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Geochemical study of laterites of the Jamnagar district, Gujarat, India:

Implications on parent rock, mineralogy and tectonics

Article in Journal of Asian Earth Sciences · November 2011

DOI: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.07.014

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287

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Geochemical study of laterites of the Jamnagar district, Gujarat, India: Implications

on parent rock, mineralogy and tectonics
R.R. Meshram a,b, K.R. Randive a,⇑
a
P.G. Department of Geology, R.T.M. Nagpur University, Nagpur (MH) 440 001, India
b
A.M.S.E. Wing, Southern Region, Geological Survey of India, Bandlaguda, Hyderabad 500 068, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The laterite deposits occur in a linear stretch along the northern Arabian Sea coast in the Jamnagar and
Received 9 December 2009 Porbandar districts of, Gujarat state, India. These deposits are characterised by presence of gibbsite, kao-
Received in revised form 27 April 2011 line, calcite, quartz, anatase, natroalunite, goethite and hematite, and relicts of mafic minerals and plagio-
Accepted 19 July 2011
clase. On the basis of petro-mineralogy and geochemistry, these deposits are grouped as aluminous
Available online 6 August 2011
laterites (Fe2O3 – 1.45–3.84%, Av. 3.13, Al2O3 – 39.31–57.24, Av. 45.80) and laterites (Fe2O3 – 9.84–
32.21, Av. 25.13%, Al2O3 – 34.74–49.59, Av. 41.27). The major, trace and REE characteristics of laterites
Keywords:
indicate that these were formed in situ by the alteration of parent rocks of trachytic/andesitic composi-
Laterite
Bauxite
tion, and the process of bauxitisation followed the path of destruction of kaolinite and deferruginisation.
Geochemistry The correlation patterns of several trace and rare earth elements and their preferential enrichment have
Palaeotectonics indicated that there is an influence of precursor rock on the distribution of trace elements.
Flood basaltic province The Jamnagar laterite deposits occur as capping over the Deccan Trap basaltic lava flows and pyroclasic
Aluminous laterite deposits. Lateritisation prevailed during Palaeocene age when India was separated from the Seychelles
Deccan traps and passing over the equator. During this time climate, morphology and drainage conditions were
favourable for lateritisation that result in the formation of Jamnagar and other laterite deposits within
the Deccan Province. Flood basaltic provinces of Deccan, Columbia, North Australia and Hawaii appear
good location for hosting laterite deposits due to their wide areal extent, small geological time span
and uniform chemical composition. However, comparison of the major flood basaltic provinces of the
world has indicated that their palaeopositions along with palaeoclimate, morphology and drainage are
equally important factors for facilitating lateritisation.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The major and trace element geochemistry has become an
indispensible tool to investigate various aspects of laterite/bauxite
formation such as parent rock composition, diagenetic and epige-
netic processes related to bauxitisation, environmental condition
(Eh–pH, drainage, climate), mineralogical changes in parent rock
(Mordberg, 1993; MacLean et al., 1997; Esmaily et al., 2009). There
are many publications that address the trace element geochemis-
try of bauxites, most of these though devoted to identifying pecu-
liarities of element distribution and behaviour in profiles of
particular deposits or bauxite districts (e.g. Bardossy and Aleva,
1990; Mordberg, 1996; Calagari and Abedini, 2007). Many others
record mineralogical influence on the distribution of trace ele-
ments such as gallium (Chowdhury et al., 1965), titanium (Paul,
1969), zirconium, scandium, yttrium (Mordberg and Spratt,
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: randive101@yahoo.co.in (K.R. Randive).
1998), cerium and other REEs (Gonzalez Lopez et al., 2005; Esmaily
et al., 2009) and an array of multiple trace elements including U,
Th, Zr and Nb (Mordberg, 1996).
It is generally agreed that dissolution of the minerals (which is
related to the Eh–pH, solubility, water, climate), and entrapment of
their constituents in the crystallising or precipitating phase under
surfacial conditions govern the distribution of trace elements in
laterites. External influences such as, solutions percolating through
the overlying sediments or brought from fractures/faults in struc-
turally disturbed area; precipitation of groundwater if the deposits
are low-lying; or evaporates if the deposit was near the sea coast
during geological past; may also sometimes contribute trace ele-
ments, although such influences could be accounted for only when
their source is traceable. The residence, migration and redistribu-
tion of these elements from minerals of parent rock to present
day laterites form an important topic of study.
The Jamnagar laterite deposits (Lat 21°450 –22°170 Long 69°150 –
69°230 ) in Gujarat, India, provide an interesting location for the
geochemical investigation of laterites for the reasons mentioned
below:

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.07.014
 Author's personal copy

1272 R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287

(a) Spatiotemporal location of the deposition sandwiched 2. Geology

between Late Cretaceous–Eocene basaltic magmatism and
Miocene sedimentary formation.
(b) Occurrence of extrusive, especially, pyroclastic facies of the
Deccan Trap Magamtism in and around bauxite deposits
(Sahasrabudhe, 1978).
(c) Location in the tectonically active area throughout their geo-
logical age (Burke and Dewey, 1973; Sychanthavong and
Patel, 1987; Biswas, 1987).
(d) Occurrence of economically high-grade aluminium deposits
(Bhatt, 1996).
Besides, this study also provides an opportunity to understand
the implications of lateritisation process on palaeotectonics.
The Saurashtra region of Gujarat (Fig. 1) is composed of Meso-
zoic and Cainozoic rocks. The Mesozoic rocks are divided into
two formations, the older Dhrangadhra Formation and the younger
Wadhawan Formation of the lower Cretaceous age. The Deccan
lava flows cover large areas in the Saurashtra region and vary in
thickness from few hundreds to thousands of metres and overlie
100–4000 m thick Mesozoic sediments and underlie Tertiary rocks,
comprised of marine and fluviomarine strata (Biswas, 1983; Merh,
1995). These Tertiary rocks are divided into lower Gaj formation,
middle Piram beds and upper Dwarka Formation. Laterites are
sandwiched between the lower Deccan Traps and upper Tertiary
rocks.

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Jamnagar laterite deposits. Key map of India shows location of Gujarat, enlarged part shows Saurashtra region and study area, lines AA0 and BB0
are shows position of the geological cross sections (C. S.). Vertical scale is highly exaggerated in comparison to the lateral scale; especially the inset along BB0 Profile is much
more exaggerated to show the laterite deposits. Sample locations: (1) AST-1 & AST-2; (2) VR-1, VR-2 & VR-3; (3) MWS-1 & MWS-2; (4) KTR-1 & KTR-2; (5) LM-1 & LM-2; (6)
STR-1, STR-2, STR-3 & STR-4.
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R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287 1273

The laterite deposits of Jamnagar district, occur in the form of
linear discontinuous outcrops stretching along NE–SW direction
between Gulf of Kutch in the north and Arabian Sea coast in the
south for a distance of about 52 km. The width of the lateritic out-
crop varies between 1 and 6 km, covering around 200 km2 area
(Fig. 1). The laterite capping rises to a height of 30–60 m above
mean sea level, variable thickness, but rarely exceeding 7.5 m. Pro-
files exposed in the mine sections typically contains soil, younger
sediments, laterite and host rock (Fig. 2A). These outcrops are
sandwiched between older lava flows and younger Gaj sediments
(Sahasrabudhe, 1978; Jayaram and Majumdar, 1979; Biswas,
1983, 1987; IBM, 1993; Merh, 1995).
The laterite occurring in the Jamnagar district varies greatly in
colour (pink to grey/brown to red, depending upon Al and Fe per-
centages) as well as texture (massive, pisolitic, and clayey). The
lithomarge zone (Saprolite) displays creamy white, yellow and red
(ochreous) colours. Pisolites are most commonly observed in the re-
worked ferruginous bauxite zones (Kalsotra et al., 1986). Oolites
(<2 mm), pisolites (2–20 mm) and concretions (>20 mm) are spar-
sely distributed within laterites and sometimes occur segregated
within the homogenous aluminous matrix. These are nucleated by
gibbsite or goethite and surrounded by concentric rings. The rings
occur mostly in light grey and brownish shades and could result
from the difference in enrichment of ferruginous material
(Fig. 2B). On the basis of their mode of occurrence, the bauxite depos-
its of Jamnagar district are broadly divided into two groups, (i) boul-
dary/nodular and (ii) massive blanket type (Sahasrabudhe, 1978).
The bouldary or noduler bauxite occurs as hard, compact, grey-
ish or pinkish boulders and nodules which are embedded in a
clayey matrix. The size and concentration of boulders are variable.
The deposits are lensoid or bun-shaped with a convex upper sur-
face. The mineralised horizon is bouldary with ellipsoidal and
irregular blocks which form as an aggregate of smaller nodules
(Fig. 2C). The thickness of this zone is nearly 4 m. Though there
is a lateral repetition of lenses, connected with thin necks, vertical
repetition is not seen. The material in these lenses is highly heter-
ogeneous and varies in composition from low grade laterite to high
grade, alumina-rich ore (Bhatt, 1996; Meshram, 2009).
The massive blanket type of deposit is more ferruginous than
the bouldary type. The ore is hard, compact and massive, and over-
lies a clay horizon. The massive type shows red, brown and pink
colours and has a mottled appearance (Bhatt, 1996).

