psychology: It is the area where psychologists study how the human mind, thinks, remembers,
sense, perceive, memory, and learns. It is the scientific study of mental processes.

Comparative Psychology: Studies and compares the behaviour of different species, especially animals.
That is why some authors used to call this field as animal psychology. By studying animal behaviour, these
psychologists gather important information which can be compared with and applied to human behaviour.
Cultural Psychology: Studies the ways in which culture, subculture, and ethnic group membership affect
behaviour. These psychologists do cross cultural research and compare behaviour of people in different
nations.
Experimental Psychology: Experimental psychology is distinguished by what it studies—the fundamental

processes of learning, and memory, thinking, sensation and perception, motivation, emotion, and the
physiological or biological bases of behaviour. They try to understand the basis of behavior and thought
and try to develop certain modification techniques on the basis of their research findings.
Gender Psychology: Does research on differences between males and females, the acquisition of gender
identity, and the role of gender.
Learning Psychology: Studies how and why learning occurs. These psychologists develop theories of
learning and apply the laws and principles of learning to solve a variety of human problems.
Personality Psychology: Studies personality traits and dynamics. These psychologists develop theories of
personality and tests for assessing personality traits. They also identify the causes of problems related to
personality development.
Physiological Psychology: Physiological psychologists investigate the role of biochemical changes within
our nervous systems and bodies in everything we do, sense, feel, or think. Mostly, they use experimental
method and do basic research on the brain, nervous system, and other physical origins of behaviour.
Physiological Psychology is not only a part of psychology, but also is considered to be part of the broader
field called neurobiology which studies the nervous system and its functions.
Applied Fields
Clinical Psychology:
This field emphasizes on the diagnosis, causes, and treatment of severe psychological disorders and
emotional troubles. Confusion between the fields of clinical psychology and psychiatry occurs because
both clinical psychologists and psychiatrists provide psychotherapy.The field is concerned with
assessment, diagnosis, causes and treatment of mental disorders. Most of the clinical psychologists are
engaged with state mental hospitals or community mental health centers, schools, private practice, research
and teaching.
Counselling Psychology: Counseling psychologists deal with people having problems of milder emotional
or personal intent. Generally, people who need help in making a career choice or deciding which
educational program to opt for, seek help from a counseling psychologist. They may use a variety of
assessments such as tests or interviews to assess interest, aptitude, intelligence or personality attributes.
Some counselors may also help people having family problems or marital problems.
Environmental Psychology: The focus is on human-environment interrelationship. Psychological principles

are applied to improve interaction among people and for sustainable living. Studies the effects of urban
noise, crowding, attitudes toward the environment, and human use of space.
School Psychology: The major focus of this field is psychology of learning and effectiveness of school
programs. School psychologists work with elementary, and secondary school children, teachers, parents
and school administration. They provide counseling and guidance in schools and assess students’ interests,
aptitude, adjustment, learning ability, intelligence, and such related factors.

Educational Psychology: The focus of this area is on psychology of teaching. Educational psychologists
are involved in more general kind of problems that are not of immediate concern. They guide the students
to enhance their efficiency in learning in school by working on the school curriculum and motivational
skills.
Organizational Psychology: Psychological principles are applied to work-settings to enhance the well-
being and performance of employees. Investigates all aspects of behaviour in work setting ranging from
selection and recruitment of employees, performance appraisal, and work motivation to leadership.
Specialists in this field also apply psychology to problems related to management and employee training,
leadership and supervision, communication, motivation, inter- and intra-group conflict within the
organization.
Social Psychology: Social psychology studies groups of people, their relationship to one another, their
characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, their decision-making process and communication with other members of
their group, group cohesion, etc. It also investigates human social behaviour, including attitudes,
conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, aggression, helping and so forth.
Developmental Psychology: Conducts research on infant, child, adolescent, and adult development; does
clinical work with disturbed children; acts as consultant to parents and schools. Developmental
psychologists try to understand complex behaviour by studying their beginnings and the orderly ways in
which they change with time. Developmental psychology has both research and applied aspects.
Community Psychology: It is a new area of psychology that deals with community problems, principles,
social issues, and health issues.
Sports Psychology: It is also a new area that focuses on psychological aspects of sports behavior. Sports
psychologist works with professional teams at school/ college level or national and international level to
enhance performance in sports by working on exercise and teamwork.
Health Psychology :Studies the relationship between behaviour and health; uses psychological principles to
promote health and prevent illness.This is an emerging area that is concerned with the physiological
processes, behavior, and social factors that influence health and illness. Health psychologists work in
clinical settings and are involved in research and teaching in higher educational institutes.
Forensic Psychology: It is a new field in psychology that applies psychological principles in the area of
criminal justice system and legal investigations. Forensic psychologist works on the rights of victims,
rights of accused, criminal profiling, policy-making, and other related areas.
Consumer Psychology: Researches packaging, advertising, marketing methods, and characteristics of

consumers. This field is an offshoot of social psychology.
Counseling Psychology: This branch deals with helping people/individuals with personal problems
including interpersonal relations, career choice, mild emotional troubles or behavioural problems such as
over eating, slow learning or lack of concentration. Counseling psychologists assist individuals having
specific problem like how to plan career, how to develop more effective interpersonal skills (e.g.
communication skills).
Engineering Psychology: Does applied research on the design of machinery, computers, airplanes,
automobiles, and so on, for business, industry, and the military. Psychologists working in this field also
write instruction manual in such a manner that can be understood by laypersons so that they can operate
complex machinery and home appliances.
Medical Psychology: Applies psychology to manage medical problems, such as the emotional impact of
illness, self-screening for cancer, compliance in taking medicines. Job of these psychologists overlaps with
part of health psychology. .

Positive psychology: This is an emerging field of 21st century. This field is defined as the science of
happiness and human strengths. Psychologists working in this field are concerned with the positive aspects
of human nature such as hope, optimism, passion, love, gratitude, forgiveness, humility etc. They try to
find out what makes a good life. The work of these psychologists overlaps with that of humanistic
psychologists who have similar viewpoints.
Methods of Research in Psychology
There are various approaches to study psychology scientifically. A research design is a method used by the
researcher to collect, analyze and interpret data. It may be qualitative, quantitative or mixed approach (that
includes both qualitative and quantitative). Primarily, three types of methods are used in research in
psychology. They are descriptive method, experimental method, and correlational method.
1. Descriptive Method
Descriptive research describes characteristics of an existing phenomenon. Descriptive research provides a

broad picture of a phenomenon you might be interested in exploring. Current employment rates, census of
any country, number of working single parents are examples of descriptive research. There are three main
types of descriptive research design. They are case study, survey and systematic observation.
2. Experimental Method
Experimental method involves a research problem that needs to be investigated. Based on the review of the
literature and theoretical background, certain assumptions are made about the observable events. This
assumption is known as a hypothesis which is a statement about the expected outcome of events. The
person who does an experiment is known as an experimenter and the person or animal on which the
experiment is done is known as the participant. The experimenter keeps some events or behaviors constant
that are likely to influence the expected observation. There are some conditions known as variables that
could be an object or event or condition which could have different values. It can vary quantitatively and is
easily measured. Variables are of different kinds. There is an independent variable that is manipulated by
the experimenter and the effect of the independent variable is seen on the dependent variable.
3. Correlational Research
Descriptive and historical research provides a picture of events that are currently happening or have
occurred in the past. Researchers often want to go beyond mere description and begin discussing the
relationship that certain events might have to one another. The most likely type of research to answer
questions about the relationship among variables or events is called correlational events. Correlational
research provides some indication as to how two or more things are related to one another or, in effect
what they share or have in common or how well a specific outcome might be predicted by one or more
pieces of information. Correlational research uses a numerical index called the correlation coefficient as a
measure of the strength of this relationship.

