CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter primarily discusses the photovoltaic (PV) system and its components,
including an explanation of the inverter topology. It also provides a review of existing
research to enhance the efficiency and systematic approach for this project.

2.2 Photovoltaic (PV) System

A photovoltaic system is a system that harvest solar energy from the sun and use
it to generate electricity. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems receive and absorb solar
radiation to generate electricity and they operate most efficiently on bright days.
The grid-connected (on-grid) and standalone (off-grid) PV systems are the two
basic categories into which PV systems can be categorized.
The standalone system operates independently of the power grid. It consists of a
solar panel, charge controller, battery and inverter, as depicted in Figure 2.1 [8]. To
ensure energy storage and stability, this system incorporates a battery with a charge
controller. As it is not connected to the utility grid, the off-grid solar power system
relies on a battery bank to store the energy produced by the solar cells. This setup
enables reliable electricity supply during sunny days by storing the electrical energy
generated by the PV system.

Figure 2.1: Standalone photovoltaic (PV) system [8]

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 The grid-connected applications, on the other hand, employ a PV system along
with the grid. Figure 2.2 depicts a typical grid-connected system design, which includes
a PV system together with other supplementary modules like filters, transformers and
conversion technologies [9]. The power electronics-based converters for DC/DC and
DC/AC are among the conversion technologies. Grid-connected PV does not need a
storage system because it runs concurrently with the electrical utility grid, in contrast to
off-grid PV construction. When the generated power is higher than the load demand,
they also supply power back to the utility system.

Figure 2.2: Grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system [9]

2.2.1 Photovoltaic (PV) Module

A photovoltaic module directly converts sunlight into electricity [10]. It is a key

component of a photovoltaic system and comprises multiple photovoltaic cells arranged
in a panel. Solar panels come in different shapes and sizes based on their power output.
Sizing solar panels requires considering power consumption in Watts (W). To calculate
the total daily Watt-hours consumed by each appliance, use Equation 2.1 after listing
the power demands.

=n×P×t (2.1)

Where;

n = Quantity
P = Power consumption demand in W
t = Usage in hour

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 Next, use Equation 2.2 to determine the total number of Watt-hours per day that
the PV modules will need to produce. In order to account for energy lost in the system,
multiply the total daily Watt-hours from all appliances by 1.1.

(2.2)
= × 1.1

Next, using Equation 2.3 to determine the total required Watt-peak rating for PV
modules. Given that it is Malaysia's peak solar hour/day, the total daily Watt-hours
generated by PV panels must be divided by 7.

(2.3)
= ÷7

Finally, Equation 2.4 is used to calculate the size of the PV panel. Since the
system shall function more efficiently and have longer battery life, the result will be
rounded up to the next larger number.

(2.4)
= ÷ PV panel rating in Wp

According to Figure 2.3, the PV effect determines how a PV cell or solar cell
functions. The semiconductor material used in solar cells, such as silicon, absorbs solar
energy and converts it into electrical energy. Sunlight is transmitted and absorbed by
the metal oxide-based anti-reflection coating. P stands for positive and the P-type
semiconductor has more holes than electrons. The main charge carrier in the current is a
hole, while the minority charge carrier is an electron. As per says, the electron donates
electrons and makes up the majority of charge carriers in N-Type semiconductors. A
depletion zone forms at the junction as a result of the P-type semiconductor layer
having lower doping than the N-type semiconductor layer, which has a higher level of
doping. The depletion zone is formed when the N-type and P-type layers
combine together because electrons depart from the N-type layer to the P-type zone.
The P-type layer becomes negatively charged ions as a result of holes in the depletion
zone occupying electrons [11].

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 Figure 2.3: Solar cell working principle [11]

When sunlight hits a solar cell, it absorbs it until it reaches the P–N junction.
Sunlight is transformed into direct current (DC) by the PV cell. Electric current is
produced by the movement of electrons or negative charge. The significant solar PV
panel components are shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Important components of solar PV panel [11]

The Malaysian PV market supplies three different types of solar panels: Thin-
Film Silicon (using Amorphous Silicon), Polycrystalline Silicon, and Monocrystalline
Silicon [4]. A comparison of these three solar panel types is shown in Table 2.1.