Fig. 2. Field photographs and thin section photomicrographs of Jamnagar laterites, (A) laterite profile showing various zones distinguished by different colours. The numbers
on photograph indicates 1 – soil, 2 – limestone, 3 – yellow and purple clay, 4 – laterite, (B) hand specimen showing a composite pisolite having rings of different colours in
brecciated textured bauxite, (C) grey pebble of gibbsite in the pink aluminous laterite at the contact of blunt head of the hammer. Other smaller nodules are also present, (D)
photomicrograph showing colloform texture in bauxite, (E) the multicoloured oolite of iron oxides in the laterites, (F) relict plagioclase feldspar (white laths) encircled by
opaque minerals (figure D–F are photomicrographs).
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1274 R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287

3. Definition and nomenclature
Valeton (1972) used the term ‘laterite’ to designate Fe–Al rich
deposits of Jamnagar district, Gujarat. However, Sahasrabudhe
(1978) used term ‘bauxite’ for these deposits and coined a term
‘Jamnagar Bauxite Belt’ to refer the linearly disposed outcrops in
Jamnagar and adjoining Porbandar districts of Gujarat (Fig. 1).
Many other workers indiscriminately used either of these terms,
which created some confusion (see Jayaram and Majumdar,
1979; Biswas, 1983; IBM, 1993; Merh, 1995; Bhatt, 1996). Indeed,
there are Al-rich and Fe-rich concentrations within these outcrops,
which is clearly demonstrated in their respective chemical analy-
ses. The following discussion is aimed at addressing this issue so
as to provide appropriate nomenclature while referring to the Jam-
nagar deposits.
Laterites and bauxites are the rocks enriched in iron and alu-
minium respectively. They can be ores of these metals, but also
are mined for concentrations of Ni, Au, Nb and P (Freyssinet
et al., 2005; Retallack, 2010). Bauxite is an assemblage of oxides
and hydroxides mainly of aluminium along with iron and titanium.
The preponderant aluminium minerals represent more than half of
the rocks by weight. Bardossy (1982) classified bauxites as: later-
itic bauxite (formed in situ by weathering in hot tropical climate)
and karst bauxites (formed in place, transported or trapped within
limestone rocks). Some recent classifications (e.g. Bogatyrev and
Zhukov, 2009) group them into: lateritic bauxites (residual or
in situ), sedimentary bauxites (proximal redepostion of bauxites
on hillsides, proluvial, colluvial and alluvial), and karstic bauxites
(characterised by localisation on the karstified surface of lime-
stones). Laterites on the other hand, are products of intense mete-
oric alteration, and are composed of a mineral assemblage that
may contain goethite, hematite, aluminium hydroxide, kaolinite,
and quartz. The SiO2/(Al2O3 + Fe2O3) ratio, compared to that of par-
ent rock, should be such that the lateritic formation does not con-
tain more silica than retained in the residual quartz and that
needed for formation of kaolinite (Schellmann, 1981, 1986).
Petrographic and chemical nature of laterites vary according to
their age, nature of the climate, and the sequence of palaeoclimates
that have controlled their development (Tardy, 1997). The Jamna-
gar deposits occur extensively over the lava flows and pyroclastic
deposits of the Deccan Trap basaltic magmatism, and not over
the Gaj limestones. On the basis of their mineralogy and geochem-
ical attributes they may be called as lateritic bauxites as per Bard-
ossy (1982) and Bardossy and Aleva (1990). However, at some
places (e.g. Virpur and Lamba), the deposits may also be called as
laterites (see Schellmann, op cit). However, Tardy (1997) suggested
that the soft or indurated aluminous accumulations called baux-
ites, as well as the ferruginous cuirasses and all the other alumi-
no-ferruginous and ferrialuminous accumulations intermediate
between two principle types (i.e. laterires and bauxites) are later-
itic formations.
Valeton (1972) in his study of the Gujarat deposits stated that
all laterites of the high-level plateaus are identical with the Al late-
rites in Gujarat, which in vertical and lateral facies changes from
fersiallites in central parts of the plateaus to allites along valley
slopes. He proposed three groups: (1) laterites rich in Fe and Si
(in central parts of the plateaus), (2) aluminous laterites (on valley
edges with good drainage), and (3) siliceous facies of laterites (on
the edges of flat fossil sources with slow rates of drainage). The
Jamnagar deposits fall in the second group, and represent the
aluminous laterites and not the bauxite. We therefore prefer to
use following terms for the Jamnagar deposits (a) laterite for the

Table 1
The field and petrographic characteristics of the studied localities of the Jamnagar laterite deposits.

Sr. Locality Field characteristics Petrography

no.
1 Mewasa Village Mewasa is located about 5 km south of Virpur facing the Gulf of
(22°170 : Kutch. The terrain comprises undulating plains with low lying plateaux
71°050 ) and hills. High grade pockets of laterite are located on the northern and
eastern hill slopes of Karamkund, at about 1.6 km NE of Mewasa. The
fawn grey, saffron and pinkish bauxite occur in pockets below
vermicular laterite and followed at depth by kaolinitic clay. The laterite
is pisolitic, concretionary and bouldary with an average thickness of
1.2 m
2 Asota This area is a flat terrain with few low lying mounds, and plateaux
(22°160 : exposing Gaj limestone. Laterite horizons are present on EW trending
69°230 ) ridge towards SW of Mota Asota. The fawn grey to pinkish brown, soft
and friable ore body occurs below the pink clay horizon, average
thickness being 1.5 m. Economic grade of the ore body is variable
3 Virpur Virpur is located WSW of Mota Asota facing Gulf of Kachchh. The
(22°150 : concretionary and vermicular laterite occur as capping on the hill tops
69°200 ) while saffron to grey, massive and concretionary or brecciated ore occur
as pockets along the lower slopes. The average thickness of bauxite is
3 m, of which the lower 1.5 m portion constitutes high grade ore. Below
the laterite horizon, light pink, off-white and violet lithomarge clay is
present
4 Mahadevia Mahadevia is situated about 6.5 km SW of Mewasa. A prominent N–S
(22°110 : trending 2.4 km long laterite ridge is located towards SE of Mahadevia.
69°230 ) The deposits are bun shaped, fawn grey to greyish green, bouldary and
concretionary in nature. The fine, splintery and scaly gypsum bearing
greenish black clay overlie laterite.
5 Satapar An extensive elongated outcrop of aluminous laterite is located towards
(21°570 : 1 km NE of Navadara village amidst peneplained and low lying humps of
69°150 ) Gaj limestone. The aluminous laterite outcrop is 1.5 to about 3 m thick,
grey to cream coloured, hard and compact. In the northern part,
aluminous laterite containing patches of emery grade, whitish, greyish
(fawn grey to cement grey) and brownish ore are present
6 Lamba Lamba is located 8.5 km southeast of Navadara on Bhatia–Porbandar
(21°540 : road. Ore deposits are associated with a series of undulating humps and
69°190 ) low lying hillocks, which are exposed discontinuously for over 7 km in
In the Mewasa area laterite is brecciated or fragmentary. Fragments
vary in size, shape and composition. These fragments are dispersed in a
fluidised media occupying matrix. Gibbsite occurs as: (i) fine grained
(with yellowish tinge), (ii) dark brown (with other opaque minerals),
(iii) forming colloform banding (Fig. 2a) and (iv) spongy textured
(Fig. 2b)
The laterite is chiefly composed of gibbsite, which is irregular and
traversed by micro-veins of calcite and Al–Fe–Ti oxides. Gibbsite is often
rimmed by brownish-yellow limonite, opaque crystals of hematite
(Fig. 2c) and small needles of rutile/anatase
Aluminous laterite varies in colour from earthy white, yellow to
brownish dull, whereas laterites occur in shades of brown, earthy and
red. These are composed of abundant oolites and relict minerals
(Fig. 2d). Laterite occasionally form pebble like structures, for which
they were described as ‘bauxite conglomerate’
Laterite is comprised of yellowish brown gibbsite, which showing
liesengang banding (Fig. 2e). These bands vary in colour between
yellowish white and dark. Irregular patches of relict minerals are
rimmed by dark brown bands. Oolites of variable size are sparsely
present.
In the Satapar area, laterites mostly occurs in three textures namely, (i)
tabular to prismatic coarse bauxite, (ii) smaller oolitic (Fig. 2f), and (iii)
larger pisolitic. The coarse laterite is yellow to brown in colour and
shows brecciation. Oolites vary in shape from subrounded to elongated
(elliptical) and forms chain like structures
Laterite varies in colour between yellow–brown-deep red–black. The
thin sections show presence of, (i) abundant ferruginous oolites, (ii)
goethite–limonite and hematite, (iii) relicts of plagioclase feldspar, and
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Fig. 3. Various textures and structures exhibited by the Jamnagar laterites: (a) colloform banding structure in the laterite from Mewasa area, (b) spongy texture exhibited by
the laterite from Mewasa area, (c) the gibbsite crystals separated by iron-rich opaque material imparting brecciated structure to the bauxite of Asota area, (d) relict texture
seen in the laterite from Virpur area, (e) the lisengang banding structure seen in the laterite of Mahadevia area, and, (f) oolitic texture observed in the laterite from Satapar
area.