UNIT –II
The Bases of Human Behavior
Contents
Introduction
Evolutionary Bases of Behavior
Biological Bases of Behaviour
Neuron
Human Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
The Influence of the Nervous System on Human Behaviour
Endocrine system
Sleep and Wakefulness
The Genetic basis of behavior
Impact of culture on human behavior
Social Norms
Socialisation
Enculturation and Acculturation
Globalization
Diversity and Pluralism in the Indian context
Introduction:
Human beings, the homo sapiens, are the most developed organisms among all creatures on this earth.
Their ability to walk upright, larger brain size relative to body weight, and the proportion of specialised
brain tissues make them distinct from other species. These features have evolved through millions of years
and have enabled them to engage in several complex behaviours. Scientists have attempted to study the
relationship of complex human behaviour with the processes of the nervous system, particularly the brain.
They have tried to discover the neural basis of thoughts, feelings, and actions. By understanding the
biological aspects of human beings, you will be able to appreciate how the brain, environment and
behaviour interact to generate unique forms of behaviour. In this chapter, we begin with a general
description of the nervous system in an evolutionary perspective. You will also study the structure and
functions of the nervous system. You will learn about the endocrine system, its influence on human
behaviour. Later in this chapter, you will also study the notion of culture and show its relevance to the
understanding of behaviour. This will be followed by an analysis of the processes of enculturation,
socialisation, and acculturation.
Evolutionary Bases of Behavior:
You must have observed that people differ with respect to their physical and psychological characteristics.
The uniqueness of individuals results from the interaction of their genetic endowments and environmental
demands. In this world, there are millions of different species of organisms differing in a variety of ways.
Biologists believe that these species were not always like this; they have evolved to their present form
from their pre-existing forms. It is estimated that the characteristics of modern human beings developed
some years ago as a result of their continuous interaction with the environment. Evolution refers to gradual
and orderly biological changes that result in a species from their pre-existing forms in response to the
changing adaptational demands of their environment. Physiological as well as behavioural changes that
occur due to the evolutionary process are so slow that they become visible after hundreds of generations.
Evolution occurs through the process of natural selection. You know that members of each species vary
greatly in their physical structure and behaviour. The traits or characteristics that are associated with high
rate of survival and reproduction of those species are the most likely ones to be passed on to the next
generations. When repeated one generation after another,natural selection leads to the evolution of new
species that are more effectively adapted to their particular environment. This is very similar to the
selective breeding of horses or other animals these days. Breeders select the fittest and the fastest male and
female horses from their stock, and promote them for selective breeding so that they can get the fittest
horses. Fitness is the ability of an organism to survive and contribute its genes to the next generation.
Three important features of modern human beings differentiate them from their ancestors: (i) a bigger and
developed brain with increased capacity for cognitive behaviours like perception, memory, reasoning,
problem solving, and use of language for communication, (ii) ability to walk upright on two legs, and (iii)
a free hand with a workable opposing thumb. These features have been with us for several thousand years.
Our behaviours are highly complex and more developed than those of other species because we have got a
large and highly developed brain. Human brain development is evidenced by two facts. Firstly, the weight
of the brain is about 2.35 per cent of the total body weight, and it is the highest among all species (in
elephant it is 0.2 per cent). Secondly, the human cerebrumis more evolved than other parts of the brain.
These evolutions have resulted due to the influence of environmental demands. Some behaviours play an
obvious role in evolution. For example, the ability to find food, avoid predators, and defend one’s young
are the objectives related to the survival of the organisms as well as their species. The biological and
behavioural qualities, which are helpful in meetingthese objectives, increase an organism’s ability to pass it
on to the future generation through its genes. The environmental demands lead to biological and
behavioural changes over a long period of time.
Biological Bases of Behavior
Neuron is the basic unit of the Nervous System.The duty of carrying messages from one part of the body
to the other has been assigned to nerve cells. Our nervous system is made up of these nerve cells. A nerve
cell with all its branches is called a neuron. This neuron is the ultimate structure and functional unit of the
nervous system. The number of these neurons in a human nervous system has been estimated at 100 to 200
billion.A neuron has a nucleus, a cell body, and a cell membrane to enclose the whole cell. There are tiny
fibers extending out from the cell body called dendrites. Their role is to receive messages through
electrical impulses from the sense organs or adjacent neurons and carry them to the cell body. The
messages from the cell body further travel the length of a nerve fiber known as the axon. A group of axons,
bundled together like parallel wires in an electrical cable, is referred to as nerve. The axon (but certainly
not all of them) is surrounded by a fatty covering called a myelin sheath.Its function is to speed up the
transmission of the messages.
The human nervous system can be divided into two parts: The Central Nervous System and the Peripheral
nervous system.
The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is that part of the nervous system which lies within the body case formed by
the skull and spine. The brain and the spinal cord constitute this system.
The brain: It is the control system of the body. It is composed of three main divisions: the forebrain, the
midbrain and the hindbrain.
a.The forebrain: The forebrain is at the very top of the brain. Its important structures are the thalamus, the
hypothalamus and the cerebrum. The thalamus consists of two egg-shaped structures situated in the central
core of the forebrain just over the brainstem. All sensory impulses pass through it to the higher centers.
Therefore, it is usually known as the relay station. In addition, the thalamus seems to exercise some control
over the automatic nervous system and also plays a role in the control of sleep and alertness.
Hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. It exerts a key influence on all kinds of emotional as well as
motivational behaviour. Centres in the hypothalamus exercise control over the important body processes
like: eating, drinking, sleeping, temperature control and sex.
The cerebrum lies at the very top of the brain. It is the most complex and largest part of the brain. It
extends from the eyebrows to the middle of the skull. It is divided into two hemispheres; the left brain and
the right brain which control behaviour in the right and left body sides respectively. A great mass of white
matter called the corpus callosum connects these two hemispheres to each other and to the other parts of
the nervous system. The cerebrum is covered by a thick layer of tightly packed neurons called the cerebral
cortex. Different areas of the cerebral cortex like sensory projection areas, motor projection areas and
association areas, etc., have been found to be responsible for different functions.
b.The midbrain: The midbrain is a sort of bridge connecting the forebrain at the base. It is particularly
concerned with the relaying of messages, particularly those related to hearing and sight to higher brain
centers. One of its important structures is known as reticular activating system (RAS). With the help of this
structure an individual is able to decide which impulses should register consciously and which should be
repressed or rejected.
c.The hindbrain: The hindbrain is situated behind and beneath the forebrain. It rests within the brainstem,
a structure that connects the upper part of the spinal cord with the lowest part of the brain. It is composed
of three structures, the medulla oblongata, pons and the cerebellum.
The medulla lies nearest to the spinal cord. It controls breathing and many important reflexes such as those
that help us maintain our upright postures. It also regulates the highly complex processes like digestion,
respiration and circulation which are necessary for the preservationof life.
The pons connects the cerebrum at the top of the brain to the topmost section of the hindbrain. It helps relay
messages from the cortex and the cerebellum. It assists the breathing, transmitting impulses from the
cerebellum to the higher brain regions and in coordinating the activities of both sides of the brain.
The spinal cord: It is that part of the central nervous system which lies within the backbone. It is rope-like
structure made up of bundles of long, nearly round nerve fibers. The inside of the spinal cord has a greyish
colour, while outside the coverings of myelin sheaths give it a whitish appearance. The spinal cord’s
function is two-fold. In the first place, it works as a channel of communication from and to the brain.
Secondly, it works as an organ for effective reflex action.
The action like closing of the eyelid when something threatens the eye and the withdrawal of the hand
when something hot or cold touches it are known as reflex actions. Such reflex acts are almost automatic in
nature. They are controlled by our spinal cord.
Though we have discussed the brain and the spinal cord under two separate heads as two distinct
structures, in the real sense, there is no definite point of division between them. The spinal cord, at its
upper end gets enlarged as to merge with the lower part of the brain. The point or portion of the nervous
system which functions as a joint or connecting line between the spinal cord and brain is known as
brainstem
The peripheral Nervous System
The nerves lying outside the bony case of the central nervous system comes in the region of the
peripheral nervous system. It consists of a network of nerves which helps in passing the sense impressions
to the central nervous system as well as in conveying the orders of the central nervous system to the
muscles. Because of these two functions, the peripheral nervous system is sub-divided into two parts—the
somatic system and the autonomic system.
The somatic system is both sensory and motor. In this system, sensory and motor nerves, both are found
running to and from the sense receptors, muscles and the surface of the body. The autonomic system, on
the other hand, is only a motor system. It consists of a number of motor nerves leading from the central
nervous system for serving the blood vessels, heart, glands and other internal organs of the body and
regulating vessels, and regulating processes such as respiration, digestion, gland functioning and emotion.
The autonomic nervous system consists of two divisions-the sympathetic system and the para- sympathetic
system.
The sympathetic system is connected to the spinal cord on either side and carries messages to the muscles
and glands particularly in stress situations to prepare for an emergency, to get ready to act quickly and
strenuously.
The para-sympathetic system is connected to the brain and the lower portion of the spinal cord. It tends to
be active when we are calm and relaxed. The messages conveyed by the nerve fibers of this system direct
the organs to do just the opposite of what the sympathetic system had asked. In other words it directs the
body organs to return to a normal state after an emergency has passed.
Sympathetic and para-sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system work in close cooperation
for maintaining the equilibrium.
The Endocrine System
The Endocrine glands play a crucial role in our development and behaviour. They secrete specific chemical
substances, called hormones which are circulated by the bloodstream. The endocrine glands form the
endocrine system of the body. This system works in conjunction with the nervous system called
neuroendocrine system.
Pituitary Gland
This gland is situated within the cranium just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is divided into
anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary is directly connected with hypothalamus,
which regulates its hormonal secretions. The pituitary gland secretes the growth hormone and many other
hormones, which direct and regulate the secretions of many other endocrine glands found in our
bodyThis is why the pituitary glandis known as the “master gland.
Thyroid Gland
This gland is located in the neck. It produces thyroxin that influences the body’s metabolic rate. Optimum
amount of thyroxin is secreted and regulated by an anterior pituitary hormone, the Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone. (TSH). The steady secretion of this hormone maintains the production of energy, consumption of
oxygen and elimination of wastes in body cells. On the other hand, underproduction of thyroxin leads to
physical and psychological lethargy. If thyroid gland is removed in young animals, their growth is stunted
and they fail to develop sexually.
Adrenal Gland
This gland is located above each kidney. It has two parts, adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, each
secreting different hormones. The adrenal cortex secretes a group of hormones, called corticoids, which are
utilised by the body for a number of physiological purposes, e.g., regulation of minerals in the body,
particularly sodium, potassium, and chlorides. Any disturbance in its function seriously affects the
functions of the nervous system.
Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones, namely epinephrine and norepinephrine (also known as adrenaline
and noradrenaline, respectively). Sympathetic activation, such as increased heart rate, oxygen consumption,
metabolic rate, muscle tone, etc., take place through the secretion of these two hormones. Epinephrine and
norepinephrine stimulate the hypothalamus, which prolongs emotions in an individual even when the
stressor has been removed.
Pancreas
The pancreas, lying near the stomach, has a primary role in digestion of food, but it also secretes a
hormone known as insulin. Insulin helps the liver to break down glucose for use by the body or for storage
as glycogen by the liver. When insulin is not secreted in proper amount, people develop a disease, called
diabetic mellitus or simply diabetes.
Gonads
Gonads refer to testes in males and ovaries in females. The hormones secreted by these glands control and
regulate sexual behaviours and reproductive functions of males and females. Secretion of hormones of
these glands is initiated, maintained and regulated by a hormone, called gonadotrophic hormone (GTH)
secreted by the anterior pituitary. The secretion of GTH starts at the age of puberty (10 to 14 years in
human beings) and stimulates gonads to secrete hormones, which in turn stimulates development of
primary and secondary sexual characteristics. The normal functioning of all hormones is crucial to our
behavioural well-being. Without a balanced secretion of hormones, the body would be unable to maintain
the state of internal equilibrium. Without the increased secretion of hormones during the times of stress,
we would not be able to react effectively to potential dangers in our environment. Finally, without the
secretion of hormones at specific times in our lives, we would not be able togrow, mature and reproduce.
Sleep and Wakefulness
Sleep is an activity that is a part of circardial rhythm of human beings. There is no exact explanation as to
how the sleep occurs in our body, but it is a part of our body cycle. Sleep waves or the patterns that occur
in the brain are recorded through EEG i.e. Electroencephalogram. Sleep occurs in five stages. Stages 1,2,3
and 4 come under NREM ( nonrapid eye movement), and final stage of the sleep cycle comes under REM
stage(rapid eye movement).During NREM, a person is not in a deep sleep mode but can come out of the
sleep due to any external disturbances. Stage 1 is a transition stage between sleep and wakefulness. Usually
sleepers pass through five stages:1,2, 3, 4 and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. These stages progress
cyclically from 1 through REM then begin again with stage 1. A complete sleep cycle takes an average
of 90 to 110 minutes, with each stage lasting between 5 to 15 minutes. The fifth stage of sleep, the REM
sleep is for 20 minutes and in this stage we can find rapid eye movement and can get dreams. Wakefulness
is that state of mind when a person is in total consciousness and can perform cognitive activities with
alertness. Sleep and wakefulness are alternate cycles that are a part of circardian rhythm.
Sleep and wakefulness are different from one another and yet have much in common. We are in a state of
wakefulness during most part of the day. This is a state during which we are alert and engage in various
activities. However the level of alertness varies at different times, being lower when we awaken from sleep
and gradually increasing as we become engrossed in our daily activities. Alertness is at its maximum when
we are engaged in difficult or challenging tasks. During the state of wakefulness we are aware of our own
perceptions, thoughts,feelings and sensations as well as being aware of the external world.
Sometimes when we are awake we are lost in daydreaming- a state where consciousness seems to be
drifting and is dominated by wishful thoughts. Sometimes we can even perform two tasks at the same time.
For instance many people do driving and listen to music. This generally happens when one of the two tasks
is fairly automatic and does not require much attention.
The genetic bases of behaviour
It refers to the idea that genes can be responsible for behaviour (e.g. attachment), as well as for physical
characteristics (e.g. eye colour). The genotype refers to the inherited genetic materials, whereas the
phenotype is the expression of a person’s genotype, produced by interaction of the genotype and the
environment.Genetics is the structure and the function of genes and the way in which genes are passed
from one generation to another. Genetics also involves the study of how genetic makeup of a person
influences its physical and behavioral characteristics. The biological structure is intimately related to the
human behaviour that is why genetic inheritance which shapes the structure may have much to do with
behaviour. Most physical characteristics such as height, hair color, blood type and eye color are largely
shaped by heredity. Although genes are responsible for the biological substrates of behavior, behavior also
is influenced by experience and other aspects of the environment. When we talk about the environment, we
mean a person's culture, experience, and interactions with family and friends, as well as anything else that
are non-genetic, including prenatal exposure to toxins.
Impact of culture on human behaviour:
Human behavior is the response of individuals or groups of humans to internal and external stimuli. It
refers to the array of every physical action and observable emotion associated with individuals, as well as
the human race. While specific traits of one's personality and temperament may be more consistent, other
behaviors will change as one move from birth through adulthood.
In addition to being dictated by age and genetics, behavior, driven in part by thoughts and feelings, is an
insight into individual psyche, revealing among other things attitudes and values.

Social behavior, a subset of human behavior, studies the considerable influence of social interaction and
culture. Additional influences include ethics, encircling, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion and
coercion.
The behavior of humans (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some
behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some beyond acceptable limits.
Behavior in this general sense should not be mistaken with social behavior, which is a more advanced
social action, specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of behavior depends heavily upon
social norms and is regulated by various means of social control.
Social Norms
Social norms also impact behavior. Due to the inherently conformist nature of human society in general,
humans are pressured into following certain rules and displaying certain behaviors in society, which
conditions the way people behave.
Different behaviors are deemed to be either acceptable or unacceptable in different societies and cultures.
Core faith can be perceived through the religion and philosophy of that individual. It shapes the way a
person thinks and this in turn results in different human behaviors. Attitude can be defined as "the degree
to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question.”One's attitude is
essentially a reflection of the behavior he or she will portray in specific situations. Thus, human behavior is
greatly influenced by the attitudes we use on a daily basis.
Lastly, culture highly affects human behavior. Children absorb the beliefs of certain cultures from such a
young age that they are greatly affected as they grow up. These beliefs are taken into consideration
throughout daily life, which leads to people from different cultures acting differently. These differences
affect the way different cultures and areas of the world interact and act.
Socialization
In sociology, socialization is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization
encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultural continuity are
attained". Socialization is strongly connected to developmental psychology. Humans need social
experiences to learn their culture and to survive. Socialization essentially represents the whole process of
learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior, beliefs, and actions of adults
as well as of children.Socialization may lead to desirable outcomes—sometimes labeled "moral"—as
regards the society where it occurs. Individual views are influenced by the society's consensus and usually
tend toward what that society finds acceptable or "normal". Socialization provides only a partial
explanation for human beliefs and behaviors, maintaining that agents are not blank slates predetermined by
their environment; scientific research provides evidence that people are shaped by both social influences
and genes. Genetic studies have shown that a person's environment interacts with his or her genotype to
influence behavioral outcomes.
Enculturation is the process by which people learn the dynamics of their surrounding culture and acquire
values and norms appropriate or necessary in that culture and worldviews. As part of this process, the
influences that limit, direct, or shape the individual (whether deliberately or not) include parents, other
adults, and peers. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of
the culture.
Enculturation is related to socialization. Enculturation is the process where the culture that is currently
established teaches an individual the accepted norms and values of the culture or society where the
individual lives. The individual can become an accepted member and fulfill the needed functions and roles
of the group. Most importantly the individual knows and establishes a context of boundaries and accepted
behavior that dictates what is acceptable and not acceptable within the framework of that society. It
teaches the individual their role within society as well as what is accepted behavior within that society and
lifestyle.Enculturation is sometimes referred to as acculturation, a word recently used to more distinctively
refer only to exchanges of cultural features with foreign cultures. Note that this is a recent development, as
acculturation in some literatures has the same meaning as enculturation.

Acculturation is the process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from blending between
cultures. The effects of acculturation can be seen at multiple levels in both the original (native) and newly
adopted (host) cultures.Historically speaking, acculturation is a direct change of one's culture through
dominance over another's culture through either military or political conquest.
Globalization
Globalization is the process of interaction and integration between people, companies, and governments
worldwide. Globalization has grown due to advances in transportation and communication technology.
With increased global interactions comes the growth of international trade, ideas, and culture.
Globalization is primarily an economic process of interaction and integration that's associated with social
and cultural aspects. However,conflicts and diplomacy are also large parts of the history of globalization,
and modern globalization.
Diversity and Pluralism in the Indian context
On the whole, the Hindu world view has been one of harmony, not conflict. This Hindu milieu has
absorbed many a people and tradition, repeatedly affirming the integral oneness of Reality and the multiple
perceptions of that same Reality. While Muslim, Sikh, and Christian communities have been adamant in
distinguishing themselves from this broad contextual “Hindu” background, none has remained
uninfluenced by it.No culture on earth has developed as complex an understanding of human and divine
“many ness” as Hindu India. The Hindu “solution” to diversity, however, has never been that of the
melting pot. It is, rather, that of the kaleidoscope in which the distinct pieces continually fall into patterned
wholes, over and over, with each twist of the wrist. Diversity is preserved and valued in a flexible and
dynamic pattern of interrelation. Pluralism is one of the foundational contributions of the Hindu
perspective. Difference, in this view, is not a threat to oneness, but constitutive of oneness. The whole is
made up of difference, its many parts not isolated but in interrelation. To say “this is the one and only”
may be a marker of importance to other cultures. Hindu India, however, has long taken a different measure
of the meaning of plurality.

Unit III
The Self, Motivation and Personality
Self-concept
Self-esteem and self-regulation
Self-motivation
Concept of Drive
Concept of Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Maslow‘s Need Hierarchy Theory
McClelland‘s Theory of Achievement.
Concept of Personality
Definition and Dimensions of Personality
Approaches to personality
Assessment of personality
Self-Concept: Self-concept is made up of one's self-schemas, and interacts with self-esteem, self-
knowledge, and the social self to form the self as whole. The perception people have about their past or
future selves relates to their perception of their current selves. The temporal self-appraisal theory argues
that people have a tendency to maintain a positive self-evaluation by distancing themselves from their
negative self and paying more attention to their positive one. Self-concept is how we think about or
evaluate ourselves. It includes physical, moral, personal, family, social situation dimensions Two things
have powerful effects on our self-concept:The opinions and judgments other people make of us.Social
comparisons - perceptions of the ways in which you are similar to anddifferent from other people.
Self-esteem (also known as self-worth) refers to the extent to which we like, accept orapprove of ourselves,
or how much we value ourselves. We all know that self-esteem sometimes referred to as self-worth or self-
respect, can be an important part of success. Too little self-esteem can leave people feeling defeated or
depressed. It can also lead people to make bad choices, fall into destructive relationships, or fail to live up
to their full potential. Too much self-esteem, as exhibited in narcissistic personality.disorder, can certainly
be off-putting to others and can even damage personal relationships.
Self-esteem levels at the extreme high and low ends of the spectrum can be harmful,so ideally, it's best to
strike a balance somewhere in the middle. A realistic yet positive view of yourself is generally considered
the ideal.
Self-regulation
Self-regulation is the ability to understand and manage your behaviour and your reactions to feelings and
things happening around you. It includes being able to: regulate reactions to strong emotions like
frustration, excitement, anger and embarrassment. calm down after something exciting or upsetting. Self-
regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious personal management that involves the process of
guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors and feelings to reach goals.
Self Motivation
Self motivation is the ability to drive oneself to take initiative and action to pursue goals and complete
tasks. It's an inner drive to take action — to create and to achieve. It's what pushes you to keep going on
tasks, especially those you're pursuing because you want to, not because someone told you to.