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 Table 2.1: Comparison between solar panels [10]
Types Efficiency Descriptions Example
 Long lifespan
 High efficiency
Mono-cystalline ~15%
 Minimal space used
 Most expensive

 Shorter lifespan
 Average price
Poly-crystalline ~12%
 Average efficiency

 Shortest lifespan
 Lowest price
Thin Film ~6%  Flexible
 Maximum space used

2.2.2 Charge Controller

In photovoltaic systems, charging regulators are utilized to charge the batteries.

The rated power of the consumers and the consumption diagram at hourly intervals are
used to properly size an accumulator battery's capacity. The amount of discharge and
operating temperature affect a battery's lifespan. Batteries can withstand several
thousand charge/discharge cycles as long as they are not discharged by more than 30%.
It takes roughly 1,000 cycles to discharge the batteries up to 80% on a regular basis.
The charger, which controls the current flow from the panel to the batteries, uses
voltage as a control signal to protect batteries and increase their lifespan, thus how a
battery's voltage changes during charging and discharging is crucial [12].
A photovoltaic panel's voltage-current characteristic (V-I) is primarily
influenced by cell temperature and solar radiation intensity.

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 Figure 2.5: PV panels depends on solar incident radiation and temperature [12]

The operational point (PF) is found where the PV V-I characteristic and the
consumers characteristic of the solar panel terminals meet. This point typically differs
from the maximum power point (MPP) at which the system can function when the
photovoltaic panel and load experience the best possible power transfer.

Figure 2.6: PV characteristics and MPP [12]

As a result, MPP is dependent not only on the electrical properties of the

terminal loads but also on the working circumstances of the solar panel.
Equation 2.5 being used to calculate the charge controller sizing.

(2.5)
= × 1.3

Where;
= Total short circuit current of PV array
2.3 = De-rating factor

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2.2.3 Battery

In an off-grid PV system, battery energy storage is an effective way to store

excess electricity [13]. Since standalone or off-grid PV systems are not connected to the
utility grid, they need a battery bank to store the energy produced by the cells. A typical
battery bank configuration is shown in Figure 2.7. The PV system is a dependable
source of electrical power during broad-daylight and cloudy day, due to its ability to
store electrical energy created by the PV system. As a result, several battery-related
factors, such as battery capacity and charge storage, must be taken into account. Battery
capacity is the maximum amount of charge that a battery can store.

Figure 2.7: Typical battery bank arrangement [14]

Deep cycle batteries are the kind that are advised for use in solar PV systems.
Deep cycle batteries are created specifically to be rapidly recharged or to cycle charged
and discharged repeatedly every day for years. The battery needs to be big enough to
hold enough power to run the appliances at night and on cloudy days. Equation 2.6 is
used to compute the battery's capacity.

(2.6)
=

Where;
0.85 = Battery loss
2.6 = Depth of discharge

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2.2.4 Load (Water Dispenser)

Direct-piping water dispensers and bottled water dispensers, which can be

countertop or free-standing units, are the two basic categories of water dispensers [15].
Common water dispensers include cold and hot water tanks that range from 0.5 to 5
liters and have cooling and heating rates of up to 5 liters per hour. A typical water
dispenser unit is shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Typical water dispenser unit [16]

An resistive load (R load) rather than an resistive-inductive load (RL load) is a

suitable term to describe a water dispenser that has cooling and heating elements.
A load is referred to as a resistive load (R load) if it largely dissipates power as
heat or light without having any significant reactive components. When a water
dispenser has heating and cooling components, the cooling and heating components are
frequently resistive heating or cooling components. Without large inductive or
capacitive components, these components directly convert electrical energy into heat or
cooling.