formation characterised by presence of gibbsite, hematite, goe-
thite, ilmenite and anatase; Fe2O3 – 9.84–32.21 Av. 25.13%, Al2O3
– 34.74–49.59, Av. 41.27; occurring in localities Virpur and Lamba,
and (b) aluminous laterite for the formations characterised by pres-
ence of gibbsite, kaolinite, calcite and quartz; Fe2O3 – 1.45–3.84%,
Av. 3.13, Al2O3 – 39.31–57.24, Av. 45.80; occurring in localities
Asota, Mewasa, Mahadevia and Satapar.
4. Sampling and analytical techniques
Six localities were selected from north to south along the
Jamnagar laterite outcrops, where rich deposits are located and
working mines are also present. These localities include: Asota
(22°160 ; 69°230 ), Mahadeia (22°110 ; 69°170 ), Mewasa (22°170 ;
69°180 ), Virpur (22°150 ; 69°200 ), Lamba (21°540 ; 69°190 ), and Sata-
par (21°570 ; 69°150 ). Samples were collected at the above sites in
order to analyse the mineralised portions of the district. Among
the samples collected, 15 whole ore samples including Asota (2),
Mahadevia/Kataria (2), Mewasa (2), Virpur (3), Lamba (2) and Sata-
par (4), were selected for mineralogical and geochemical study
(Fig. 1).
Mineralogical studies of the laterites were carried out using
Nikon 50i POL Microscope at the Department of Geology, RTM
Nagpur University and X-ray diffraction analysis was carried out
at the Petrology, Petrochemistry and Ore-Dressing division of
AMSE Wing, Geological Survey of India, Bangalore. The analysis
was carried out using PANalytical X’Pert PRO XRD System. The
DTA and TGA was obtained using PERKIN ELMER DIAMOND TGDTA

Table 2
X-ray diffraction analyses of the laterite deposits of Jamnagar area.

Sr. no Locality Sample no. XRD based mineralogy (in order of their decreasing abundances)
1 Asota AST-1 and AST-2 Gibbsite, kaolinite calcite and quartz
2 Mahadevia (Kotharia) KTR-1 and KTR-2 Gibbsite, kaolinite, calcite and anatase
3 Mewasa MWS-1 and MWS-2 Gibbsite, kaolinite, calcite, quartz and natroalunite
4 Virpur VR-1, VR-2 and VR-3 Gibbsite, kaolinite, goethite and natroalunite
5 Lamba LMA-1 and LMA-2 Gibbsite, hematite and anatase
6 Satapar STR-1, STR-2, STR-3 and STR-4 Gibbsite, kaolinite, calcite and anatase
 Author's personal copy

1276 R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287

equipment at Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology
(V.N.I.T.), Nagpur. The powdered samples were heated to 850–
900 °C at the standardised heating rate of 10 °C/min, and the ther-
mograms were recorded automatically by the instrument. The
SEM–EDX data were obtained using JEOL JED-2300 Analysis Sta-
tion instrument at 20 kV accelerating voltage and 1 nA probe cur-
rent intensity at V.N.I.T., Nagpur. Electron Probe Micro Analyses
(EPMA) were carried out using JA-8600 MX Superprobe (WDS) at
the Mineral Physics Division, Geological Survey of India, Hydera-
bad, at an accelerating voltage of 15 kV and probe current of
1  108 amp.
The whole ore XRF analysis for major and some minor elements
were carried out at PPOD Laboratory, AMSE Wing, Geological Sur-
vey of India, Bangalore using X’UNIQUE II (PHILIPS) X-ray Spec-
trometry System. The trace element and REE analyses were
obtained using Perkin Elmer Sciex ELAN DRC II ICP-MS system with

A B

C D

E F

G H

Fig. 4. SEM images showing: (a) elongated crystal of gibbsite with the flower like aggregates of hydrated alumina (1200), (b) spongy textured bauxite (1300), (c)
crystalline (platy) structure shown by gibbsite (2700), (d) crystalline aggregate of hematite (1100), (e) ilmenite microcrystal within a microcavity (6000), (f) a calcite
crystal surrounded by gibbsite (1600), (g) microcryst of hydrated iron ore (3000), and (h) a microcrystal of hematite containing light coloured material which is less iron
rich (2700).
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R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287 1277

the reference standard BX-N at the National Geophysical Research
Institute, Hyderabad, following procedure of Balaram and Rao
(2003). The overall precision for ICP-MS analysis was found to be
better than 10% RSD.
5. Mineralogy and petrography
The chief mineralogical constituent of the aluminous laterites is
gibbsite, which is commonly traversed by secondary calcite veins.
Gibbsite possesses irregular outline and often shows colloform
banding (Fig. 2D). The colour of bands varies between yellowish
white and dark brown, even cherry red to black, suggesting har-
monic precipitation of the aluminium, iron and titanium oxides.
Relict minerals such as plagioclase and mafic minerals are com-
mon. The aluminous laterite occurring in the Mewasa area shows
brecciated or fragmentary nature. These fragments are composed
of gibbsite, which occurs in various forms such as fine-grained
(showing yellowish tinge), dark brown (accentuated by opaque
minerals), banded, and spongy.
The abundance of reddish brown hematite and goethite charac-
terise laterites. Microscopic study reveals conspicuous presence of:
(i) ferruginous oolites, (ii) goethite–limonite and hematite (Fig. 2E),
(iii) relict minerals such as plagioclase feldspar, and highly altered
mafic minerals, and (iv) fragmented aluminous hydroxides within
the ferruginous matrix. Major portion of the ore body is composed
of hematite followed by limonite–goethite and gibbsite. Gibbsite is
mostly confined to the lighter portion of the rock and also occurs
fragmented within the hematite. Ferruginised portion preserves
relicts of plagioclase feldspar (Fig. 2F). The fragmented gibbsite is
occasionally bordered by ferruginous material thereby imparting
mesh like structure.
Detailed description of field and petrographic characteristics of
the Jamnagar laterites are locality wise given in Table 1 and Fig. 3.
Selected mineral phases from laterites and aluminous laterites are
discussed below. Gibbsite is the chief mineral constituent of the
Jamnagar laterites. The presence of gibbsite is confirmed by the
XRD analysis (Table 2) as well as SEM–EDX images. It shows micro-
textures such as elongated crystals with flower like aggregates,
spongy, and crystalline platy habits (Fig. 4a–c). The heat flow data
shows peak values in the range of 284.83–292.67 °C; whereas
weight loss calculated from thermo-gravimetric curves ranges from
11.56% to 23.99% due to presence of volatile components and hy-
droxyl ions. EPMA analyses confirm the presence of gibbsite in both
laterites and aluminous laterites (Table 3). Kaolinite presence in
minor quantities is confirmed by XRD analysis in most of the local-
ities barring Virpur and Lamba. Further confirmation is provided by
the endothermic peaks between 485 °C and 498 °C; and the weight
loss of 1.62–3.87%. An EPMA analysis of kaolinite is given in Table 3.
Hematite is present in the laterites of Virpur and Lamba. SEM–EDX
images record presence of hematite. Fig. 4d shows crystal aggre-
gates of hematite, whereas in Fig. 4e a dark crystal of hematite with
light coloured less ferruginous spots is observed. Relative concen-
tration of iron is confirmed by EPMA analysis. Goethite is also com-
mon to the laterites. XRD data shows presence of goethite. Except