Concept of Drive
A drive is a psychological state of arousal that compels humans to take action to restore their homeostatic
balance. When balance is restored, the drive is reduced. Examples are primary and secondary drives. Drive
theory states that biological needs, which are created by imbalances in homeostasis, produce
drives.Primary drives are drives that arise from biological needs.(Example: Rana has primary drives for
obtaining food, water, and warmth). These are basic biological needs.Secondary drives are those that are
learned through conditioning and are culturally determined.Ex:Seeking identity,fame etc.
Concept of Motivation
Motivation is the activation or energization of goal oriented behaviour. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or
extrinsic. It is to give reason, incentive, enthusiasm, or interest that causes a specific action or certain
behaviour. Motivation is present in every life function. Simple acts such as eating are motivated by hunger.
Education is motivated by desire for knowledge. Motivators can be anything from reward to coercion.
According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and
maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, hobby,
goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness,
morality, or avoiding mortality. Conceptually, motivation should not be confused with either volition or
optimism. Motivation is related to, but distinct from, emotion.Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation is internal. It occurs when people are compelled to do something out of pleasure,
importance, or desire. Extrinsic motivation occurs when external factors compel the person to do
something. However, many theories show reward motivation.It is necessary to remember that level of
motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times. Today in the
increasingly competitive environment maintaining a highly motivated workforce is the most challenging
task. The art of motivation starts by learning how to influence the behaviour of the individual. This
understanding helps to achieve both, the individual as well as organizational objectives. Motivation is a
powerful tool in the hands of leaders. It can persuade convince and propel. People to act.
Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Theory of Need Hierarchy

This is one of the most widely discussedtheories of motivation. The theory can be summarized as follows:
Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behaviour. Onlyunsatisfied needs influence
behaviour, satisfied needs do not.
Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex.
The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level needis at least minimally
satisfied.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are asfollows
Physiology (hunger, thirst etc.)
Safety / security / shelter / health
Belongingness / love/ friendship
Self-esteem / recognition / achievement
Self-actualization
There are various views on human motivation, the most popular among these is given by Abraham H.
Maslow. He attempted to portray a picture of human behaviour by arranging the various needs in a
hierarchy. His viewpoint about motivation is very popular because of its theoretical and applied
value which is popularly known as the “Theory of Self-actualization” Maslow’s model can
beconceptualized as a pyramid in which the bottom of this hierarchy represents basic physiological or
biological needs which are basic to survival such as hunger, thirst, etc. Only when these needs are met, the
need to be free from threatened danger arises. This refers to the safety needs of physical and psychological
nature. Next comes the need to seek out other people, to love and to be loved. After these needs are
fulfilled, the individual strives for esteem, i.e. the need to develop a sense of self-worth. The next higher
need in the hierarchy reflects an individual’s motive towards the fullest development of potential, i.e. self-
actualization. A self-actualized person is self- aware, socially responsive, creative, spontaneous, open to
novelty, and challenge. S/he also has a sense of humour and capacity for deep interpersonal relationships.
Lower level needs (physiological) in the hierarchy dominate as long as they are unsatisfied. Once they are
adequately satisfied, the higher needs occupy the individual’s attention and effort. However, it must be
noted that very few people reach the highest level because most people are concerned more with the
lower level needs.
Mc Clelland’s Theory of Need
McClelland identified three key motivating drives that work for everyone. He named these key drives as:
Need for Achievement

People with a high need for achievement seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk
situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine
achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one’s own
effort.
Need for Affiliation
Those with a high need for affiliation need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel
accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals
prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer service and client
interaction situations.
Need for Power

A person’s need for power can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal
power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need
institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals

of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more effective than those
with a high need for personal power.
He also identified how these needs each vary in strength between different people. Everyone, says
McClelland, is motivated by all of these, but to motivate individuals, the manager needs to consider what
the primary drivers in each case are.
Concept of Personality
The word “personality” has been derived from the Latin word “persona” which means a mask worn by an
actor while performing a character on the stage. Thus personality is taken to mean the characteristic
pattern or style of behaviour of the person revealed from his external appearance. The external properties
of a person include his dress, speech, bodily actions, postures, habits and expressions. Thus a person
endowed with good external properties is considered to possess a good personality and vice versa. But you
know this is not the reality. Mere external properties cannot make a personality.
It was realized that personality included something more than external properties and the concept of
external appearance in personality was relegated to background. The word personality now stood for an
all-inclusive concept. It is the sum total of an individual’s properties as a distinct and unique human being.
The external properties are directly observed, while the internal are only inferred from the behaviour . The
concept of personality is a derived concept. The derivation is possible in three ways:The first is subjective,
popular derivation based on subjective impressions formed by the individual’s behaviour and is expressed
through evaluative expressions like charming, dominating, weak or bold personality.The second
derivation of personality is based on an objective description ofthe overt responses of the individual.The
third derivation is organismic according to which personality is the inner pattern of a person’s
characteristics.
According to trait theory personality is made up of different traits. Traits are the building blocks and
human behaviour can be described in terms of these traits. A trait generally is a description of behaviour,
for example, friendliness, social, assertive are words that describe human behaviour. itself in the person’s
behaviour for long periods.
Allport’s Trait Theory

Allport mentioned two types of traits ; common traits and personal traits.
Common Traits – are the traits found in the majority of persons living in a society or culture. Thus people
of a society or culture can be compared on that trait..
Personal Traits – This refers to the unique characteristics of a person and not shared by other members of
the society or community or culture. Such a personal trait is not comparable with those of others in
that culture.
Cattell’s Trait Theory
After Allport, major contribution to trait theory was made by R.B. Cattell. He divided traits into two
categories, viz., surface traits, and source traits.

Surface Traits – As the name suggests these are found on the periphery of personality i.e. these are
reflected in the day to day interactions of the person. Their expression is so explicit that it leaves no doubt
about their existence in the personality.
Source Traits – These represent the structure of personality. They are present in less number than surface
traits. These traits are not observable in day to day interactions of the person. Source traits come to notice
when some of the surface traits are joined together.
Ability Traits – traits that are instrumental in reaching to a goal are called ability traits. For example,
musical ability is a must for becoming a musician.
Temperamental Traits – These develop out of a person’s efforts to reach a goal and relate to emotional state
and energy of the person.
Eysenck’s Trait Theory
H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad dimensions. These dimensions are
Neuroticism, and Extraversion-Introversion dimensions. According to Eysenck, these are biologically and
genetically based and each dimension subsumes under it a number of specific traits. He drew a scale with
one end having normal dimension and at another extreme having the Neuroticism dimension. In between
the person could have in varying degrees many traits which are part of these dimensions.
A number of thinkers have given their typological models to explain personality, some of which
include (i) Hippocrate’s typology (ii) Kretchmer’s typology (iii) Sheldon’s typology.
Hippocrates’s Typology
In 400 B.C. Hippocrates attempted to explain personality in terms of body fluid or humors. He postulated
that our body has four types of fluid; yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm. Every person is
characterized by the prominence of one type of fluid which determines the temperament of the person
concerned. Thus he classified people into four types which are given below:
Choleric – people with predominance of yellow bile are irritable, restless and hotblooded.
Melancholic– people with high black bile are sad, depressed and devoid of hope inlife
Sanguinary – When blood content is high the person remains cheerful, active andhe is optimistic in life.
Phlegmatic – predominance of phlegm makes a person calm and quite and usually there behaviour is
marked by inactiveness.
Kretschmer’s Typology
Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who on the basis of his observation of patients classified people
into four types. He used the physical constitution and temperament for this purpose The four types he
talked about included: (i) Pyknik type (ii) Asthenic type (iii) Athletic type (iv) Dysplastic type.
Pyknic Type – Such people are short in height with heavily built body type. They have short, thick neck.
Temperament wise they exhibit characteristics of being social and cheerful. They are happy-go-lucky,
they like to eat and sleep. Kretschmer called them “cycloid” as they have high probability of falling prey to
manic-depressive type of psychopathology.
Asthenic Type – Such persons are tall and thin with underdeveloped muscles. They are also
underweight. They are irritable and shirk away from responsibility. They Between Trait and Type have the
habit of day dreaming and are lost in the world of fantasy. Temperament wise they are categorized as
“schizoid” and may developdisorder of schizophrenia.

Athletic Type – These are muscular types and have well-built muscles and are neither tall nor short. They
have stable and calm nature and are able to adjust themselves to changes in the environment.
Dysplastic Type – This category includes people who do not exhibit any of the characteristics mentioned
above but are mix of all three types.
Sheldon’s Typology
Sheldon on the basis of physical constitution categorized personality into some types. These three types
are: (i) Endomorphic (ii) Ectomorphic (iii) Mesomorphic.
Endomorphy – Such persons are short and fatty with a round shape of body. Endomorhphic people are
similar to “pyknic” type mentioned by Kretschmer. They like to eat and drink and make merry. They are
gregarious by nature and have leisurely attitude toward life. Temperament wise Sheldon termed them
“viscerotonia.”
Mesomorphy – These people are muscular types. Their muscles and bones are quite well developed and
they are physically well shaped. These people generally are considered to be toughminded, risk taking,
assertive and aggressive. They like to boss over others. Sheldon called these personalities as “somatotonia”
Ectomorphy – Such people are tall but thin. Sheldon called them “cerebrotonia”. These people like to
remain away from people.
Jung’s Typology
Jung postulated personality theory based on psychological characteristics. He divided people into two
broad types i.e. extroverts and introverts.
Extroverts – Such people are socially oriented. They like to mix up with people, are fun loving, optimistic.
Theyare realistic in their approach towards life. Often such people exhibit leadershipqualities.
Introverts – They are the opposite of extroverts. They do not like to mingle with people. They have very
few friends. They are self-centered and conservative. Such people are dogmatic in the sense that they
follow traditions and customs of the society with out ever giving thought to their justifiability.
Factors Influencing the Development Of Personality
Genetic and Constitutional Factors
It has been said that genetic and constitutional factors influence the personality of an individual. The type
of a person, the type of nervous system, functioning of various endocrine glands has shown to influence
behaviour and consequently the personality.But there is not much evidence regarding the role of hereditary
factors like genes in the development of personality.
Socio-Cultural Factors:The formation and development of personality takes place through interactions
with others belonging to different social and cultural systems. Apart from these, the individual responds
and reacts to the values, norms, expectations and controls of socio-cultural systems to a great extent in
addition to variation between cultures, within cultures and socioeconomic class. The most important
agency through which cultural and sub cultural variations influence the developing personality is the home.
Personality Assessment:
Methods to assess Personality are:
a.Objective Methods
Situational Test:
Questionnaire:
Rating scale:
Check list:
b.Subjective Methods
Observation:
Interview Method
Case study Method
Anecdotal Records
Self-report technique- Self-report inventories
c.Projective technique
Rorschach inkblot Test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Unit – IV Cognitive Processes
1. Attention: Definition, Types of Attention, Factors Influencing Attention

2. Perception: Definition, Meaning and Nature, Principles of PerceptualOrganization.
3. Learning: Definition, Meaning, Nature, Learning Styles.
4. Memory: Definition and Nature, Information Process, Stages, Kinds of Memory,
5. Forgetting: Definition and Nature, Causes – Theory of Decay and Interference, Methods and
Techniques to Improving Memory,
6. Thinking: Definition, Nature, Types,
7. Concept: Definition, Meaning and Types, Steps involved in Concept Formation,
8. Reasoning: Definition, Types.
9. Problem-solving: Definition, Nature, Steps in Problem Solving, Decision Making and
10. Creativity
Attention
“Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon one object other than uponanother”—
Dumville.
“Attention is the process of getting an object or thought clearly before the mind”—Ross.
“Attention is being keenly alive to some specific factors in our environment. It is apreparatory
adjustment for response”—Morgan.
Attention may be understood as a condition of selective awareness which governs the extent and quality
of one’s interactions with one’s environment.
Types of Attention:
Attention in a process-oriented view divides it into two types, namely selective and sustained.
Selective Attention
Selective attention is concerned mainly with the selection of a limited number of stimuli or objects from a
large number of stimuli.
Factors Affecting Selective Attention
Several factors influence selective attention. These generally relate to the characteristics of stimuli and the
characteristics of individuals. They are generally classified as external and internal factors.
External factors are related to the features of stimuli. Other things held constant, the size, intensity, and
motion of stimuli appear to be important determinants of attention. Large, bright, and moving stimuli easily
catch our attention. Stimuli, which are novel and moderately complex, also easily get into our focus
Internal factors lie within the individual. These may be divided into two main categories, viz. motivational
factors and cognitive factors. Motivational factors relate to our biological or social needs. When we are
hungry, we notice even a faint smell of food. Cognitive factors include factors like interest, attitude, and
preparatory set. Objects or events which appear interesting, are readily attended by individuals.
Similarly we pay quick attention to certain objects or events to which we are favorably disposed.
Preparatory set generates a mental state to act in a certain way and readiness of the individual to respond to
one kind of stimuli and not to others.
Sustained Attention
While selective attention is mainly concerned with the selection of stimuli, sustained attention is concerned
with concentration. It refers to our ability to maintain attention on an object or event for longer durations. It
is also known as “vigilance”. Sometimes people have to concentrate on a particular task for many hours.
Air traffic controllers and radar readers provide us with good examples of this phenomenon.