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2.3 Inverter

In a standalone solar energy systems, photovoltaic modules produce DC electric

power to provide an AC load. The DC electricity generated by the solar modules must
be converted into AC power using a standalone photovoltaic inverter [17]. An essential
part of assuring operability in the field of renewable energy, such as PV, is the inverter,
an electronic device that converts DC electricity to AC power at a desired output
voltage or current and frequency. In these situations, the inverter must provide a clean
output sine waveform at a precise voltage within predetermined load changes and
specified frequency ranges. When developing PV inverters, several factors must be
taken into account. Low waveform total harmonic distortion (THD), unity power factor,
easy maintenance and testing should all be factors of the inverter design [18]. The
design of PV inverters has challenges because of the nonlinearity and output fluctuation
of PV. The stability and power quality of the inverter should be ensured as much as
possible by the inverter control system from the effects of output fluctuation. SCR,
IGBT and MOSFETs are power semiconductors that can be employed as switches and
converters in inverters [18].
Pure sine waveform inverters, modulated waveform inverters and square
waveform inverters are the three main types of single phase stand-alone photovoltaic
inverters. Each of these inverter types is also divided into different topologies which is
half bridge and full bridge for the square waveform inverters and multilevel (bridges)
for the modulated waveform and the pure sinewave inverters [17]. The outputs of each
type of generated waveform vary and can have an impact on electrical equipment.
The inverter's input rating should never be less than the sum of all the
appliances' wattages. The battery and inverter need to have the same nominal voltage.
The inverter for standalone systems needs to be big enough to manage the entire
amount of Watt that will be consumed at once. The inverter size needs to be 25% larger
than the sum of all appliance Watts. The size of the inverter for a PV system is
determined using Equation 2.7.

(2.7)
= Total Watt of appliances × 1.25

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2.3.1 Full-bridge Inverter

Figure 2.9 depicts a full-bridge inverter topology using four MOSFETs or

IGBTs. Four MOSFETs or IGBTs and four diodes mounted parallel to each MOSFET
or IGBT make up this circuit. In order to produce an output waveform, it is necessary to
operate the full-bridge inverter where it can offer a continuous switching scheme.

Figure 2.9: Full-bridge inverter topology [19]

Table 2.2 presents an explanation of the full-bridge inverter switching process.

When transistors G1 and G2 are turned ON simultaneously, the load will experience the
input voltage +Vs. The voltage that emerges on the load when transistors G3 and G4 are
turned on simultaneously is the opposite of the first one - Vs.

Table 2.2: Working principle of full-bridge inverter [19]

Switches Close Output Voltage
G1 and G2 + VDC
G3 and G4 - VDC
G1 and G3 0
G2 and G4 0

Positive and negative voltages will alternate on the inverter's output. Be aware
that closing G1 and G4 at the same time, as well as G2 and G3, is not advised. Over the
DC source, there could be a short circuit. In order to prevent a short circuit across the
DC voltage source, transition time must be taken into account in the switch control. To
avoid short-circuiting, the switches in each branch are operated in the opposite direction

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so that they are not operating in the same mode (ON/OFF) at the same time. In practice,
they are both OFF for a short period of time known as blanking time.

2.3.2 Half-bridge Inverter

Figure 2.10 depicts the topology of a half-bridge inverter. By dividing the DC

source voltage in half with the capacitors, two switches are reduced. Each capacitor has
a same voltage value, which is . = when SW1 is ON, and ON, =

when SW2 is ON [20]. According to Table 2.3, both switches must be

complementary to one another.

Figure 2.10: Half-bridge inverter topology [20]

Table 2.3: Switching scheme of half-bridge inverter [20]

SW1 SW2
ON OFF
OFF ON +

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2.4 LC Filter
The use of an LC filter circuit is required to reduce higher order harmonics. For
the purpose of reducing higher order harmonics, LC filters should be built as low pass
filters [21]. Low pass filters let low frequency signals through up to its cut-off
frequency, or point, while block higher frequency signals.
There are two different types of filters: active and passive. While passive filters
lack amplifiers like capacitors, inductors and resistors, active filters have amplifiers that
boost the signal's strength.
When building an LC filter, the cut-off frequency or fc, is of utmost importance.
The cut-off frequency must be obtained with a high value of inductance. Equation 2.8
can be used to calculate the maximum frequency, . For the LC filter to effectively
attenuate the switching frequency and overall harmonic distortion, the switching
frequency must be at least half as high as the cut-off frequency, which must be at least
ten times the fundamental frequency.

(2.8)
= 2mf ×

The fundamental formula for a filter is shown in Equation 2.9. Assuming one of
the variables results in the value of L and C.