Table 3
Representative analyses of minerals occurring in the laterite deposits of Jamnagar: (1) aluminous laterite from Kataria, (2) laterite from Lamba, (3) calcite from satapar, (4)
Anatase from Lamba, (5) magnetite from Lamba, (6) kaolinite from Asota, and (7) hematite from Lamba.

Sr. no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SiO2 0.04 1.56 0.00 0.29 1.12 25.83 0.45
TiO2 0.01 3.17 0.00 89.47 1.07 1.60 2.31
Al2O3 71.55 67.68 0.00 3.51 2.21 28.92 9.58
Cr2O3 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.45
FeOT 0.05 2.11 0.01 0.67 76.73 5.61 65.34
MnO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.00 0.31
MgO 0.00 0.03 0.47 0.00 0.01 0.26 0.13
CaO 0.00 0.16 57.71 0.09 0.14 0.23 0.18
Na2O 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.23 1.13 0.10
K2O 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.92 0.00
NiO 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.80
Total 71.67 74.81 58.19 94.33 82.04 64.59 78.93
Inference Gibbsite Gibbsite Calcite Anatase Magnetite Kaolinite Hematite

Table 4
Major element analysis of Jamnagar laterites.

AST-1 AST-2 VR-1 VR-2 VR-3 MWS-1 MWS-2 KTR-1 KTR-2 LMA-1 LMA-2 STR-1 STR-2 STR-3 STR-4
SiO2 9.02 18.45 1.2 4.04 3.7 1.81 8.51 6.89 27.98 1.06 1.19 2.24 10.44 7.82 8.4
TiO2 3.32 3.54 2.96 5.92 4.15 4.83 3.63 3.19 3.28 4.12 3.36 5.04 4.58 5.33 4.38
Al2O3 48.32 40.69 37.21 43.49 49.59 57.24 48.85 42.53 39.31 41.34 34.74 52.96 42.48 44.27 41.3
Fe2O3T 3.55 2.49 21.55 13.81 9.84 2.78 3.84 2.51 2.55 25.22 32.21 1.8 1.45 1.56 1.77
MnO 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.02 Bld 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
MgO Bld Bld 0.29 0.47 0.45 0.43 Bld Bld 0.02 0.37 0.37 Bld Bld Bld Bld
CaO 5.18 7.99 0.91 0.6 0.6 0.75 4.72 12.37 4.81 0.62 0.48 3.47 10.54 8 11.81
Na2O 0.95 0.73 2.69 1.61 1.01 1.65 1.25 0.6 0.87 0.84 0.21 0.85 0.68 1.95 0.82
K2O 0.07 0.39 0.03 0.15 0.04 Bld 0.07 0.09 0.2 Bld Bld Bld 0.08 0.07 0.12
P2O5 0.15 0.19 1.01 0.21 0.16 0.12 0.17 0.09 0.11 0.16 0.11 0.16 0.12 0.11 0.13
S 0.73 0.66 0.59 0.37 0.58 0.63 0.58 0.86 0.81 0.67 0.84 1.12 Bld 0.9 0.93
Cr2O3 Bld 0.01 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.04 Bld Bld 0.02 0.04 Bld Bld Bld Bld
NiO 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 Bld Bld 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
BaO 0.03 0.03 0.03 0 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
LOI 28.64 24.76 31.39 29.24 29.76 29.66 28.27 30.8 19.99 25.51 26.36 32.31 29.59 29.95 30.29
Total 99.99 99.98 99.99 99.99 99.98 99.98 99.99 99.99 99.98 99.99 99.98 99.98 99.99 99.99 99.98

Total Fe represented as Fe2O3.

Bld - below limit of detection.
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1278 R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287

one exothermic peak of 375 °C in the Lamba area, thermionic curves
do not depict peaks for goethite. The SEM–EDX image (Fig. 4f), how-
ever, show the hydrated iron oxide. Ilmenite presence is observed in
the SEM–EDX image Fig. 4g, and by the EDX data. Anatase is re-
corded in minor quantities in the X-ray diffractograms of Virpur
and Lamba, but not in the aluminous laterites. EPMA analysis con-
firms its presence (Table 3). Calcite is observed in minor amounts in
the aluminous laterite. The SEM–EDX confirms presence of calcite
Fig. 4h, which is surrounded by gibbsite. Quartz occurs only in
traces within aluminous laterites, not in the laterites. The thermal
analyses do not record presence of free silica due to its very low
content. Natroalunite is recorded in minor quantities within laterite
(Mewasa) and aluminous laterite (Virpur). An endothermic peak at
885 °C confirms presence of this mineral.

30 40
A B
30
20
SiO2

LOI
20
10
10

0 0
Slope= -5.558E-01 Int= 5.411E01 r=-.99 r'=-.98
20 40
C D
15 30

Fe2O3T
CaO

10 20

5 10

0 0
Slope= -3.432E-01 Int= 3.404E01 r=-.99 r'=-.9
3 6
E F 5
2 4
Na2O

3 TiO2
1 2

1
0 0
70 80 90 100 70 80 90 100
CIA CIA

Fig. 5. Variation of major oxides against Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) for the Jamnagar laterites (See text for discussion). Open circles: aluminous laterites, filled circles:
laterites. Symbols are common for all diagrams except Figs. 9 and 10.

Fig. 6. The Al2O3–SiO2–Fe2 OT3 triangular diagram showing classification of bauxite Fig. 7. The Al2O3–SiO2–Fe2 OT3 triangular diagram showing degree of lateritisation
(after Boulange et al., 1996). (after Schellman, 1986).
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vidual locality (Table 4), thus SiO2 shows consistently low values
for the laterites of Lamba and Virpur areas (1.06–4.04), whereas a
wide range is recorded for the aluminous laterites of Asota, Mahade-
via/Kotharia and Satapar areas (1.81–27.98). The total iron (Fe2O3)
shows variation between laterite (9.84–32.21), and aluminous lat-
erite (1.45–3.84), whereas TiO2 (laterites – 2.96–5.92; aluminous
laterites – 3.19–5.33), Al2O3 (laterites – 34.74–49.59; aluminous
laterites – 39.31–57.24); and Na2O (laterites – 0.21–2.69; alumi-
nous laterites – 0.60–1.95) do not show significant variation.
Chemical weathering strongly affects the mineralogy and major
elements geochemistry of the bed rocks. The degree of weathering
can be evaluated by quantitative measures using whole rock chem-
ical analysis such as Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) defined by
Nesbitt and Young (1982),

CIA ¼ 100  Al2 O3 =Al2 O3 þ CaO þ Na2 O þ K2 O

Fig. 8. Geochemical paths of dismantlement according to Beauvais (1991) indicat-
ing various trends followed during the process of bauxitisation depending upon
whether quartz is present or absent in the soft microganular matrix, here the
shaded portion shows data of ferruginous cuirasses (Tardy, 1997). The Jamnagar
laterite samples are resulted due to destruction of kaolinite and strong
deferruginisation.
6. Geochemistry
6.1. Major elements geochemistry
There is a considerable range of major elements composition
among the different localities and among samples within an indi-
This index may serve as a reasonable factor against which var-
iation in different oxides and elements can be plotted. The ob-
served variations (Fig. 5) indicate that: (i) the laterites plot
towards the higher values of CIA (>90) whereas the aluminous
laterites shows the lower values (75–90); (ii) a cluster of laterites
is formed when silica is plotted against CIA (Fig. 5A). Similar cluster
is also observed for the values of Loss on Ignition (LOI) against CIA
(Fig. 5B); (iii) the best correlation however observed for CaO
against CIA, where a strong correlation (r = 0.98 and r0 = 0.97)
is seen for the aluminous laterites (Fig. 5C); (iv) CIA plotted against
total iron content shows good discrimination between laterites and
aluminous laterites (Fig. 5D); (v) in case of Na2O there is a strong
correlation (r = 0.99 and r0 = 0.99) within the laterite, whereas
no such correlation is observed for aluminous laterite (Fig. 5E);
(vi) several other elements such as TiO2, P2O5, MgO, MnO, S, BaO
and NiO that do not show any appreciable correlation (e.g. Fig. 5F).