Factors Influencing Sustained Attention
Several factors can facilitate or inhibit an individual’s performance on tasks of sustained attention. Sensory
modality is one of them. Performance is found to be superior when the stimuli (called signals) are auditory
than when they are visual. Clarity of stimuli is another factor. Intense and long lasting stimuli facilitate
sustained attention and result in better performance. Temporal uncertainty is a third factor. When
stimuli appear at regular intervals of time they are attended better than when they appear at irregular
intervals. Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor. Stimuli that appear at a fixed place are readily attended,
whereas those that appear at random locations are difficult to attend./////////////////////////////////////////////
Perception
Perception is created in part through the simultaneous action of thousands of feature detector neurons—
specialized neurons, located in the visual cortex, that respond to the strength, angles, shapes, edges, and
movements of a visual stimulus (Kelsey, 1997; Livingstone & Hubel, 1988).
The term “perception” can be defined as the ability to derive meaning. Derived from the word “perceive”,
it refers to the ability of giving meaning to whatever is sensed by our sense organs. It is the process through
which an individual interprets ones’sensory impressions to give meaning to them.
Perception is much broader in scope. It is complex process by which a person organizes facts around the
stimuli and gives meaning to it. The perceptual process depicts a complex and dynamic interplay of three
processes, viz., selection, organization and interpretation.
During this process of selection, organization and interpretation, the humanbeing is assisted by the
memory bank or the information that is stored in his long term memory. This is known as the schema. The
schema acts as a filtering mechanism and helps select some of the stimuli, and then interpret and
organize them.
What do you see when you look at this image?
The human brain is wired to see structure, logic, and patterns. It helps us make sense of the world. In the
1920s a group of German psychologists lead by Max Wertheimer developed theories of visual perception
they referred to as The Gestalt Principles. These principles tried to describe how people perceive and
process visual information,how people perceive the world around them, called Gestalt principles.

Perceiving Form
One of the important processes required in vision is the perception of form. German psychologists in the
1930s and 1940s, including Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang
Köhler (1887–1967), argued that we create forms out of their component sensations based on the idea of
the gestalt, a meaningfully organized whole. The idea of the gestalt is that the “whole is more than the sum
of its parts.” .
"Summary of Gestalt Principles of Form Perception".
Principle 1: figure-ground
The figure-ground principle states that people instinctively perceive objects as either being in the
foreground or the background. They either stand out prominently in the front (the figure) or recede into the
background.
In the image above, for example, your eye instantly sees a white apple sitting on a black background.
Principle 2: similarity
The principle of similarity states that when things appear to be similar to each other, we group them
together and also tend to think they have the same function. A variety of design elements, like color and
organization, can be used to establish similar groups. In the image below, for example, even though all of
the shapes are the same, it’s clear that each column represents a distinct group.

Principle 3: proximity
The principle of proximity states that things that are close together appear to be more related than things
that are spaced farther apart. Proximity is so powerful that it overrides similarity of color, shape, and other
factors that might differentiate a group of objects.
Principle 4: common region
The principle of common region is highly related to proximity. It states that when objects are located
within the same closed region, we perceive them as being grouped together. Adding borders or other
visible barriers is a great way to create a perceived separation between groups of objects—even if they
have the same proximity, shape, color, etc.

Principle 5: continuity
Principle 6: closure
The principle of closure states that when we look at a complex arrangement of visual elements, we tend to
look for a single, recognizable pattern In other words, when you see an image that has missing parts, your
brain will fill in the blanks and make a complete image so you can still recognize the pattern.
For example, in the above figure small angles are seen as triangle due to our tendency to fill the gaps in the
object provided by our sensory output.
Principle 7: Focal point

The focal point principle states that whatever stands out visually will capture and hold the viewer’s
attention first.

When you look at the image above, for example, the first thing you notice is the red circle because it’s
different than all of the squares around it. Its the first point of interest that grabs your attention, and
from there your attention moves to other parts of the image.
Principle 8 Inclusiveness:
The principle of inclusiveness states that when there is more than one figure, the one perceived tends to be
the larger, more inclusive one. Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) presented several illustrations in which a
highly familiar figure is embedded within a less familiar but larger, more inclusive one. The larger, more
inclusive figure, despite its being less familiar, tends to be the one perceived.
The pattern which includes all the elements present in a given figure will be perceived more readily than
the other figures. For example, in the given figure a hexagonal figure is formed by all the dots which may
be perceived more readily than the square formed by the four middle dots. Single dots at either end act as a
fence or enclosure within which all the other elements are included.
We have here examined some of the factors which play a role in the organisation of perception. These
principles explain how perception is often independent of characteristics of individual stimuli. While
discussing the phenomena of sensation it was mentioned that often our perception bears very little
connection to the actual stimulus situation. We now know that this is because of the fact that perception is
a complex and active process influenced by many factors other than stimulus characteristics.
Law of Pragnanz
We perceive complex or ambiguous images as simple ones.

The word pragnanz is a German term meaning "good figure." The law of Pragnanz issometimes referred
to as the law of good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds that objects in the environment
are seen in a way that makes them appear as simple as possible.

You see the image above as a series of overlapping circles rather than an assortment of curved,
connected lines.
Learning
Learning: Definitions and Characteristics
The learning is defined as ‘any relatively permanent change in behaviour, or behavioural potential,
produced by experience.” This definition has the following characteristics:
1. Learning does not apply to temporary change in behaviour

2. The behavioural changes due to maturation process does not form part oflearning.
3. Learning can result from vicarious as well as from direct experience
4. Learnings are not always positive in nature. We learn bad habits as well in the process
Learning is the key factor in behavioural change of an organism.
Learning Styles
The term “learning styles” speaks to the understanding that every student learns differently. Technically,
an individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs processes,
comprehends and retains information.
Understanding Visual , Audio, Reading/writing, Kinesthetic
One of the most accepted understandings of learning styles is that student learning styles fall into three
categories: Visual Learners, Auditory Learners and Kinesthetic Learners. VARK is an acronym that refers
to the four types of learning styles: Visual, Auditory, Reading/Writing Preference, and Kinesthetic. (The
VARK model is also referred to as the VAK model, eliminating Reading/Writing as a category of
preferential learning.) The VARK model acknowledges that students have different approaches to how
they process information, referred to as “preferred learning modes .Students’ preferred learning modes
have significant influence on their behavior and learning.
Information that is accessed through students’ use of their modality preferences shows an increase in their
levels of comprehension, motivation, and metacognition. By understanding what kind of learner you are,
you can now gain a better perspective on how to implement these learning styles into your study
techniques.
The 8 Learning Styles:
1. The Linguistic Learner
2. The Naturalist
3. The Musical or Rhythmic Learner
4. The Kinesthetic Learner
5. The Visual or Spatial Learner
6. The Logical or Mathematical Learner
7. The Interpersonal Learner
8. The Intrapersonal Learner
The Linguistic Learner:

The learner learns best through linguistic skills including reading ,writing,listening or speaking.The
linguistic learner is one who learns best through kills including reading, writing, listening, or
speaking. Sometimes, it’s a combination of
The Naturalist Learner
The naturalist learns by working with, and experiencing, nature. If this sounds a lot like a scientist, it’s
because that’s how scientists learn..

The Musical or Rhythmic Learner
The musical or rhythmic learner is one who learns using melody or rhythm
The Kinesthetic Learner

The Kinesthetic learner is a person that learns best by actually doing something.
The Visual or Spatial Learner

A visual or spatial learner is a person who learns best if there are visual aids around to guide the learning
process.
The Logical or Mathematical Learner

The logical or mathematical learner must classify or categorize things. They also tend to understand
relationships or patterns, numbers and equations, better than others.
The Interpersonal Learner

The interpersonal learner is someone who learns by relating to others.
The Intrapersonal learner
An Intrapersonal learner is someone who works and learns best when they are alone. They set individual
goals that are challenging, but not impossible.
Memory
Definition of Memory
Memory is defined as a cognitive system for storing and retrieving information. The memory has three
main stages – acquisition, retention and retrieval.
The Stage Model of Memory

While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to
explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin,
this theory outlines three separate stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory.
Sensory Memory
Sensory registers is the first link between an individual’s present and the past. This sensory information
remains for a fraction of a second or so.. Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this
stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no
longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We attend to
only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage -
short-term memory.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or
thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying
attention to sensory memories generates the information in short-term memory. Most of the information
stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. While many of our short-term
memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue to the next stage - long-
term memory.

Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term
memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely outside of our
awareness but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is
fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access.
Kinds of Memory
Explicit or declarative memory, as its name suggests, declares the events as they are. It helps us to
narrate the event or a particular piece of information without altering any of it. This type of memory is
also subdivided into two distinct categories. They are known as semantic memory and episodic memory.
Implicit memory or non-declarative memory has the inherent ability to recall events and information
without requiring the conscious effort to remember them. Therefore, both conscious and intentional efforts
are ruled out. The person is able to perform the action, without declaring the information pertaining to it. It
is again subdivided into two, viz., procedural memory and priming.
Explicit Memory
Semantic memory consists of those ideas, events, and information that are not related to the personal
knowledge or incident of a person. It comprises the general information that the person learns and
accumulates in his memory.
Example of Explicit or declarative memory:
One's knowledge about definitions, mathematical tables, formulas, poems, etc.
Episodic memory represents the memory of events, happenings, and experiences in a serial order. This
means that the mind is able to list the events in the order of their occurrences. It stores information about
the personal accounts of people. It serves as an autobiographical record of the events that took place in
one's life.
Implicit memory
Procedural memory is that part of the long-term memory that helps us to perform tasks that we have
already learned before, and can perform them at any given time without thinking about them consciously.
It helps us to perform tasks easily without having to try hard at remembering the exact steps of how exactly
it is to be done.
Example of Implicit memory or non-declarative memory: One's knowledge about performing martial arts,
dancing, playing an instrument, etc.
Priming is that kind of implicit memory that deals with stimulus and response in an individual. The human
mind contains some information that is registered permanently in his mind. So, when he gets a stimulus
which has same response as that of some other stimulus, the human mind tends to give a response for that
other stimulus.
Forgetting:
When Memory fails it is (forgetting)
Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how often you forget someone’s name or
overlooked an important appointment. Forgetting can happen for a number of reasons including a failure to
retrieve the information from long-term memory.
Nature of Forgetting; Forgetting refers to the loss of, or inability to retrieve information. This may occur
through a passive process by which the original memory trace is degraded, or by an active process by
which new memories interfere with the retrieval of old ones.
Research has shown that one of the critical factors that influences memory failure is time. Information is
often quickly forgotten, particularly if people do not actively review and rehearse the information.
Why We Forget
Why do we forget information we have learned in the past? There are four basic explanations for why
forgetting occurs: retrieval failure, interference, failure to store and motivated forgetting.
Meaning and Causes of Forgetting
Forgetting refers to failure to either recall or retain information into present consciousness. All experiences
leave traces or after-effects (images) in memory parts of the brain. Failure to retain these traces from the
parts of memory is called Forgetting.
There are various factors that come into play that leads to disappearance of information from the brain.
Traces are known to become weaker with the passage of time, and could even fade away gradually.
Interference of new experiences also causes disruption in memory, which causes forgetting. Past
experiences do not always remain fresh. We even repress certain memories of unpleasant experiences
voluntarily.
Failure to transfer information from working memory to long-term memory is one of the most frequent
reasons for forgetting. Furthermore, our inability to recall information from long-term memory also
leads to forgetting. There is variety of theories that explains forgetting. Here are some of the major
types and causes of forgetting.
Interference
Interference is another major cause of forgetting.Information gets confused with other information in our
Long-Term Memory.”
Two types of Interference are:
Retroactive Interference

Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference :A mix up of previously learned information with new and similar
information is called Retroactive information.
.
Proactive Interference
The phenomenon where the student fails to remember new information having mixed it with similar
previous information is called Proactive Interference.
Causes of Forgetting aren’t limited to just these and there are various other factors that affect memory.
Memory disorders like Amnesia also cause Forgetting. Two major types of Amnesia are:
A. Psychological Amnesia: Disturbances in the process of encoding, storage, and retrieval causes
psychological amnesia.
B. Biological Amnesia: Abnormal functioning of brain results in biological amnesia, which might be
caused by any internal problem such as uneven blood flow, drugs, diseases, blow to the head, and other
damages to brain.
How to improve your memory?
Activate all your relevant past knowledge
Organize new information: seek a meaningful structure
Actively elaborate
Think of the new material in many ways.
Learn the phonetic system for translating numbers into memorable words With all mnemonic techniques,
it is important that the technique is sufficiently beneficial to make the investment in learning and applying
the method worthwhile.
Form mental images linking the things to be remembered.
Create links to cue information through pegwords and familiar images.

Practise remembering after several suitable intervals.
Play the name game.
Explain what you study to yourself or some one

When struggling, try to reconstruct the context.
Thinking
Definition:Ross: “Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect or mental activity withregard to
psychological aspects”.
Garrett: “Thinking is a behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in whichsymbols are ordinarily
employed”.
Gilmer: “Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbolsin place of overt
activity”.
Mohsin: “Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behaviour”.