(2.9)
=

2.5 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)

Pulse width modulation, or PWM, techniques can be used within the inverter to
regulate outputs. By adjusting the ON and OFF times of the inverter IGBTs, the PWM
approach is implemented in the inverter. The SPWM technique is preferred above all
other PWM techniques because it allows for direct control of inverter output voltage
and frequency according to the sine functions employed. In this method, the duty cycles
vary for each time period while the pulse amplitude remains constant. Inverter output
voltage can be controlled and THD can be reduced by changing the pulse width.

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 By comparing the triangular carrier signal of the cut off frequency fc with the
sinusoidal reference signal, the pulse signal generation in the SPWM technique takes
place. When the reference sinusoidal signals exceed the carrier triangular wave, the
switching devices will turn ON [21]. Figures 2.11 and 2.12 compare the sine and
triangle wave waveforms as well as the generation of pulses.

Figure 2.11: Sinusoidal reference and triangle carrier signal [19]

Figure 2.12: Generation of switching pulses [21]

As shown in Figure 2.13, Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) is a

switching technique that compares sinusoidal signals as reference signals with triangle
signals as carrier signals [19]. An inverter needs an ignition to function back and forth.

Figure 2.13: SPWM switching [21]

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 In the SPWM method, the output voltage value can be altered by modulating the
signal's form, and the frequency of the inverter output signal can be changed by varying
the frequency of the reference signal.
According to Equation 2.10, the frequency modulation ratio is the ratio of the
carrier signal's frequencies to those of the reference signal.

(2.10)
=

Where;
= Frequency modulation ratio
= Triangle wave frequency
= Sinusoidal wave frequency

According to Equation 2.11, the amplitude modulation ratio is the proportion of

the reference signal's to the carrier signal's amplitude.

(2.11)
=

Where;
= Amplitude modulation ratio
= Sinusoidal wave amplitude
= Triangle wave amplitude

Two types of SPWM switching methods exist: bipolar and unipolar. A triangular signal
acts as the carrier, while a sine wave serves as the reference. Based on Equations 2.12
and 2.13, when the reference sine signal exceeds the carrier triangle signal, the output is
+VDC and when the reference sine signal is smaller, the output is -VDC [19].

(2.12)
=+ for >

(2.13)
= for <

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2.5.1 Bipolar Switching Scheme

In the generator circuit, there is only one comparator in the bipolar switching
scheme. Figure 2.14 illustrates the fundamental concept required to construct a bipolar
voltage switching signal. Two signals are compared by the comparator. As shown in
Figure 2.15, the reference signal is a sinusoidal reference waveform at the
desired output frequency, while the triangular carrier signal is a higher frequency
signal [22].

Figure 2.14: Bipolar switching pulse generator [22]

Figure 2.15: Waveforms of SPWM bipolar switching [22]

Comparator output pulses when the reference waveform value exceeds the
carrier value, while comparator output is zero when the reference waveform value is
less than the carrier value. The switch S1 and switch S4 gates receive the comparator
output directly. Switches S1 and S4 consequently get the same gate pulse. Additionally,
the complimentary gate pulses for switches S1 and S4 are for switches S2 and S3. The
bipolar PWM's switching requirements were described in Table 2.4. However, because
it includes peak to peak value [22], this switching strategy has more harmonics than a
unipolar switching technique.

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 Table 2.4: Condition of bipolar switching [22].
Switch Condition (ON) Output Voltage
S1 & S4 > +
S2 & S3 <

2.5.2 Unipolar Switching Scheme

The two modulating waves and a carrier wave are compared in a unipolar
switching method. Two signals are compared via comparator 1. The reference signal ,
a sinusoidal reference waveform at the desired frequency, is the first signal and is
necessary for receiving at the output. The triangular carrier signal at a higher
frequency is the second signal. Comparator 2 compares the same carrier signal with
the same reference signal (inverse sinusoidal reference waveform) as comparator 1.
The comparator waveforms, which compare carrier triangular waveforms with
reference sinusoidal waveform and inverse sinusoidal waveforms, are shown in Figure
2.16. It produces the gate pulse for switches S1, S2, S3 and S4 meanwhile the inverter's
output waveforms are based on this gate pulse, as shown in Figure 2.17.
Since this switching method's THD is smaller than that of bipolar switching
method, it may produce a better output waveform. Due to a doubling of the switching
frequency at the load and a halving of the voltage pulse amplitude, the harmonic output
waveform is decreased [22].