Table 5
Trace element analysis of Jamnagar laterites.

AST-1 AST-2 VR-1 VR-2 VR-3 MWS-1 MWS-2 KTR-1 KTR-2 LMA-1 LMA-2 STR-1 STR-2 STR-3 STR-4
Sc 21.0 32.3 30.9 42.2 35.1 70.8 26.4 12.9 24.4 20.6 19.9 21.8 28.1 28.1 33.4
V 225.4 278.3 360.9 1090.9 635.1 638.5 303.8 320.1 345.4 592.3 502.9 522.1 451.0 462.9 468.2
Cr 338.6 768.2 719.7 664.2 530.8 637.1 833.9 430.1 430.2 439.8 365.5 544.9 730.2 683.1 640.9
Co 15.5 9.2 7.9 7.4 18.4 40.5 7.9 8.1 6.6 2.9 4.0 11.9 5.1 8.1 19.3
Ni 52.7 88.2 23.7 53.3 51.1 134.9 58.5 44.2 161.3 15.3 23.1 58.1 42.6 36.1 46.0
Cu 38.2 45.2 30.6 126.7 67.9 95.3 36.7 30.1 57.4 43.6 48.5 33.3 24.2 25.9 23.7
Zn 94.5 113.3 118.4 142.5 130.7 105.3 96.8 93.1 106.7 116.9 90.8 154.0 127.2 148.2 127.4
Ga 62.3 90.9 100.4 95.4 85.6 72.0 77.3 61.6 56.6 79.4 58.5 92.7 101.3 108.2 103.7
Rb 6.7 23.6 1.2 4.1 3.3 1.4 7.2 6.7 14.5 0.7 0.7 3.9 11.1 9.5 12.3
Sr 506.1 919.5 368.7 858.3 654.4 7269.1 667.6 331.2 691.3 87.4 52.5 897.3 463.5 415.8 563.7
Y 23.0 22.2 14.9 19.6 18.3 32.9 20.0 10.6 10.4 8.8 6.6 18.6 26.4 22.5 30.5
Zr 726.4 1077.8 1595.0 1048.5 911.7 548.3 810.5 766.3 844.5 1013.6 704.3 818.7 1126.0 1200.0 1049.3
Nb 37.3 57.2 86.9 74.8 57.8 21.4 42.3 38.7 41.6 84.6 59.1 65.3 85.8 101.1 85.3
Cs 0.7 2.6 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.8 0.7 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.3 1.3 1.4
Ba 82.3 176.5 44.6 82.9 54.3 156.9 72.7 54.0 95.7 25.0 20.6 69.4 60.5 74.5 71.2
La 65.7 89.3 38.9 101.4 48.9 8.2 47.0 39.9 47.3 23.3 15.6 32.8 47.7 53.1 47.3
Ce 117.7 182.2 71.3 103.0 50.4 18.3 98.2 77.8 99.5 36.9 25.2 32.7 69.7 82.7 78.0
Pr 17.3 22.8 6.5 21.9 9.2 3.1 10.4 7.8 11.7 3.8 2.7 6.6 9.8 10.4 10.3
Nd 72.3 86.1 21.0 82.4 33.4 23.6 40.1 24.3 40.5 12.3 9.0 25.5 37.7 38.0 39.6
Sm 16.1 16.3 3.2 13.4 5.9 9.0 7.5 3.4 6.0 1.8 1.4 5.6 7.4 6.9 7.3
Eu 4.8 4.0 0.7 3.5 1.6 2.5 1.6 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.3 1.5 1.7 1.6 1.8
Gd 11.0 10.3 2.5 8.5 4.4 7.5 5.1 2.8 3.9 1.5 1.1 4.3 5.3 5.1 5.9
Tb 1.7 1.5 0.4 1.2 0.8 1.3 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0
Dy 8.3 7.7 2.6 6.1 4.3 7.1 4.3 2.1 2.8 1.6 1.1 5.2 5.8 5.1 6.4
Ho 1.4 1.3 0.6 1.1 0.9 1.3 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3
Er 2.2 3.0 1.6 2.5 2.1 2.8 2.1 1.2 1.4 1.0 0.8 2.6 2.8 2.7 3.0
Tm 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5
Yb 2.2 2.7 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.1 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.3 1.0 2.7 2.7 2.7 3.2
Lu 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5
Hf 19.3 28.8 40.8 26.7 23.7 14.1 22.0 20.2 22.8 25.5 17.7 19.8 29.6 30.3 26.8
Ta 3.0 4.6 6.4 5.3 4.3 1.8 3.6 3.2 3.3 6.2 4.2 4.5 6.7 7.3 6.3
Pb 62.4 101.3 81.3 57.7 56.8 39.0 61.9 59.5 28.4 43.5 41.9 18.7 56.0 72.2 53.3
Th 16.6 32.0 33.8 18.3 18.5 7.2 16.4 18.0 19.0 18.7 12.9 13.5 23.5 22.1 19.9
U 10.8 12.7 8.6 6.1 9.2 70154.0 5.7 5.4 5042.0 5.9 3.4 7.5 8.0 8.0 7.6
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1280 R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287

Fig. 9. The chondrite normalised trace elements spidergrams for the laterite samples from different localities of the Jamnagar area (Sun, 1980). Abbreviations indicates
localities such as AST – Asota, KTR – Kataria, MWS – Mewasa, VR – Virpur, LMA – Lamba, and STR – Satapar.

Fig. 10. The chondrite normalised rare earth elements spidergrams for the laterite samples from various localities of the Jamnagar area (Nakamura, 1974). Abbreviations as in
Fig. 9.
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R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287 1281

The triangular variation diagrams using Al2O3–SiO2–Fe2 OT3 are Rock/Chondrites Sun (1980)
commonly used to show the degree of lateritisation, mineral con- 1000
trol and bauxite classification. In this diagram (Fig. 6), majority of A
the aluminous laterites plot in the bauxite field, whereas laterites
fall in the ferruginous bauxite field of Boulange et al. (1996), imply-
ing that the classification of Jamnagar laterites into laterites and 100
aluminous laterites holds well. Fig. 7 after Schellman (1986) brings
forth the lateritisation process prevalent in the area. The overall
trend shows increased degree of lateritisation. Geochemical paths
of dismantlement (Beauvais, 1991; Tardy, 1997) shows various
10
trends followed during the process of bauxitisation (Fig. 8), imply-
ing that the Jamnagar laterites have resulted due to destruction of
kaolinite and strong deferruginisation.