Nature of thinking
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves
manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. ... Such manipulation and
analysis occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem solving, judging, and decision-
making. Thinking is ideational activity which is deliberately controlled by a purpose. It is mental
exploration of data.
Types of Thinking:
Convergent and Divergent Thinking: Differentiation between convergent thinking and divergent thinking.
Convergent thinking proceeds on the assumption that there is one single best solution to any problem, and
also that the solution can be arrived at on the basis of the existing knowledge or a little extension of the
same..Convergent thinking is mostly rational.
Divergent thinking on the other hand proceeds differently. While a divergent thinker starts from existing
knowledge, the thought processes proceed in different directions, and are not limited or bound by existing
knowledge. On the other hand, the divergent thinker questions and doubts the adequacy of existing
knowledge.
Conceptual or Abstract Thinking:

Here one makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and languages; it is regarded as being superior to
perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.
Reflective Thinking:
This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all the relevant
experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with that experiences or ideas.
Creative Thinking:
This type of thinking is associated with one’s ability to create or construct something new, novel or
unusual.
Critical Thinking:
It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs, prejudices and
opinions to sort out the faiths and discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic belief system.
Non-directed or Associative Thinking:

There are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed and
without goal. It is reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities.
Psychologically these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking.
.Concept
"A concept consists of a set of objects, symbols or events (referents) which have been grouped together
because they share some common characteristics").
Formation of Concepts: 4 Main Steps are-
1. Observation 2. Generalisation 3.Discrimination or Differentiation 4.Abstraction.
Step # 1. Observation:
The first stage in the formation of concepts is the observation of an event, object or anexperience. This can
also be called the stage of becoming aware. This can be either direct or indirect

Step # 2. Generalisation:
Repeated experiences or observations of different objects result in a tendency to form a general idea.
Step # 3. Discrimination or Differentiation:
Along with generalisation and the observation and organisation of similarities among things and objects,
discrimination is also needed for concept formation .
Step # 4. Abstraction:
From the description of the above processes the operation of abstraction becomes evident which leads to
concept formation.
Reasoning
Sherman defined, “reasoning is a process of thinking during which the individual is aware of a problem
identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution”.
“Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind” —Garrett.
“Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful, controlled and selectivethinking”—Gates.
Types of Reasoning: Types of Reasoning:
Types of Reasoning:
1. Inductive reasoning: It is a specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of a generalized
principle by making use of particular cases, special examples and identifying of elements or relations
For example, Mohan is mortal, Radha is mortal, Karim is mortal; therefore, all human beings are mortal.
2. Deductive reasoning: It is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known statement or
evidences. Here one starts with already known or established generalized statement or principle and
applies it to specific cases. For example, all human beings are mortal you are a human being, therefore,
you are mortal.
Problem Solving:
Problem Solving is the term used for thinking or thought processes that are specifically aimed at finding
solutions to specific problems. This process continues on a spectrum from conceiving an idea through
accomplishing a goal by means of a set of mental operations.
The process of working through details of a problem to reach a solution. Problem solving may include
mathematical or systematic operations and can be a gauge of an individual's critical thinking skills.
Thomas J. D'Zurilla defined problem solving as a "cognitive–affective–behavioral process through which

an individual (or group) attempts to identify, discover, or invent effective means of coping with problems
encountered in everyday living”. It is an evolutionary drive for living organisms and an important coping
skill for dealing with a variety of concerns. Problem solving specifically in psychology refers to a state of
desire for reaching a definite 'goal' from a present condition.
Steps involved in Problem Solving

Identifying the Problem
Defining/Understanding the Problem
Forming a Strategy
Organizing Information
Allocating Resources
Monitoring Progress
Evaluating the Results
1. Identifying the Problem: Identifying the problem seems like the obvious first stem, but it should be
identified correctly. People might identify the wrong source of a problem, which will render the steps thus
carried on useless.
2. Defining/Understanding the Problem :It’s vital to properly define the problem once it’s been identified.
Only by defining the problem, further steps can be taken to solve it. While at it, you also need to take into
consideration different perspectives to understand any problem; this will also help you look for solutions
with different perspectives.
3. Forming a Strategy :Developing a strategy is the next step to finding a solution. Each different situation
will require formulating different strategies, also depending on individual’s unique preferences.
4. Organizing Information : Organizing the available information is another crucial step to the process.
You need to consider-What do you know about the problem?What do you not know about the problem?
Accuracy of the solution for your problem will depend on the amount of information available.
The hypothetical strategy you formulate isn’t the all of it either. You need to now contemplate on the
information available on the subject matter. Use the aforementioned questions to find out more about the
problem. Proper organization of the information will force you to revise your strategy and refine it for best
results.
5. Allocating Resources Time, money and other resources aren’t unlimited. Deciding how high the priority
is to solve your problem will help you determine the resources you’ll be using in your course to find the
solution. If the problem is important, you can allocate more resources to solving it. However, if the
problem isn’t as important, it’s not worth the time and money you might spend on it if not for proper
planning.
6. Monitoring Progress You need to document your progress as you are finding a solution. Don’t rely on
your memory, no matter how good your memory is. Effective problem-solvers have been known to
monitor their progress regularly. And, if they’re not making as much progress as they’re supposed to, they
will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.
7. Evaluating the Results Your job still isn’t done even if you’ve reached a solution. You need to evaluate
the solution to find out if it’s the best possible solution to the problem. The evaluation might be immediate
or might take a while. For instance, answer to a math problem can be checked then and there, however
solution to certain issues might not be possible to be evaluated right there.
Decision making
Decision Making is the process of choosing between two or more alternatives. Individuals make choices
based on their personal preferences, values, and goals. Every decision has an outcome and involves risk.
When making a decision in, people tend to employ two different decision-making strategies: the
availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic. Remember, a heuristic is a rule-of-thumb mental
short-cut that allows people to make decisions and judgments quickly.
The Availability Heuristic: When we are trying to determine how likely something is, we often base such
estimates on how easily we can remember similar events happening in the past.
The Representativeness Heuristic: This mental shortcut involves comparing our current situation to our
prototype of a particular event or behavior.
The decision-making process can be both simple (such as randomly picking out of our available options)
and complex (such as systematically rating different aspects of the existing choices). The strategy we use
depends on various factors, including how much time we have to make the decision, the overall complexity
of the decision, and the amount of ambiguity that is involved..
Decision making steps this decision-making process.model depicts are as follows:
Identify an existing problem
List possible alternatives for solving the problem
Select the most beneficial of these alternatives.
Implement the selected alternative.
Gather feedback to find out if the implemented alternative is solving the identified problem.
Creativity
Definitions of Creativity
Creativity implies the products of totally or partially a novel identity”—Stagner and Karowski.
Creativity is the capacity of a person to produce compositions products or ideas which are essentially new
or novel and previously unknown to the producer”— Drevdahl.
Creativity is the power of the human mind to create new contents by transforming relations and thereby
generating new correlates”—Spearman.
The 4 Stages of Creativity
The basic four stages, according to Kaufman:
Stage 1: Preparation: This stage of the process is called preparation and involves trying to learn lots of
things. At this point, rather than searching for magic leaps of understanding, your brain is using attention,
reasoning, and planning to gather information.
Stage 2: Incubation: This stage is the one where you stop consciously thinking about the problem you're
trying to solve. Research shows that letting your mind wander in this way leads to greater creativity.
Stage 3: Illumination: This is the scientific name for that classic "eureka!" moment when "connections
automatically, subconsciously collide and then reach the thresholdof consciousness and you feel- That's the
idea!'"
Stage 4: Verification: For creativity to reach others and accomplish anything, you need to once again use
those critical thinking skills and craft your message or idea in the right way so that other can verify easily
and endorse it.

Unit V:
Psychological Disorders, Therapeutic Approaches and Counseling
Psychological Disorders, Therapeutic Approaches and Counseling
Concept of Abnormality
psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought,
which Abnormal may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder. Although many
behaviors could be considered abnormal, this branch of psychology generally deals with behavior in a
clinical context.
Statistical abnormality – when a certain behavior/characteristic is relevant to a low percentage of the

population. However, this does not necessarily mean that such individuals are suffering from mental illness
(for example, statistical abnormalities such as extreme wealth/attractiveness)
Psychometric abnormality – when a certain behavior/characteristic differs from the population's normal
dispersion e.g. having an IQ of 35 could be classified as abnormal, as the population average is 100.
However, this does not specify a particular mental illness.
Deviant behavior – this is not always a sign of mental illness, as mental illness can occur without deviant
behavior, and such behavior may occur in the absence of mental illness.
Combinations – including distress, dysfunction, distorted psychological processes, inappropriate responses

in given situations and causing/risking harm to oneself.
The science of abnormal psychology studies two types of behaviors:
Adaptive and maladaptive behaviors
Behaviors that are maladaptive suggest that some problem(s) exist, and can also imply that the
individuals are vulnerable and cannot cope with environmental stress, which is leading them to have
problems functioning in daily life in their emotions, mental thinking, physical actions and talks.
While adaptive behaviors are the ones which enables an individual to adapt to the nature of people and the
lifestyles in their surroundings and to communicate correctly so that both understands each other.
Clinical psychology is the applied field of psychology that seeks to assess, understand and treat
psychological conditions in clinical practice. The theoretical field known as 'abnormal psychology' may
form a backdrop to such work, but clinical psychologists in the current field are unlikely to use the term
'abnormal' in reference to their practice.
Psychopathology is a similar term to abnormal psychology but has more of an implication of an underlying
pathology (disease process), and as such is a term more commonly used in the medical specialty known as
psychiatry.
The act of placing mentally ill individuals in a separate facility is known as an asylum. Patients were seen
as a “burden” to society and locked away and treated almost as beasts to be dealt with rather than patients
needing treatment. However, many of the patients received helpful medical treatment.
In the late 18th century, Philippe Pinel of France insisted on the idea of humanitarian treatment for the
patients and that they should be treated with kindness and not with cruelty, which helped to bring about a
reform in the way mental institutions would be run and the mental hygiene movement which promoted the

physical well-being of the mental patients.
The National Institute of Mental Health was created which provided support for the training of hospital
employees and research into the conditions which afflicted the patients and also helped with the creation of
outpatient psychiatric clinics, inpatient general hospitals, and rehabilitation and community consultation
centers.
Causal Factors Associated with abnormal Behaviour
Historically, there have been three main approaches to abnormal behavior: the supernatural, biological, and
psychological traditions.
Abnormal psychology revolves around two major paradigms for explaining mental disorders, the
psychological paradigm and the biological paradigm. The psychological paradigm focuses more on the
humanistic, cognitive and behavioral causes and effects of psychopathology. The biological paradigm
includes the theories that focus more on physical factors, such as genetics and neurochemistry.
In the first supernatural tradition, also called the demonological method, abnormal behaviors are attributed
to agents outside human bodies. According to this model, abnormal behaviors are caused by demons,
spirits, or the influences of moon, planets, and stars. By the time of the Greeks and Romans, mental
illnesses were thought to be caused by an imbalance of the four humors, leading to draining of fluids from
the brain. During the Medieval period, many
Europeans believed that the power of witches, demons, and spirits caused abnormal behaviors. People
with psychological disorders were thought to be possessed by evil spirits that had to be exercised through
religious rituals. If exorcism failed, some authorities advocated steps such as confinement, beating, and
other types of torture to make the body uninhabitable by witches, demons, and spirits.
This tradition is still alive today. Some people, especially in the developing countries and some followers
of religious sects in the developed countries, continue to believe that supernatural powers influence human
behaviors however in recent times, the supernatural tradition has been largely replaced by the biological
and psychological reasons.
Genetic contributions to psycho pathology
Behavior genetics is a much broader approach that studies genetic influences on the development of
normal and abnormal behavior. A genotype is an individual’s actual genetic structure. It is impossible to
observe much of an individual’s genotype directly. Instead, what we observe is the phenotype, the
expression of a given genotype. It usually is impossible to infer a precise genotype from a given
phenotype, because phenotypes, but not genotypes, are influenced by the environment. Dominant/recessive
inheritance causes some rare forms of mental retardation, but most mental disorders are not caused by a
single gene, instead, they are polygenic, that is, they are caused by more than one gene. Behavior genetic
research is powerful, but unfortunately; people often misinterpret it. One serious misinterpretation is that a
psychological disorder is inevitable, even predestined, if it has a genetic component. Nature and nurture are
not separate influences on behavior. Nature and nurture always work together. Huntington a disease of the
brain, it is due to genes that cause deterioration in a specific area of the brain and causes changes in
personality, such as cognitive functioning and motor behavior such as un controllable shaking and
jerkiness throughout the body. Another disease due to genetic influence is called Phenylketonuria caused at
birth, it is caused by the inability of the body to break down phenyl-alanine, a chemical compound found in
many foods.
Behavior geneticists have developed important methods for studying broad, genetic contributions to
behavior, including family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies.

Biological explanations
In the biological tradition, disorders are attributed to biological causes the medical or biological
perspective holds the belief that most or all abnormal behavior can be attributed to a medical factor;
assuming all psychological disorders are diseases.
The Greek physician Hippocrates, who is considered to be the father of Western medicine, played a major
role in the biological tradition. Hippocrates and his associates suggested that abnormal behaviors can be
treated like any other disease. Hippocrates viewed the brain as the seat of consciousness, emotion,
intelligence, and wisdom and believed that disorders involving these functions would logically be located
in the brain.
This perspective emphasizes understanding the underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic
inheritance, related physical disorders, infections and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments are often
pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction with some other type of
psychotherapy.”
Neurotransmitters and Psychopathology
Neuroscience and its contribution to psychopathology: The field of anatomy is concerned with the
study of biological structures, and the field of physiology investigates biological functions. The study of
neuroanatomy and neurophysiology is the domain of a multi- disciplinary field of research called
neuroscience. The Neuron forms the basic building blocks of the brain. Neuromodulators are chemicals that
may be released from neurons or from endocrine glands. Neuromodulators can influence communication
among many neurons by affecting the functioning of neurotransmitters.
Scientists have found that disruptions in the functioning of various neurotransmitters are present among
some people with mental disorders. An oversupply of certain neurotransmitters is found in some mental
disorders, an undersupply in other cases, and disturbances in reuptake in other psychological problems.
Abnormalities in the dopamine system in the brain may be involved in schizophrenia. Other evidence links
the availability of various neurotransmitters with depression, hyperactivity, post-traumatic stress disorder,
and many other psychological problems. The identification of biochemical differences definitely does not
mean that these problems are caused by "a chemical imbalance in the brain, “The neurotransmitters are
chemicals which act on behavior includes Acetylcholine, Nor epinephrine (Noradrenaline) Serotonin,
Dopamine, Glutamate and Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA). Increasing or decreasing the flow of
neurotransmitters is important. Research on neurotransmitters tells us that the production of
neurotransmitters in different parts of the brain effect behavior and mood.
Psychological explanations
Disorders that are attributed to faulty psychological development and to social context are named as
psychological abnormalities. These include;
Underdeveloped Superego
According to Sigmund Freud's structural model, the Id, Ego and Superego are three theoretical constructs
that defines the way an individual interacts with the external world as well as responding to internal forces.
The Id represents the instinctual drives of an individual that remain unconscious; the superego represents a
person's conscience and their internalization of societal norms and morality; and finally the ego serves to
realistically integrate the drives of the id with the prohibitions of the super-ego. Lack of development in the
Superego, or an incoherently developed Superego within an individual, will result in thoughts and actions
that are irrational and abnormal, contrary to the norms and beliefs of society.