Figure 2.16: Unipolar switching pulse generator [22]

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 Figure 2.17: Waveforms of SPWM unipolar switching [22]

Switches S1 and S2 have inverse gate pulses because if they run

simultaneously, the input DC power source will be short-circuited. In order to prevent a
shoot-through fault, switch S1 must be off when switch S2 is turned on and vice versa.
The same rules that apply to switch S1 and S2 also apply to switch S3 and S4. To
prevent a shoot-through fault, switch S4 is off when switch S3 is turned on and vice
versa. Table 2.5 illustrates the state of the control for the unipolar switch.

Table 2.5: Unipolar switching scheme condition [22]

Switch Condition (ON)
S1 >
S2 - <
S3 - >
S4 <

In a unipolar switching scheme, there are two high frequency switches and
two low frequency switches since only one pair of switches operates at the carrier
frequency and the other pair at the reference frequency.

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2.6 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

An perfect inverter produces a sinusoidal waveform as its output signal,

however the output signal of a practical inverter is discontinuous and contains undesired
harmonics. Harmonic distortion is caused by the presence of nonlinear devices in the
power system network [21]. Nonlinear elements in this context are those whose current
is not proportional to applied voltage. The harmonic distortion must be reduced if an
inverter is to operate at its optimal efficiency. Total harmonic distortion or THD, is an
assessment of an effective value of a harmonic component inside a distorted waveform.
To evaluate the output voltage and current quality of the inverter, THD analysis is
essential. The existence of harmonics might cause the output waves to be non-
sinusoidal. Equations 2.14 and 2.15 illustrate how the Fourier Series method of analysis
can be used to calculate THD. The most practical method for analysing the overall
harmonic distortion of output voltage and current is the Fourier series method.

(2.14)
=

(2.15)
=

2.7 Critical Review

Off-grid inverter development has been researched and has proven to be

complicated especially for residential applications. Different methods for producing
SPWM have been researched over the past few years. This section will go over the
techniques used by previous researchers to obtain SPWM using an off-grid inverter
implementation.
A. Razi, M. Nabil Hidayat and S. A. A Shukor [24] conducted a study on the
comparison of bipolar and unipolar inverters for use off the grid. By performing the
FFT analysis on both methods, the analysis is carried out in MATLAB. The THD
produced for bipolar SPWM is quite large at 202.1%. Conversely, Unipolar SPWM can
provide output waveforms that are nearly sinusoidal in shape while reducing THD. The

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THD in the bipolar SPWM was reduced from 202.1% to 141.6% by the unipolar
SPWM, as can be shown. Therefore, in order to get the optimum output, unipolar
SPWM is preferable than bipolar SPWM.
Kishan Bhayani [22] did a study on single phase inverters based on Sinusoidal
Pulse Width Modulation Switching Technique for power systems. Along with the full-
bridge inverter design, switching schemes using both unipolar and bipolar
configurations are being used. The simulation is based on work done in MATLAB with
a voltage source inverter (VSI). Both pulse generator topologies that feed the
MOSFETs gate with pulse generation are being tested. It was demonstrated that the
unipolar switching scheme approach produced less than it, at 52.23%, while the bipolar
switching scheme method produced a high THD of 100.10% and was less efficient.
Low pass filtering on the output side makes it simple to eliminate higher order
harmonics.
Digi K Dileep and Barath K R [23] conducted research on solar-powered home
inverters. Square wave, quasi-sine wave and sine wave PWM approaches are the three
types that are being compared. Square wave inverters can be divided into those that
have and don't have feedback. Square waves have a lot of higher frequencies, which
causes some equipment to hum. When employed for a motor, harmonics at the output
have a negative impact. The noise that a modified sine wave inverter converts into a
signal relies on the pulse width and modulation frequency. Sine wave inverters, on the
other hand, are optimal or superior to all others. By using the SPWM approach for the
switches changing "ON" and "OFF" by adjusting the duty cycle of each period, sine
inverters can provide AC power with less harmonics.

2.8 Summary

Literature review gives an early representation in term of surface theory on the

proposed project. It helps in a way to complete the project to obtain the target goals by
implementing the theory that has been collected through this chapter. By practicing it,
eventually the project will successfully done according to the specifications and
parameters.

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