6.2. Trace elements geochemistry 1

Rb Ba Th U Nb Ta K La Ce Sr Nd Sm Zr Ti Gd Y

The distribution and behaviour of trace elements (Table 5) in

bauxites is controlled by factors like: (i) composition of the par-
ent rocks, (ii) physicochemical conditions of bauxite formation,
(iii) mineral species of the bed rocks, (iv) chemical properties
of elements such as solubility, pH of hydroxide precipitation
and possibility of complex formation, (v) diagenetic, epigenetic
and recent transformation of bauxites (Mordberg, 1996).
MacLean et al. (1997) proposed the use of immobile elements
suitable to trace the source of aluminium to a particular rock
type or unit. He also indicated that some chemical elements
especially Zr, Ti and Cr are strongly immobile during weathering
and diagenesis of laterite. Liaghat et al. (2003) reiterated impor-
tance of trace elements and opined that study of such elements
in bauxite allows inferring their parent rock composition. It was
however observed during present study that the trace elements
including REE do not show direct correlation with Al2O3, TiO2
or standard indices such as Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA),
Mineralogical Index of Alteration (MIA) and fractionation index
viz., 100 Al2O3/Fe2 OT3 + Al2O3. Some of the major and trace ele-
ments which are normally very mobile under surficial conditions
such as K, Na, Sr, La, Mg and Pb, do not show preferred affinity
for either laterites or aluminous laterites, whereas, the less mo-
bile elements such as Nb, Th, Zr, Mo, Ga, and Cr show some indi-
rect correlation.
The chondrite normalised trace element spidergrams (Sun,
1980) were plotted for the Jamnagar laterite samples (Fig. 9).
Majority of the samples show depletion peaks for K, Ba, Sr and
Nb, and peaks of enrichment for Zr, Th and U. These enrichment
and depletion are apparently related to the availability or unavail-
ability of related carrier mineral phases in the source rock, e.g. K-
feldspar (K+ and Ba+), plagioclase (Sr2+, Eu2+), carbonate (P4+, V5+,
Ce4+), garnet (HREE3+), apatite (LREE3+), zircon (Ga4+, Zr4+, Hf4+,
Nb4+, Ta4+, Th4+), anatase/rutile/ilmenite (Ti4+, Fe3+ and REE). The
Asota samples show strong negative K, Ce and Sr anomalies and
positive Gd, U, Nd and Zr anomalies. One of the samples from Me-
wasa shows very strong positive Sr anomaly, whereas the Lamba
samples show complete absence of K and negative Sr and positive
Nd anomalies. The Satapar samples show positive Zr anomaly. The
generalised trace element pattern of the laterites of Jamnagar is
shown in Fig. 11A.
The chondrite normalised REE spidergrams (Nakamura, 1974)
of the Jamnagar laterites are reported in Fig. 10, the general fea-
tures observable indicate that:
(a) All the samples show LREE enriched and HREE depleted
pattern
(b) Almost all the samples show pronounced negative Ce anom-
aly, weak negative Eu and Er anomalies.
(c) In case of laterites the curve becomes flat after Eu, whereas
for aluminous laterites the curves are gently sloping after Eu.
Rock/Chondrites REEs-Nakamura, 1974
1000
B
100
10
1
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Fig. 11. Trace elements spidergrams showing the generalised (average) composi-
tion of the Jamnagar bauxites (a) trace elements spider (Sun, 1980) and (b) rare
Earth Elements (Nakamura, 1974). Symbols open circles: aluminous bauxites, filled
circles: ferruginous bauxites, plus sign: average upper continental crust (after
Taylor and McLennan, 1981).
(d) The concentration of La ranges between 101.42 ppm and
8.16 ppm, average value 63.08 ppm. Similarly, the concen-
tration of Lu ranges between 0.48 ppm and 0.16, with the
average value of 0.34. Fig. 11B shows the generalised REE
curves for the Jamnagar laterites.
7. Discussion
7.1. Parent rock composition
Hallberg (1984) opined that Zr/Ti ratio can supply information
about the chemical nature of parent rock. Floyd and Winchester
(1978) used Zr/TiO2 against Nb/Y ratios to model the parent rock
compositions of the laterites, particularly when the parent rock is
an extrusive igneous rock. When the Jamnagar laterites were plot-
ted in Zr/Ti diagram (Fig. 12), majority of the data plot in the
‘‘andesite’’ field. Similarly, the data plotted in Nb/Y–Zr/TiO2 dis-
crimination diagram occupy ‘‘trachyte’’ and ‘‘trachyandesite’’ fields
(Fig. 13). The ternary Zr–Ga–Cr trace element diagram of Calagari
and Abedini (2007), in which the data of Jamnagar laterites plots
in the Field III, also indicates that the parent rock may be interme-
diate igneous in composition (Fig. 14).
Celik (1999) studied the minamite and alunite occurrences
formed from volcanic emanations in Turkey and opined that the
alunites were observed mainly in altered dacitic volcanic rocks.
He proposed the probable parent rocks on the basis of mineral
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1282 R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287
2000
1500
Zr ppm
1000
500
0 cuirasses on quartz rich rocks are less ferruginous and rich in kao-
1 2 3 4
Ti Wt%
Fig. 12. The diagram showing the possible parent rocks of the Jamnagar bauxite
belt on the basis of Zr/Ti ratio (after Hallberg, 1984).
1 quartz-poor) was relatively different.
.1
Zr/TiO2
.01
.001
.01 .1 1 10
Nb/Y
Fig. 13. The diagram showing possible parent rocks for the Jamnagar deposits on
the basis of Zr/TiO2–Nb/Y ratios (after Floyd and Winchester, 1978).
Fig. 14. Ternary plot for the concentration of Ga, Zr and Cr in samples of Jamnagar
laterites (after Calagari and Abedini, 2007). A–D (star) depicts the concentration
values of Zr, Cr and Ga in ultrabasic, basic, intermediate, and acidic igneous rocks
respectively. The numbers I–IV represents the area of influence of ultramafic, mafic,
intermediate (or argillaceous), and acidic precursor rocks respectively. The samples
(open and filled circles) imply intermediate parent rocks.
assemblages such as alunite–quartz (andesite), alunite–quartz–
kaolinite (dacite), quartz–kaolinite–natroalunite (dacite). The
assemblage of natroalunite–kaolinite–goethite in the laterites of
Jamnagar may well be considered to represent the altered volcanic
rocks such as andesite and dacite. The bauxite capping in the study
area are essentially over the basaltic country unlike the adjoining
Saurashtra and Kachchh regions where the capping are also ob-
served over Gaj sediments and the supratrappean beds (Type II
and Type III of Sahasrabudhe, 1978). Moreover, there are field evi-
dences such as unusual tuffaceous appearance of the bauxite and
the remnants of ashes in some of the laterites (Sahasrabudhe,
1978; IBM, 1993; Meshram, 2009) reiterating that the parent rock
composition predicted above holds good.
The laterite samples invariably contain gibbsite as their more
abundant mineral followed by hematite ± goethite ± anatase. How-
ever in case of ferruginous cuirassement or ferricrete (Alexander and
Cady, 1962), the major mineral constituents, in order of importance,
are hematite, kaolinite, goethite, quartz and gibbsite; of these first
two are essential and other three are facultative (Tardy, 1997).
The association hematite + kaolinite represents dehydrated or
poorly hydrated minerals which are dismantled and replaced by
hydrated goethite + gibbsite, since the hydration enables transfor-
mation of kaolinite + hematite mixture to aluminous goethite. The
linite + hematite; whereas those on quartz-poor rocks are more fer-
ruginous, richer in goethite and poorer in kaolinite + hematite
(Tardy, 1997). Presence of gibbsite + kaolinite ± quartz in the alumi-
nous laterites and gibbsite ± hematite ± goethite in laterites there-
fore indicates that the laterites of Jamnagar area were hydrated,
but their parent rock composition (such as quartz-rich and
7.2. Mineralogical influences on trace elements distribution
In parent rocks, trace elements are distributed between rock
forming and accessory minerals. The rock forming minerals may
dissolve during bauxitic weathering, whereas accessory minerals
are often resistant to weathering. The distribution between these
two groups determines the weathering characteristics of elements
(Bardossy and Aleva, 1990; Mordberg, 1996). The mineralogical
influence is such that even very mobile elements can be concen-
trated in bauxite profiles, if the host minerals have not been dis-
solved (e.g. Boski and Herbosch, 1990; Mordberg et al., 1995).
Fig. 11 A gives the generalised pattern of trace element distribution
of the Jamnagar laterites. The patterns shows strong negative K
anomaly which is apparently related to paucity of potassic mineral
in the source rock. Similarly, a smaller negative Sr anomaly proba-
bly indicates absence or non-dissolution of calcium rich primary
mineral. In this context, the presence of relicts of plagioclase in
the Jamnagar laterites provides reasonable explanation for consid-
ering incomplete leaching and relative impoverishment of Sr and
Eu. Zirconium is generally considered to be relatively immobile
element during weathering due to its chemical properties and high
resistance of its most common carrier mineral zircon (Mordberg
and Spratt, 1998), strong positive anomaly of Zr therefore indicates
its enrichment in the source area. However, in the pyroclastic rocks
zirconium may not be expected in exceedingly higher amount.
Fig. 11B gives the generalised pattern of REE distribution in
the Jamnagar laterites. However, the nature of REE distribution
during mineralogical reactions associated with weathering is
very poorly understood (Mac Lenan, 1989). Several studies have
suggested that REE are mobile during weathering but there is lit-
tle agreement regarding the overall magnitude or their potential
for fractionation (Boulange and Colin, 1994). The Jamnagar late-
rites are LREE enriched – HREE depleted, showing negative Ce
and Eu anomalies. There are several possible explanations for
the behaviour of REE under weathering environments such as
following:
(a) REE could be mobilised during intense chemical weathering
under warm and humid conditions and the HREE are prefer-
entially transported in solution (Balashov et al., 1964).
(b) REE may not be at all mobile during weathering
environment (Ronov et al., 1967; Duddy, 1980), especially
depending upon pH conditions (Appelo and Postma, 1993;
Johannesson et al., 1996).
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Table 6 low to moderate REE concentrations are due to presence of quartz,