Irrational beliefs
Irrational beliefs that are driven by unconscious fears can result in abnormal behavior. Rational emotive
therapy helps to drive irrational and maladaptive beliefs out of one's mind.
Sociocultural influences
The term sociocultural refers to the various circles of influence on the individual ranging from close friends
and family to the institutions and policies of a country or the world as a whole. Discriminations, whether
based on social class, income, race, and ethnicity, or gender, can influence the development of abnormal
behaviour.
Gene and Environment interaction

Explaining mental disorders with a combination of theoretical perspectives is known as multiple causality
models. This model emphasizes the importance of applying multiple causality to psychopathology as it
believe that disorders are caused by both precipitating causes and predisposing causes and EricKendel
explored gene and environment interaction and their relationship to psychological disorder. He proposed
two models -the Diathesis- Stress Model and -the Reciprocal Gene Environment Model.
Diathesis-Stress Model
In the diathesis-stress model individuals inherit characteristics traits from multiple genes and they have
tendencies to express certain traits and behaviors which may then be activated under conditions of stress
i.e. each inherited tendency is a diathesis which means a condition that makes one vulnerable to developing
a disorder. So when, a stressor comes along the disorder develops. So in this model of gene environment
interaction, there is a genetic predisposition and any environmental stress provides the opportunity for the
disorder to be expressed.
The Reciprocal Gene Environment Model

There is now substantial evidence that people with genetic vulnerability to develop a certain disorder also
have a personality trait for developing a certain disorder. This model applies to the development of the
depression in people.
Classification of disorders
Major Psychological Disorders
The term psychological disorder is sometimes used to refer to what are more frequently known as mental
disorders or psychiatric disorders. Mental disorders are patterns of behavioral or psychological symptoms
that impact multiple areas of life. These disorders create distress for the person experiencing these
symptoms.
The following list includes some of the major categories of disorders described in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). The latest edition of the diagnostic manual is the DSM-5
and was released in May of 2013. The DSM is one of the most widely used systems for classifying mental
disorders and provides standardized diagnostic criteria.
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are a type of psychological disorder that are characterized by excessive and persistent
fear, worry, anxiety and related behavioral disturbances. Fear involves an emotional response to a threat,
whether that threat is real or perceived. Anxiety involves the anticipation that a future threat may arise.
Types of anxiety disorders include:

a- Generalized anxiety disorder; is marked by excessive worry about everyday events. While some
stress and worry are a normal and even common part of life, GAD involves worry that is so excessive that
it interferes with a person's well-being and functioning.

b- Specific Phobia
Phobia is defined as the persistent fear of a situation, activity, or thing that causes the sufferer to want to
avoid it. The three types of phobias are social phobia (fear of public speaking, meeting new people, or
other social situations), agoraphobia (fear of being outside), and specific phobias (fear of particular items
or situations).
Phobias are largely underreported, probably because many people with phobias find ways to avoid the
situations that they fear. Therefore, statistics for how many people have phobias vary widely. Phobias
are fairly common. Women are thought to be twice more likely to develop a phobia than men.
The four main types of specific phobias involve natural events (thunder, lightning, tornadoes), medical
(medical procedures, dental procedures, medical equipment), animals (dogs, snakes, bugs), and situational
(small spaces, leaving home, driving).
Some of the most common phobias include fears of public speaking or other social situations (social
phobia or social anxiety disorder), open spaces (agoraphobia), closed-in spaces (claustrophobia), the dark,
clowns (coulrophobia), flying (aerophobia), blood, birds (ornithophobia) or all animals (zoophobia),
commitment (gamophobia), driving (vehophobia), snow (chionophobia), spiders (arachnophobia) and bugs,
needles (aichmophobia), snakes (ophidiophobia), death, math, heights (acrophobia or altophobia), bridges
or tunnels, germs (mysophobia), and having dental work done (dentophobia). Fears of midgets, haunted
houses, long words, helmets, pickles, feet, and phobias of holes are just a few unusual fears/phobias and
may be considered weird or strange by some but can be just as debilitating as those phobias that are more
common. Agoraphobia often coexists with panic disorder.
Social anxiety disorder is a fairly common psychological disorder that involves an irrational fear of being
watched or judged. The anxiety caused by this disorder can have a major impact on an individual's life and
make it difficult to function at school, work, and other social settings.
Panic disorder is a psychiatric disorder characterized by panic attacks that often seem to strike out of the
blue and for no reason at all. Because of this, people with panic disorder often experience anxiety and
preoccupation over the possibility of having another panic attack.
People may begin to avoid situations and settings where attacks have occurred in the past or where they
might occur in the future. This can create significant impairments in many areas of everyday life and make
it difficult to carry out normal routines.
Separation anxiety disorder is a type of anxiety disorder involving an excessive amount of fear or anxiety
related to being separated from attachment figures. People are often familiar with the idea of separation
anxiety as it relates to young children's fear of being apart from their parents, but older children and adults
can experience it as well. When symptoms become so severe that they interfere with normal functioning,
the individual may be diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder.
Symptoms involve an extreme fear of being away from the caregiver or attachment figure. The person
suffering these symptoms may avoid moving away from home, going to school, or getting married in
order to remain in close proximity to the attachment figure.
Somatoform disorders
These are characterized by a concern with the body. Stress and trauma lead to anxiety, but instead of
developing one of the anxiety disorders or depression, some people somaticize: They experience the
anxiety as fatigue, loss of appetite, body aches, headaches, gastrointestinal problems, and so on.
Somatization is actually the most commonmanifestation of anxiety, especially in non-western countries.

It has been noted, that people with these disorders are uncommonly easy to hypnotize. This suggests that
they may also find it easy to convince themselves of physical ailments that don't really exist. This can be
understood as a matter of dissociation (which we discuss under dissociative disorders). Some people
(usually nervous extraverts) are able to focus their attention on some aspects of their bodies (such as aches
and pains) and focus attention away from other aspects (such as the ability to feel their hands or use their
legs). This accounts for the way hypnosis and folk remedies are able to help people with somatoform
disorders.
There are several variations:

People with somatization disorder have a history of complaints concerning their physical health, yet show
little or no signs of actually having the problems they think they have these people seem to have a very
broad variety of problems, including pain in different parts of the body, gastrointestinal problems, sexual
and menstrual symptoms and neurological problems. It has been a concern, however, that this diagnosis
has been misused in the past, especially in regards to women who may very well have had real medical
conditions beyond the abilities oftheir doctors to diagnose.
Dissociation
Dissociation is a mental process that causes a lack of connection in a person’s thoughts, memory and sense
of identity. Dissociation seems to fall on a continuum of severity. Mild dissociation would be like
daydreaming, getting “lost” in a book, or when you are driving down a familiar stretch of road and realize
that you do not remember the last several miles. A severe and more chronic form of dissociation is seen in
the disorder Dissociative Identity Disorder, once called Multiple Personality Disorder, and other
Dissociative Disorders.
Transient and mild dissociative experiences are common. But these disorders are difficult to identify
and may go undiagnosed for many years.
Other Forms of Dissociation

Other dissociative disorders include “psychogenic amnesia” (the inability to recall personally significant
memories), “psychogenic fugue” (memory loss characteristic of amnesia, loss of one’s identity, and fleeing
from one’s home environment), and “multiple personality” (the person has two or more distinct
personalities that alternate with one another. This is also known as “Dissociative Identity Disorder” or
“Multiple Personality Disorder”).
People with these disorders often have good reasons to mistrust authority as well as a lifelong habit of
keeping secrets from themselves and others.
*Dissociative disorders (DD) are conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory,
awareness, identity, or perception. People with dissociative disorders use dissociation, as a defence
mechanism, pathologically and involuntarily. Some dissociative disorders are triggered by psychological
trauma, but dissociative disorders such as depersonalization/derealization disorder may be preceded only
by stress, psychoactive substances, or no identifiable trigger at all.
*Dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder): the alternation of two or more
distinct personality states with impaired recall among personality states. In extreme cases, the host
personality is unaware of the other, alternating personalities; however, the alternate personalities can be
aware of all the existing personalities. This category now includes the old derealization disorder category.

Dissociative identity disorder is caused by ongoing childhood trauma that occurs before the ages of six to
nine. People with dissociative identity disorder usually have close relatives who have also had similar
experiences. Long-term psychotherapy that helps the patient merges his/her multiple personalities into one
personality. Dissociative identity disorder has a tendency to recur over a period of several years, and may
become less of a problem after mid-life.
*Dissociative amnesia (formerly psychogenic amnesia): the temporary loss of recall memory, specifically
episodic memory, due to a traumatic or stressful event. It is considered the most common dissociative
disorder amongst those documented. This disorder can occur abruptly or gradually and may last minutes to
years depending on the severity of the trauma and the patient.
*Dissociative fugue (formerly psychogenic fugue) is now subsumed under the dissociative amnesia
category. It is described as reversible amnesia for personal identity, usually involving unplanned travel or
wandering, sometimes accompanied by the establishment of a new identity. This state is typically
associated with stressful life circumstances and can be short or lengthy.
Both dissociative amnesia and dissociative fugue usually emerge in adulthood and rarely occur after the
age of 50. It is a way to cope with trauma and stressful events that happens in adulthood.
Psychotherapy (talk therapy), counseling or psychosocial therapy which involves talking about your
disorder and related issues with a mental health provider. Psychotherapy often involves hypnosis (help you
remember and work through the trauma); creative art therapy (using creative process to help a person who
cannot express his or her thoughts); cognitive therapy (talk therapy to identify unhealthy and negative
beliefs/behaviors); and medications (antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications or tranquilizers).
*Depersonalization disorder: periods of detachment from self or surrounding which may be experienced as
"unreal" (lacking in control of or "outside" self) while retaining awareness that this is only a feeling and not
a reality.
Dissociative disorders usually develop as a way to cope with trauma. The disorders most often form in
children subjected to chronic physical, sexual or emotional abuse or, less frequently, a home environment
that is otherwise frightening or highly unpredictable; however, this disorder can also acutely form due to
severe traumas such as war or the death ofa loved one.
The same treatment as dissociative amnesia and same drugs are usad to treat this disorder. An episode of
depersonalization disorder can be as brief as a few seconds or continue for several years.
Mood disorder/Affective disorder

Mood disorder, also known as mood (affective) disorders, is a group of conditions where a disturbance in
the person's mood is the main underlying feature.
Mood disorders fall into the basic groups of elevated mood, such as mania or hypomania; depressed mood,
of which the best-known and most researched is major depressive disorder (MDD) (commonly called
clinical depression, unipolar depression, or major depression); and moods which cycle between mania and
depression, known as bipolar disorder (BD) (formerly known as manic depression). There are several sub-
types of depressive disorders or psychiatric syndromes featuring less severe symptoms such as dysthymic
disorder (similar to but milder than MDD) and cyclothymic disorder (similar to but milder than BD). Mood
disorders may also be substance induced or occur in response to a medical condition.
English psychiatrist Henry Maudsley proposed an overarching category of affective disorder. The term was
then replaced by mood-disorder, as the latter term refers to the underlying or longitudinal emotional state,
whereas the former refers to the external expression observed by others.

Schizophrenia and other psychoses
Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness characterized by incoherent or illogical thoughts, bizarre behavior
and speech, and delusions or hallucinations, such as hearing voices. Schizophrenia typically begins in early
adulthood.
Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder, affecting about 23 million people worldwide. Psychoses,
including schizophrenia, are characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, language, sense
of self and behaviour. Common psychotic experiences include hallucinations (hearing, seeing or feeling
things that are not there) and delusions (fixed false beliefs or suspicions that are firmly held even when
there is evidence to the contrary). The disorder can make it difficult for people affected to work or study
normally.
Stigma and discrimination can result in a lack of access to health and social services. Furthermore, people
with psychosis are at high risk of exposure to human rights violations, such as long-term confinement in
institutions.
There are five types of schizophrenia. They are categorized by the types of symptoms the person exhibits
when they are assessed:
a. Paranoid schizophrenia
b. Disorganized schizophrenia
c. Catatonic schizophrenia
d. Undifferentiated schizophrenia
e. Residual schizophrenia
a.Paranoid Schizophrenia
Paranoid-type schizophrenia is distinguished by paranoid behavior, including delusions and auditory
hallucinations. Paranoid behavior is exhibited by feelings of persecution, of being watched, or sometimes
this behavior is associated with a famous or noteworthy person a celebrity or politician, or an entity such as
a corporation. People with paranoid-type schizophrenia may display anger, anxiety, and hostility. The
person usually has relatively normal intellectual functioning and expression of affect.
b.Disorganized Schizophrenia
A person with disorganized-type schizophrenia will exhibit behaviors that are disorganized or speech that
may be bizarre or difficult to understand. They may display inappropriate emotions or reactions that do not
relate to the situation at-hand. Daily activities such as hygiene, eating, and working may be disrupted or
neglected by their disorganized thought patterns.
c.Catatonic Schizophrenia
Disturbances of movement mark catatonic-type schizophrenia. People with this type of schizophrenia may
vary between extremes: they may remain immobile or may move all over the place. They may say nothing
for hours, or they may repeat everything you say or do. These behaviors put these people with catatonic-
type schizophrenia at high risk because they are often unable to take care of themselves or complete daily
activities.
d.Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
Undifferentiated-type schizophrenia is a classification used when a person exhibits behaviors which fit into
two or more of the other types of schizophrenia, including symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations,
disorganized speech or behavior, catatonic behavior.
e.Residual Schizophrenia
When a person has a past history of at least one episode of schizophrenia, but the currently has no
symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior) they are considered to have
residual-type schizophrenia. The person may be in complete remission, or may at some point resume
symptoms.
Treatment with medicines and psychosocial support is effective. With appropriate treatment and social
support, affected people can lead a productive life, be integrated in society. Facilitation of assisted living,
supported housing and supported employment can act as a base from which people with severe mental
disorders, including Schizophrenia, can achieve numerous recovery goals as they often face difficulty in
obtaining or retaining normal employment or housing opportunities.
Learning disabilities are diagnosed when the children are young and just beginning school. Most learning
disabilities are found under the age of 9.
Young children with communication disorders may not speak at all, or may have a limited vocabulary for
their age. Some children with communication disorders have difficulty understanding simple directions or
are unable to name objects. Most children with communication disorders are able to speak by the time they
enter school, however, they continue to have problems with communication. School-aged children often
have problems understanding and formulating words. Teens may have more difficulty with understanding
or expressing abstract ideas.
The scientific study of the causes of developmental disorders involves many different theories. Some of
the major differences between these theories involves whether or not environment disrupts normal
development, or if abnormalities are pre-determined. Normal development occurs with a combination of
contributions from both the environment and genetics.
One theory that supports environmental causes of developmental disorders involves stress in early
childhood. Other stress theories suggest that even small stresses can accumulate to result in emotional,
behavioral, or social disorders in children.
Types
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by
challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication.
Several factors may influence the development of autism, and it is often accompanied by sensory
sensitivities and medical issues such as gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, seizures or sleep disorders, as well
as mental health challenges such as anxiety, depression and attention issues.
There are four types of autism spectrum disorders:
Autistic Disorder
This is sometimes called “classic” autism. It is what most people think of when hearing the word
“autism”. People with autistic disorder usually have significant language delays, social and
communication challenges, and unusual behaviors and interests. Many people with autistic disorder also
have intellectual disability.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

It is a brain disorder marked by an ongoing pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity- impulsivity
that interferes with functioning or development.
Inattention means a person wanders off task, lacks persistence, has difficulty sustaining focus, and is
disorganized; and these problems are not due to defiance or lack of comprehension.