Correlation table for selected tetravalent elements of the Jamnagar laterites. feldspars and biotites in the parent rock (Gromet and Silver, 1983;
Ga Zr Nb Hf Ta Pb Th Ti Mariano, 1989). Moreover, strong partitioning of REEs by the oxi-
Ga 1.00 des of Ti-Nb (Gonzalez Lopez et al., 2005; Esmaily et al., 2009); fer-
Zr 0.73 1.00 ric hydroxides (Kunhel, 1987; Mongelli, 1997); and REE–carbonate
Nb 0.79 0.80 1.00 complexes (Johannesson et al., 1996; Mameli et al., 2007), is also
Hf 0.70 0.99 0.75 1.00 well documented.
Ta 0.80 0.82 0.99 0.78 1.00
Pb 0.37 0.56 0.23 0.60 0.30 1.00
Cerium exists naturally in two forms, viz. Ce3+ and Ce4+, with
Th 0.50 0.87 0.52 0.90 0.58 0.76 1.00 the latter having higher ionic potential than the other REEs and
Ti 0.56 0.02 0.37 0.04 0.32 0.23 0.29 1.00 consequently the lowest mobility (Esmaily et al., 2009). The lower
ionic potential of LREEs relative to HREEs means that they were
leached from the source and got concentrated in the laterites.
(c) The REE may get accumulated within iron crusts containing The high ionic potential of Ce4+ suggest that its behaviour was sim-
goethite (Steinberg and Courtois, 1976; Kunhel, 1987; ilar to the HREEs. The positive Ce anomaly is commonly attributed
Mongelli, 1997). to the leaching of apatite, sphene and zircons; however the latter is
(d) Weathering may result in the formation of authegenic clay a remarkably resistant mineral under the weathering conditions.
minerals and REE may easily get adsorbed at the surface of Therefore, the negative Ce anomaly is owing to the ability of Ce4+
clay minerals such as smectite and kaolinite (Roaldset, to get accommodated in the zircon structure because of the similar
1973; Aagard, 1974; Decarreau et al., 1979; Laufer et al., oxidation state and comparable ionic radii of Zr [4+, 0.84(VIII) Å ]
1984). and Ce [4+, 0.97(VIII) Å] (Murali et al., 1983; Hintor and Upton,
(e) REE distribution is greatly influenced by the presence or 1991, ionic radii after Shannon, 1976).
absence of certain minerals in the source rock, such as The negative Ce anomaly in the Jamnagar bauxites may also
phases of the bastnasite group (Nesbitt, 1979; Boulange indicate that the zircon may not be present in the source rock in
and Colin, 1994; Mameli et al., 2007). significant amount. This observation therefore leads the way to
consider the geochemical affinity of Zr4+ with the relatively immo-
It is known that high REE concentration is due to presence of bile tetravalent ions such as Ga4+, Hf4+, Ta4+, Th4+, Pb4+, and possi-
primary minerals such as sphene, apatite and zircon, whereas bly Ce4+ (not separated from Ce3+ therefore not correlated in table),

Fig. 15. Position of India and possible location of Jamnagar laterite deposits (indicated by circle) during the Palaeocene times (modified after Sychanthavong and Patel, 1987).
The fracture zones indicate Pre-Palaeocene structures in the Indian Ocean, whereas the area beyond limit of Indian Subcontinent indicate wet climate suitable for laterite
formation. The dotted area indicate humid climate with lesser rainfall, the stripped areas indicate semi-arid, and blank area within India indicate arid climatic conditions.
 Author's personal copy

1284 R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287

Table 7
Comparison of various flood basaltic provinces of the world, their age, areal extent and laterite deposits.

Sr. Name of the flood Location Age Aerial extent Laterite

no. basaltic province deposits
1 Copper Mine River Mackenzie Large Igneous Province in the NW territories of Canada Mesoproterozoic 1,70,000 km2 Economic deposits
Group not known
2
2 Keweenawan Province Lake Superior on the Canadian–American Boarder Proterozoic 100,000 km Economic deposits
not known
3 North Australian North Australia between the Kimberley region and Queensland Early Cambrian 400,000 km2 Economic deposits
Province boarder. Main continuous outcrop in East Kimberley, Victoria are present
River and Daly River basin: together called Antrim Plateau
Volcanics
4 Emeishan Traps Sichuan Province, SW China Permian 250,000 km2 Presence indicated
5 Siberian Province Enisei and Lena Rivers, Russia. Most of the continental flood Late Permian to Early 1500,000 km2 Not known on CFB
basalts occur within the Tungaska Basin Jurassic
6 North Mountain SW Nova Scotia, Canada, stretching from Brier Island to Cape Slit, Triassic 4000 km Not known
Province Annapolis Valley to Bay of Fundy. A gigantic flood basaltic igneous (diameter)
complex along east coast of United States, Europe, NW Africa and
South America with a diameter of 4000 km
7 Wranglia flood basaltic SW Yukon, extending from Vancouver island to central Alaska Triassic 3000 km2 Not known
province
2
8 Karoo Province Barotseland in Zambia, Suurberg in eastern Cape, Etekanda in Late Triassic to Early 3000,000 km Not known
Namibia, Antonio Enes in Mozambique, Lesotho and Nuanetsi– Jurassic
Lebombo
9 Parana Basin Province Mostly located in Brazil, but also traced in Uruguay, Paraguay and Late Jurassic to Early 120,000 km2 Not known
Argentina Cretaceous
2
10 Ontong Java Plateau North of Solomon Islands, Manihiki Plateau and Hikurangi Plateau Cretaceous 2000,000 km ?
11 Caribbean flood Large Oceanic Plateau covering Costa Rica, etc. Late Cretaceous ? Economic deposits
basaltic province are present
12 Deccan Trap basaltic Western and central India and southern Pakistan Late Cretaceous to 500,000 km2 Economics deposits
province Late Eocene are present
13 North Atlantic Tertiary Subdivided into six main subprovinces: the Hebridean, northern Palaeocene to Eocene 143,750 km2 Economic deposits
Province Ireland, UK; the Facroe Islands, East Greenland; Baffin Bay, West are present
Greenland; Rockall Plateau and Voring Plateau off NW Norway
14 Ethiopian Province Highlands of Ethiopia and Yemen, Aiba Formation. Eocene to Miocene 750,000 Sq, Not known
km
15 Eastern China Province Eastern China Eocene to Middle ? Not known
Pleistocene
16 Columbia River Washington, Oregon and Idaho in NW USA. This group has been Miocene 163,700 km2 Economic deposits
Province divided into four main formations: Imnaha basalt, Grande Ronde are present
basalt, Wanapum basalt and Columbia River basalt
17 Chilcotin Province Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, British Columbia, Canada Miocene to Pliocene 50,000 Sq, km Not known
18 Hawaii flood basaltic Hawaii Islands Pleistocene 10,432 km2 Economic deposits
province are present

Data compiled from Valeton (1972), Lassiter et al. (1995), Garner (1996), Taylor (2006) and Deng et al. (2009).

which show strong correlation among them (Table 6). It is likely
that these elements are concentrated as hydrolysates by the
in situ weathering of parent rock. Mason and Moore (1991)
predicted that the tetravalent elements including Ti4+ may be con-
centrated in bauxite, the factor of enrichment being four to five
times as compared to their parent material. The lower correlation
coefficients of Ti4+ with the other tetravalent elements could be
due to (i) incomplete leaching of the minerals in parent rocks such
as plagioclase, clinpyroxene, zircon, and apatite and (ii) presence of
other influencing mineral phases, like anatase and ilmenite, which
are present in the laterites and aluminous laterites of the Jamnagar
deposits. Chowdhury et al. (1965) have observed harmonic correla-
tion of tetravalent Ga4+ with Al3+, Fe3+ and Ti4+ in several laterite–
bauxite deposits in India including Gujarat, which is not seen in the
Jamnagar deposits due to influence of bed rock mineralogy as
discussed above.
7.3. Implications on the palaeotectonics
Bardossy’s (1973) stimulating discussion on the process of
bauxite formation in relation to plate tectonics has brought new
insight into bauxite research. The palaeo-climate, environment,
morphology and drainage conditions that are required for forma-
tion of bauxite and laterite deposits were provided by the drifting
continents over certain latitudes. Such discussion not only cor-
rectly predicted the positioning of the bauxite–laterite provinces
with respect to their palaeolatitudes and palaeo-pole positioning;
but also helped the proponents of Continental Drift to substantiate
their own hypothesis (e.g. Taling and Runcorn, 1973). Indian con-
text of this hypothesis is discussed in detail by Sychanthavong
and Patel (1987), who provided valuable information on palaeopo-
sitioning and drifting of Indian Subcontinent since Mesozoic. We
discuss it further in relation to the Jamanagar laterite deposits.
The deposits of Jamnagar are bounded by a narrow zone be-
tween the Deccan Traps and Tertiary Sediments. The fragmented
nodules of bauxites are found in the Tertiary sediments, which
mean that their age is Pre-Tertiary. Considering Miocene age of
the Gaj sediments and Cretaceous age of Deccan Trap magmatism,
Palaeocene to Eocene age is a reasonable estimate for the laterite
deposits of Jamnagar.
It is well known that lateritisation is a process of chemical
weathering of rocks, essentially in a tropical climate comprising
of alternation of very hot summers and heavy rainfall during the
monsoon season (see for e.g. McFarlene, 1976). This type of tropical
climate is strictly restricted to the equatorial zone with the excep-
tion of topographically controlled areas. According to Sant (1999)
the time events shaping morphology of the Saurashtra and Lower
Narmada Valley area have occurred around 58 ± 2 Ma, 42 ± 2 Ma,
32 ± 2 Ma. 21 ± 2 Ma and 14 ± 2 Ma among these, first two events
record the bauxitisation process. In case of Jamnagar laterite
deposits, the first event, i.e. 58 ± 2 Ma was most probably the late-
ritisation event for the reasons discussed below.
 Author's personal copy
R.R. Meshram, K.R. Randive / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 42 (2011) 1271–1287
Sychanthavong and Patel (1987) opined that the age of the Ter-
tiary bauxites of India decreases from north to south from Jammu
& Kahsmir, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kar-
nataka and southern Indian states. They attributed this to the drift-
ing and anticlockwise rotation of the Indian plate. The matured
bauxite profiles in south as compared to north India is due to more
residence time of south India at the equator and vice versa. This
study along with those of Frakes and Kempe (1972) and Bardossy
(1973) sheds light on the process of lateritisation vis-a-vis drifting
of continents. Fig. 15 shows possible location of the Jamnagar area
during Palaeocene.
The major tectonic event prevailed during this time was the drift-
ing of Seychelles from greater India and development of extensional
fractures along which magmas were emplaced. There was an uplift-
ment of the Cambay basin, whereas western continental margin re-
mained stable (Balasubramanyan and Snelling, 1981; Pandey,
1986). In the Jamnagar laterite deposits there are no younger sedi-
mentary rocks underlying laterites, indicating that this area was
not submerged since the outpouring of the Deccan basalts (Syc-
hanthavong and Patel, 1987). The area therefore had thick lush-
green vegetation thronging on the heavy rainfall during monsoon
and hot climate during summer, which was conducive for
lateritisation.
The post Deccan Trap landscape is considered to be the ‘zero
surface’ (Sant, 1999); the minimum elevation of this surface was
considered to be 1000 m in the Saurashtra Peninsula. The flat roll-
ing surface of the Deccan Province had westerly slope and the re-
sponse of river channels over this surface was moderate to low
due to presence of thick vegetation facilitating chemical weather-
ing of the bedrocks. Thus, the drainage, morphology, vegetation,
and climate were all favourable for lateritisation during Palaeocene
times in this area.
7.4. Lateritisation and flood basaltic provinces
Flood basaltic provinces are the large accumulation of basaltic
lava flows having remarkably uniform chemical composition and
erupted within short time span. Many of the continental flood bas-
alts are associated with early stages of continental breakup and rif-
ting (White and Mckenzie, 1995; Duncan and Richards, 1991). Due
to their wide areal extent and stupendous volumes, the flood basal-
tic provinces are good parent rocks to host large laterite deposits.
The Deccan Trap basaltic province is one such area where wide-
spread lateritisation is observed. Several economic deposits are
present in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh (Saha-
srabudhe, 1978; IBM, 1993). Economically viable deposits of late-
rites are also associated with Columbia River Province in the
states of Oregon, Washington and Idaho (Allen, 1948). Examples
of laterite deposits associated with flood basalts come from North
Australian, Caribbean, North Atlantic and Hawaii flood basaltic
provinces (Valeton, 1972 and references therein; Sak et al., 2004;
Taylore and Eggleton, 2008; Bogatyrev and Zhukov, 2009). Deng
et al. (2009) indicated possibility of presence of laterite deposits
in the Emeishan Traps. Nevertheless, there are several other flood
basaltic provinces, where laterite deposits are not known, Table 7
lists major flood basaltic provinces and laterite deposits. It is ob-
served that: (a) some of the large basaltic provinces remarkably
lack laterite deposits over the basalts (e.g. Siberian, Karoo, Parana);
(b) lateritisation process prevailed unequivocally over continental
(e.g. Deccan, Columbia) as well as ocean (e.g. Hawaii, Ontong Java)
areas; and (c) age of the basaltic province do not have much role in
governing the lateritisation process, since older (e.g. North Austra-
lian) as well as younger (e.g. Hawaiian) provinces host laterite
deposits. It is therefore apparent that it is not just size or age of
the parent rock, but the palaeopositioning of the flood basaltic
1285
provinces, their palaeoclimate, palaeodrainage and palaeoslope
are the governing factors for lateritisation.
8. Conclusions
On the whole the field geology, mineralogy, petrography, and
geochemical characteristics of the Jamnagar laterite deposits ap-
pear to indicate:
(a) the parent rocks of Jamnagar laterites would have been pyro-
clastic igneous rocks of trachytic or andesitic composition,
(b) the observed variations in the trace and rare earth elements
are likely to be due to several factors, most important being,
(i) incomplete leaching of minerals from the parent rocks,
(ii) presence of other influencing mineral phases that can
accommodate several trace elements having similar geo-
chemical properties, and (iii) the geochemical affinity of ele-
ments such as Ga4+, Hf4+, Zr4+, Nb4+ Ta4+, Th4+, Pb4+, and Ce4+,
which might have been concentrated as the hydrolysates,
(c) Jamnagar laterite deposits were developed over the Deccan
Trap basaltic rocks during Palaeocene times when Indian
Plate was passing over the equator, the morphology, drain-
age and climatic conditions were favourable for formation
of laterites during this time,
(d) Flood basaltic provinces are potentially good parent rocks for
hosting laterite deposits, however, the palaeopositioning of
these provinces along with paeoclimate, palaeomorphology
and palaeodrainage are the governing factors for
lateritisation.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge Deputy Director General and HOD,
AMSE Wing, Geological Survey of India, Bangalore for providing
necessary facilities for geochemical analysis of bauxite samples.
We thank Prof. T.C. Devaraju, two anonymous reviewers of JAES,
handling editor L. Jennifer and Editor in Chief Bor-Jahn Ming,
whose comments immensely helped for the improvement of
the original version of paper. The authors are thankful to Mr.
Parijat Roy, Mr. Nandu Kanoje, Mr. S.T. Narhari and Mrs. Savita
Gaidhane for the help and support rendered during various
stages of the work. KRR thanks Mr. Govindrao and Mrs. Maya
Manapure for encouragement and support, and especially Che-
tana for her patience and tolerance during preparation of this
paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.07.014.
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