Hyperactivity means a person seems to move about constantly, including in situations in which it is not
appropriate; or excessively fidgets, taps, or talks. In adults, it may be extreme restlessness or wearing
others out with constant activity.
Impulsivity means a person makes hasty actions that occur in the moment without first thinking about them
and that may have high potential for harm; or a desire for immediate rewards or inability to delay
gratification. An impulsive person may be socially intrusive and excessively interrupt others or make
important decisions without considering the long-term consequences.
Behavioural disorders
All young children can be naughty, defiant and impulsive from time to time, which is perfectly normal.
However, some children have extremely difficult and challenging behaviours that are outside the norm for
their age.
The most common disruptive behaviour disorders include oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), conduct
disorder (CD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These three behavioural disorders
share some common symptoms, so diagnosis can be difficult and time consuming. A child or adolescent
may have two disorders at the same time. Other exacerbating factors can include emotional problems,
mood disorders, family difficulties and substance abuse.
Oppositional defiant disorder

Around one in ten children under the age of 12 years are thought to have oppositional defiant disorder
(ODD), with boys out numbering girls by two to one. Some of the typical behaviours of a child with ODD
include:
Easily angered, annoyed or irritated, Frequent temper tantrums, Argues frequently with adults, particularly
the most familiar adults in their lives, such as parents, Refuses to obey rules, Seems to deliberately try to
annoy or aggravate others, Low self-esteem, Low frustration threshold, Seeks to blame others for any
misfortunes or misdeeds.
Conduct disorder
Children with conduct disorder (CD) are often judged as ‘bad kids’ because of their delinquent behaviour
and refusal to accept rules. Around five per cent of 10 year olds are thought to have CD, with boys out
numbering girls by four to one. Around one-third of children with CD also have attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Some of the typical behaviours of a child with CD may include:

Frequent refusal to obey parents or other authority figures, Repeated truancy, Tendency to use drugs,
including cigarettes and alcohol, at a very early age, Lack of empathy for others, Being aggressive to
animals and other people or showing sadistic behaviours including bullying and physical or sexual abuse,
Keenness to start physical fights, Using weapons in physical fights, Frequent lying, Criminal behaviour
such as stealing, deliberately lighting fires, breaking into houses and vandalism, A tendency to run away
from home, Suicidal tendencies – although these are more rare.
Other Developmental and Behavioral Disorders (these are given in alphabeticorder)

Angelman Syndrome is a genetic disorder in which a gene on chromosome 15 is missing or unexpressed.
Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) is a complex and often misunderstood neurological disorder
that occurs in individuals with normal hearing who have a reduced or impaired ability to discriminate,
recognize, or understand sounds.
Cerebral Palsy is a disorder caused by damage to the brain that occurs before, during, or shortly following
birth. It affects body movement and muscle
coordination. Individuals with cerebral palsy may also experience seizures, abnormal speech, hearing and
visual impairments, and mental retardation.
Down Syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality that changes the course of development and causes the
characteristics associated with the syndrome. Mild to severe mental retardation can be present among those
affected. Speech and language may also be delayed. Expressive Language Disorder
Expressive language disorder: It is a developmental disorder where a child will have problems expressing
him or herself in speech.
Fragile X Syndrome is a genetic disorder and is the most common form of inherited mental retardation. It
is more common in boys than girls.
Isodicentric 15, abbreviated idic (15), is one of a group of genetic conditions. Most children and adults
with idic (15) experience developmental disabilities. Landau-Kleffner Syndrome
Landau-Kleffner Syndrome (LKS) is a childhood disorder that is characterized by a progressive loss of the
ability to understand and use spoken language, following a period of normal speech development.
v- Learning disabilities are a group of neurological disorders which become evident in childhood and
which are characterized by difficulty learning, sorting, and storing information. Usually affected individuals
have with average or above average intelligence. Children with learning disabilities may have one or more
difficulties with skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities
that interfere with academic performance, achievement and, in some cases, activities of daily living.
Learning disabilities may overlap with other disorders or environmental influences, but arenot the direct
result of those conditions or influences. Often these disabilities are not identified until a child reaches
school age. Performances on standardized tests are usually found to be below that expected for age,
schooling, and level of intelligence.
Standardized cognitive measures and diagnostic tools in addition to observations from education
professionals help to identify areas where these children are experiencing problems.
Mental Retardation
Mental retardation is a disability that occurs in childhood characterized by substantial limitations in

intellectual functioning and adaptive skills. A person with mental retardation may have difficulties with
communication, conceptual skills, social skills, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self-
direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work. Diagnosis is performed through a)
standardized testing; b) determining an individual’s strengths and challenges in intellectual and adaptive
behavior skills, psychological and emotional considerations, physical and health considerations, and
environmental considerations; and c) determining supports needed through an interdisciplinary team.
Interventional strategies are delivered by providing resource supports and specific strategies so as to
promote the development, education, interests, and personal well-being of the affected child, adolescent or
adult. Providing individualized supports can improve personal functioning, promote self-determination and
societal inclusion, and improve personal well- being of a person with mental retardation.
Neural tube defects are birth defects that involve the central nervous system. These defects of the spinal
cord and/or brain result from failure of the neural tube to properly form. These disorders may present
varying degrees of disability, including learning disabilities, social issues, lower extremity paralysis, loss
of bowel or bladder control, and hydrocephalus (water on the brain), which can produce retardation unless
it is surgically treated.

Phenylketonuria: PKU is an inherited metabolic disorder in which the body cannot metabolize the amino
acid phenylalanine that is present in many common foods.
Prader-Willi Syndrome is a combination of birth defects caused by inheriting both copies of the #15
chromosome from the mother (25%) or by inheriting a deletion of a region of chromosome #15 from the
father (75%).
Seizure disorders are neurological disorders that may cause physical convulsions, minor physical signs,
thought disturbances, or a combination of symptoms that are the result of uncontrolled electrical activity in
the brain.
Tourette Syndrome is a neurological disorder characterized, in mild form, by recurring involuntary body
movements and sounds (called tics) and, in advanced cases by large involuntary bodily movements, noises
like barks and whistles, and in many instances an uncontrollable urge to utter obscenities.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a disability category that occurs as the result of an injury to the brain as a
result of an accident, insufficient oxygen, poisoning or infection at any time during an individual’s
life.Williams Syndrome is a rare genetic disorder present at birth that is associated with deletion of
genetic material in chromosome 7.
Substance Related
Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is a patterned use of a substance (drug) in which the user
consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others. The drugs
used are often associated with levels of intoxication that alter judgment, perception, attention and physical
control, not related with medical effects. It is often thought that the main abused substances are illegal
drugs and alcohol; however it is becoming more common that prescription drugs and tobacco are a
prevalent problem.
Substance-related disorders, including both substance dependence and substance abuse, can lead to large
societal problems. It is found to be greatest in individuals ages 18–25, with a higher likelihood occurring in
men compared to women, and urban residents compared to rural residents. On average, general medical
facilities hold 20% of patients with substance- related disorders, possibly leading to psychiatric disorders
later on. Over 50% of individuals with substance-related disorders will often have a "dual diagnosis,"
where they are diagnosed with the substance abuse, as well as a psychiatric diagnosis, the most common
being major depression, personality disorder, anxiety disorders, and dysthymia.
Signs and symptoms
Common symptoms include:

Sudden changes in behaviour – may engage in secretive or suspicious behaviour
Mood changes – anger towards others, paranoia and little care shown about themselves or their future
Problems with work or school – lack of attendance Changes in eating and sleeping habits Changes in
friendship groups and poor family relationships.A sudden unexplained change in financial needs – leading
to borrowing/stealing money.There are many more symptoms such as physical and psychological changes,
though this is often dependent on which drug is being abused. It is, however, common that abusers will
experience unpleasant withdrawal symptoms if the drug is taken away from them.
It is also reported that others have strong cravings even after they have not used the drug for a long period
of time. This is called being "clean". To determine how the brain triggers these cravings, multiple tests
have been done on mice.
Classification and terminology
Substance-related disorders were originally subcategorized into "substance use disorders" (SUD) and
"substance-induced disorders" (SID). Though DSM-IV makes a firm distinction between the two, SIDs
often occur in the context of SUDs.

Substance-induced disorders
Substance-induced disorders include medical conditions that can be directly attributed to the use of a
substance. These conditions include intoxication, withdrawal, substance-induced delirium, substance-
induced psychosis, and substance-induced mood disorders.
Substance use disorders

Substance use disorders include substance abuse and substance dependence.
Potential Complications
There are many potential complications that can arise due to substance abuse such as severe physiological
damage, psychological changes and social changes that are often not desirable.
Physiological damage is often the most obvious, observed as an abnormal condition affecting the body of
an organism: For instance, there are several known alcohol-induced diseases (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis,
alcoholic liver disease, and alcoholic cardiomyopathy.) Substance abuse is also often associated with
premature ageing, fertility complications, brain damage and a higher risk of infectious diseases due to a
weakened immune system.
Long term abuse has been linked to personality changes such as depression, paranoia, anxiety which can be
related to psychological disorders. It is often reported that substance abuse coincides with personality
disorders, such as borderline personality disorder. It has also now been linked to severe brain damage
leading to an inability to control behaviours, which could explain why many people who abuse substances
go on to develop addictions.
Substance abuse is often regarded as negative in society and therefore those who engage in such
behaviours can often be subject to social discrimination. The use of many drugs can lead to criminal
convictions, whether the drug itself is illegal or abusers use unlawful methods to fund their substances. It is
also more likely that someone will partake in criminal or anti- social behaviour when they are under the
influence of a drug.
Types of Therapies
Psycho-dynamic (Freud)
Psychoanalytic theory is heavily based on the theory of the neurologist Sigmund Freud. These ideas often
represented repressed emotions and memories from a patient's childhood. According to psychoanalytic
theory, these repressions cause the disturbances that people experience in their daily lives and by finding
the source of these disturbances, one should be able to eliminate the disturbance itself.
This is accomplished by a variety of methods, with some popular ones being free association, hypnosis,
and insight. The goal of these methods is to induce a catharsis or emotional release in the patient which
should indicate that the source of the problem has been tapped and it can then be helped.
Freud's psychosexual stages also played a key role in this form of therapy; as he would often believe that
problems the patient was experiencing were due to them becoming stuck or "fixated" in a particular stage.
Dreams also played a major role in this form of therapy as Freud viewed dreams as a way to gain insight
into the unconscious mind. Patients were often asked to keep dream journals and to record their dreams to
bring in for discussion during the next therapy session.
There are many potential problems associated with this style of therapy, including resistance to the
repressed memory or feeling, and negative transference onto the therapist. Psychoanalysis was carried on
by many after Freud including his daughter Ana Freud and Jacques Lacan. These and many others have
gone on to elaborate on Freud's original theory and to add their own take on defense mechanisms or dream
analysis.

His close collaborator Carl Jung modified it to what came to be known as the analytical psychotherapy.
Subsequently, Freud’s successors, known as Neo-Freudians, established their own versions of classical
psychodynamic therapy. Broadly, the psychodynamic therapy has conceptualised the structure of the
psyche, dynamics between different components of the psyche, and the source of psychological distress.
You have already studied these concepts in the chapters on self and Personality, and Psychological
Disorders. While psychoanalysis has fallen out of favor to more modern forms of therapy it is still used by
some clinical psychologists to varying degrees.
Humanistic therapy (Rogers)

Humanistic therapy aims to achieve self-actualization (Carl Rogers, 1961). In this style of therapy, the
therapist will focus on the patient themselves as opposed to the problem which the patient is afflicted
with. The overall goal of this therapy is that by treating the patient as "human" instead of client will help
get to the source of the problem and hopefully resolve the problem in an effective manner. Humanistic
therapy has been on the rise in recent years and has been associated with numerous positive benefits. It is
considered to be one of the core elements needed therapeutic effectiveness and a significant contributor to
not only the well- being of the patient but society as a whole. Some say that all of the therapeutic
approaches today draw from the humanistic approach in some regard and that humanistic therapy is the
best way for treat a patient. Humanistic therapy can be used on people of all ages; however, it is very
popular among children in its variant known as "play therapy". Children are often sent to therapy due to
outburst that they have in a school or home setting, the theory is that by treating the child in a setting that is
similar to the area that they are having their disruptive behavior, the child will be more likely to learn from
the therapy and have an effective outcome. In play therapy, the clinicians will "play" with their client
usually with toys, or a tea party. Playing is the typical behavior of a child and therefore playing with the
therapist will come as a natural response to the child. In playing together the clinician will ask the patient
questions but due to the setting; the questions no longer seem intrusive and therapeutic more like a normal
conversation. This should help the patient realizes issues they have and confess them to the therapist with
less difficulty than they may experience in a traditional counselling setting.
The humanistic-existential therapies postulate that psychological distress arises from feelings of loneliness,
alienation, and an inability to find meaning and genuine fulfilment in life. Human beings are motivated by
the desire for personal growth. and self-actualisation, and an innate need to grow emotionally. When these
needs are curbed by society and family, human beings experience psychological distress. Self-actualisation
is defined as an innate or inborn force that moves the person to become more complex, balanced, and
integrated, i.e. achieving the complexity and balance without being fragmented. Integrated means; a sense
of whole, being a complete person, being in essence the same person in spite of the variety of experiences
that one is subjected to. As lack of food or water causes distress, frustration of self-actualisation also
causes distress.
Cognitive behavioural therapy (Ellis and Beck)
Ration Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT) Ellis:

REBT is the first form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and was first expounded by Albert Ellis in
the mid-1950s; development continued until his death in 2007. The central thesis of this therapy is that
irrational beliefs mediate between the antecedent events.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), previously called rational therapy and rational emotive
therapy, is an active-directive, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy, the aim of which is
to resolve emotional and behavioral problems and disturbances and to help people to lead happier and
more fulfilling. The REBT is a short-term form of psychotherapy that helps you identify self-defeating
thoughts and feelings, challenge the rationality of those feelings, and replace them with healthier, more
productive beliefs.

Cognitive behavioural therapy aims to influence thought and cognition (Beck, 1977). This form of therapy
relies on not only the components of behavioral therapy as mentioned before, but also the elements of
cognitive psychology. This relies on not only the clients behavioral problems that could have arisen from
conditioning; but also these negative schemas, and distorted perceptions of the world around them.
Cognitive therapies locate the cause of psychological distress in irrational thoughts and beliefs.
These negative schemas may be causing distress in the life of the patient; for example the schemas may be
giving them unrealistic expectations for how well they should perform at their job, or how they should look
physically. When these expectations are not met it will often result in maladaptive behaviors such as
depression, obsessive compulsions, and anxiety.
With cognitive behavior therapy; the goal is to change the schemas that are causing the stress in a person’s
life and hopefully replace them with more realistic ones. Once the negative schemas have been replaced, it
will hopefully cause a remission of the patient’s symptoms.
The CBT is considered particularly effective in the treatment of depression and has even been used lately
in group settings. It is felt that using CBT in a group setting aids in giving its members a sense of support
and decreasing the likelihood of them dropping out of therapy before the treatment has had time to work
properly.
The CBT has been found to be an effective treatment for many patients even those who do not have
diseases and disorders typically thought of as psychiatric ones. For example, patients with the disease
multiple sclerosis have found a lot of help using CBT. The treatment often helps the patients cope with the
disorder they have and how they can adapt to their new lives without developing new problems such as
depression or negative schemas about themselves.
Behavioral therapy (Wolpe)

Behavior therapy relies on the principles of behaviorism, such as involving classical and operant
conditioning. Behaviorism arose in the early 20th century due to the work of psychologists such as James
Watson and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism states that all behaviors humans do is because of a stimulus and
reinforcement. While this reinforcement is normally for good behavior, it can also occur for maladaptive
behavior. In this therapeutic view, the patients of maladaptive behavior has been reinforced which will
cause the maladaptive behavior to be repeated. The goal of the therapy is to reinforce less maladaptive
behaviors so that with time these adaptive behaviors will become the primary ones in the patient.
Behaviour therapies postulate that psychological distress arises because of faulty behaviour patterns or
thought patterns. It is, therefore, focused on the behaviour and thoughts of the client in the present. The
past is relevant only to the extent of understanding the origins of the faulty behaviour and thought patterns.
The past is not activated or relived. Only the faulty patterns are corrected in the present. The clinical
applications of learning theory principles constitute behaviour therapy. Behaviour therapy consists of a
large set of specific techniques and interventions. It is not a unified theory, which is applied irrespective of
the clinical diagnosis or the symptoms present. The symptoms of the client and the clinical diagnosis are
the guiding factors in the selection of the specific techniques or interventions to be applied. Treatment of
phobias or excessive and crippling fears would require the use of one set of techniques while that of anger
outbursts would require another. A depressed client would be treated differently from a client who is
anxious. The foundation of behaviour therapy is on formulating dysfunctional or faulty behaviours, the
factors which reinforce and maintain these behaviours, and devising methods by which they can be
changed.

Counseling
Counseling is a collaborative effort between the counselor and client. Professional counselors help clients
identify goals and potential solutions to problems which cause emotional turmoil; seek to improve
communication and coping skills; strengthen self-esteem; and promote behavior change and optimal
mental health.
It is a process where in a client and counsellor set aside time in order to explore the difficulties which may
include the stressful or emotional feelings of the client.
It is an act of helping the client to see things more clearly- possibly from a different viewpoint. This can
enable the client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a goal to facilitating positive change.
The counsellor functions in a broad spectrum verging upon psychotherapy at one boundary and upon
advice giving at the other and may also enrich the skills of others in the caring professions. In all cases,
receptivity to the individual's thoughts and feelings is required. This capacity is enlarged by the
counsellor's ability to extend his or her own self‐understanding and by willingness to learn from the
client.
A relationship of trust; Confidentiality is paramount to successful counselling. Professional counsellors

will usually explain their policy on confidentiality, they may, however, be required by law to disclose
information if they believe that there is a risk to life.
Ruth Strang defined “Counselling is a face to face relationship in which growth takes place in the
counsellor as well as the counsellee.”
Harriman defined “Counselling is the psychotherapeutic relationship in which an individual receives direct
help from an adviser or finds an opportunity to release negative feelings and thus clear the way for positive
growth in personality.”
Characteristics:
Counselling is highly personal process. It has close contact of two persons.
The counselor brings change in his feelings and emotions
The counselor should have full understanding of his task
It has very intense conversation between the two persons- counselor andcounselee
Counseling deals the problems of abnormal behavior and emotionalproblems.
Counseling releases the client from feeling of inferiority and compulsion.
The purpose of counseling is to make counselee cheerful to gain confidencefor social responsibility.
Characteristics of an effective Counselor

Communication Skills. Effective counselors should have excellent communication skills. ...
Acceptance. ...
Empathy. ...
Problem-Solving Skills. ...
Rapport-Building Skills. ...
Flexibility. ...
Self-Awareness. ...
Multicultural Competency.

Stages of Counseling:
Counseling has been described as a journey whereby the client and counselor undergo a joint process of
exploration and reflection (Thorne, 2007). The idea of a process, however, requires at least some notion of
beginning and end. While many schools of thought and psychotherapeutic approaches use formulations
based on theory in order to explain behaviours and situations, the person-centred approach tends not to use
such formulations (Cooper and McLeod, 2011). However, when presenting a client in supervision,
there is a need for common terms and a shared language in order to best communicate information. This
common language can be found in Rogers’ 7 stage process.
Rogers (1957) noted that, “Individuals move, I began to see, not from fixity or homeostasis through change
to a new fixity, though such a process is indeed possible. But much the more significant continuum is from
fixity to changingness, from rigid structure to flow, from stasis to process” (p. 100). He expanded on this
concept of moving from a rigid experience to one of fluidity by introducing 7 stages he believed clients
progressed through as part of therapeutic change:
Stage 1: Clients are defensive and resistant to change. According to Rogers (1958), clients in this stage
refer to feelings and emotions as things of the past rather than the present, as they react to past experiences
rather than to present ones. Only when a person feels fully accepted, can he or she progress to the next
stage.
Stage 2: Clients become slightly less rigid and begin to discuss external events or other people. In this
stage, feelings tend to be described as “disowned” or even as past objects.
Stage 3: Clients begin to discuss themselves, but as an object rather than a person. This isbecause they
are avoiding a discussion of the present.
Stage 4: Clients progress to discussing deeper feelings as they develop a relationship with the counsellor.
Stage 5: Clients can express present emotions and begin to rely on their own decision-making abilities.
Subsequently, they begin to accept more responsibility for their actions. They have a growing acceptance
of contradictions and understanding of incongruence.
Stage 6: Clients show rapid growth towards congruence and often begin to develop unconditional positive
regard (UPR) for others. This stage indicates the client no longer needs formal counselling (Wilkins, 2000).
Stage 7: Clients are fully functioning, self-actualised and empathic, and can show UPR towards others.
The last and ultimate stage of person-centred therapy can be construed as achieving movement from
heteronomy (control by external forces) to autonomy (control of inner forces) (Kensit, 2000).
Rogers’ model should not be considered as a linear process, but rather a general trend over time. In
addition, the stages are not discrete in the sense that a client would be objectively categorised into one
stage only and not another. Instead, a client may well display thoughts, emotions and behaviours suitable
for several stages.
These stages are, however, helpful for formulating the client’s capabilities, motivation and ability to
change. A significant advantage in using this model is that it provides a common language that can be used
to communicate and convey information regarding a client in supervision or when consulting colleagues.

UGC Autonomous Institution - Affiliated to JNTUH
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli(V), Ibrahimpatan (M), R.R.Dist–501 510.
B.Tech. III Year I Semester Main Examination
Basics of Psychology(Open Elective-1)

(Common to all branches)
Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 70

Part A
Answer ALL Questions 5x2=10
1. Define psychology and outline the nature of psychology.

2. Explain how Positive psychology changed the perspective towards the study of human
being?
3. Examine the impact of Culture on human behaviour.
4. Write a note on Globalisation.
5. Elaborate on the concept of Drive.
6. Describe the meaning of Self-regulation.
7. Name the internal factors influencing Attention.
8. Discuss the nature of Creativity.
9. Explain the meaning of Substance abuse.
10. Talk about the nature of Counselling.
Part B
11. Trace the evolution of the discipline of Psychology.
or
12. Examine the linkages across the psychological processes.
13. Explain the functioning of the nervous system.
Or
14. What is the meaning of Socialisation? Discuss the process of socialisation.
15. Briefly discuss the approaches to Personality.
Or
16. Evaluate the need for personality assessment and discuss about the self-report
measures.
17. What is Memory? Name the techniques to improve memory.
Or
18. Define the term Problem solving and elaborate upon the steps involved in problem
solving.
19. Explain the concept of Abnormality. Write a brief note on the classification of the
disorders.
Or
20. Delineate the stages of Counseling.


Part A
1. Define psychology and outline the nature of Psychology.
2. Explain how Positive Psychology changed the perspective towards the study of
human beings?
3. Describe how Neurons transmit information.
4. What is meant by Acculturation?
5. Elaborate on the concept of Drive.
6. Who is a Healthy Person?
7. Define Attention.
8. Why does Forgetting take place?
9. Identify the symptoms associated with Anxiety.
10. Explain the meaning of Substance Abuse.
PART – B (5x10 = 50 Marks)

(Answer ALL questions)
1. Discuss the Scope of psychology in today’s world.What are the aims of Psychology?
Or
2. Write an essay on the Basic Fields of Psychology.
3. Explain the functioning of the Nervous System.
Or
4. Explain the meaning of Culture . Elaborate how Culture effects Behaviour.
5. What is the meaning of Motivation? Elaborate about Maslow’s NeedsHierarchy with help of
diagram.
Or
6. Explain the term Personality. Briefly discuss about trait and type
Approachof assessing Personality.
7. What is Perception?State the Principles of Perceptual organization.
Or
8. Define Memory .Elaborate on The Stage Model of Memory.
9. What do you understand about the word Therapy? Explain how Cognitive
therapy will help an individual in distress?
Or
10. Explain about characteristics of a good Counselor .Write a short essay on the
benefits and different stages of Counseling.


Basics of Psychology (Open Elective-1)

Part A
1. Mention the aims of Psychology.

2. What is Behavior?
3. Define a Synapse.
4. Describe main agents of Socialization.
5. What is meant by drive?
6. Describe the meaning of Self-regulation.
7. Explain the term Learning.
8. State the factors that affect Memory?
9. Explain abnormal behavior.
10. What is the need for Counselling?
PART – B
Answer ALL Questions (5x10 = 50 Marks)
1. Explain the relationship of Psychology with other Sciences.
Or
2. Write about emerging fields of Psychology.
3. What is meant by Acculturation? Is Acculturation a smooth process? Explain.
Or
4. Name the various endocrine glands and harmones secreted by them .How does
Endocrine System effect our behavior.
5. Explain the term Personality .Discuss the psychodynamic approach to Personality.
Or
6. What do you understand by the term Motivation? Bring the difference between
Biological & Sociological Motivation.
7. What is Attention? Explain about various types of Attention and
factors influencing Attention.
Or
8. Write about the six main Principles of Perceptual organization.
9. Classify and explain major Psychological disorders.
Or
10. Delineate the stages of Counseling.



Part A
1. Define psychology and aims of psychology. CO1
2. What is behaviorism school of thought? CO1
3. Describe a Neuron. CO2
4. What are the primary and secondary socialization? CO2
5. Explain the concept of Drive. CO3
6. What are the intrinsic an extrinsic motivation? CO3
7. Define memory and its stages. CO4
8. What are the causes forgetting? CO4
9. What is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? CO5
10. Write a causative factor for abnormality? CO5
PART – B (5x10 = 50 Marks)

(Answer ALL questions)
11. What are applied fields of Psychology? CO1

[OR]
12. Write an essay on any two Schools of Psychology. CO1
13. Explain the functioning of the Nervous System. CO2

[OR]
14. How does Culture impact behavior? Define fourfold model of acculturation. CO2
15. What is Motivation? Elaborate about Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy theory with
help of a diagram. CO3
[OR]
16. Briefly discuss the approaches to Personality. CO2,3
17. What is Perception? State the Principles of Perceptual organization.CO2,4

[OR]
18. Define Attention. Explain different types of Attention. CO2,4
19. Discuss any two therapies to treat abnormality. CO2,5

[OR]
20. What is counseling? Explain different stages of Counseling. CO5


IV B.tech R18 Basics of Psychology OE-1 Course File a.Y. 2022-23

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IV B.tech R18 Basics of Psychology OE-1 Course File a.Y. 2022-23

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COURSE FILE

CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP-1

Instruction : 3 Periods / week Continuous Internal Evaluation : 30 Marks

Unit I - Introduction to Psychology

Nature of Psychology, Meaning, Scope of Psychology, Evolution of the Discipline of Psychology

Unit II - The Bases of Human Behavior

Unit III - The Self, Motivation and Personality

Unit IV - Cognitive Processes

Attention: Definition, Types of Attention, Factors Influencing Attention

Unit V - Psychological Disorders, Therapeutic Approaches and Counseling

Types of therapies: Psycho-dynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive, Behavior.

CO 1: Students will realize significant role of mind in every field.

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP-3

Nature and Scope of Psychology

Origin and Evolution of Psychology

Early Schools of Psychology

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Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis was founded by Austrian psychiatrist, Sigmund Freud (1856-1938) in

Modern Schools of Psychology

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Evolutionary Perspective: Evolutionary psychologists believe that the behavioural predispositions or

6. Developments in Psychology in India

Basic fields of Psychology

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 8

Experimental Psychology: Experimental psychology is distinguished by what it studies—the fundamental

Environmental Psychology: The focus is on human-environment interrelationship. Psychological principles

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 9

Consumer Psychology: Researches packaging, advertising, marketing methods, and characteristics of

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 10

Methods of Research in Psychology

Descriptive research describes characteristics of an existing phenomenon. Descriptive research provides a

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 11

Evolutionary Bases of Behavior:

Biological Bases of Behavior

The Central Nervous System

The peripheral Nervous System

The Endocrine System

Sleep and Wakefulness

The genetic bases of behaviour

Impact of culture on human behaviour:

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 16

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 17

Diversity and Pluralism in the Indian context

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The Self, Motivation and Personality

B.Tech. IV Year OE-1 BOP- 19

Maslow’s Theory of Need Hierarchy

Mc Clelland’s Theory of Need

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

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Allport’s Trait Theory

Cattell’s Trait Theory

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Eysenck’s Trait Theory

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Genetic and Constitutional Factors

Methods to assess Personality are: