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MECH
H 416–– Aircraftt Design
Lect. 09: Aircraft Design Process Overview
Dr. Yasser Abdullah Mahjoub Nogoud
Aircraft Design Process

• A structured design process helps alleviate mistakes in manufacturing
• Creating an aircraft is a time and resource intensive process, design maps are
used to help identify issues early on
• Many different industries follow a similar engineering design map

The general engineering design process
• There are two types of engineering companies;
• assembler companies and
• the sub-contractors.
• Companies like Jaguar Land Rover, Airbus, and Apple are the assemblers.
• They are the brand you buy.
• But these companies often outsource their work to sub-contractors: smaller
companies developing specialized products.
Typical approach to any product development

The Aircraft Design Process
• The design process for an aircraft can be seen as very similar to other
engineering products.
• However, the complexity of an aircraft and the tight safety regulations required
make it a very expensive and long process.
• The general process can be divided as shown below:
STEP
P 1:: Problem
m Definition
• At this initial stage, a new market demand has been identified.
• For example, a company might have identified that there is a growing demand for small
private jets.
• In the initial problem definition stages it is crucial to
1. identify the key requirements of the new product such as
• how fast,
• how far,
• how high,
• how many occupants,
• what payload, and so on.
2. determine how realistic it is to create this product through a feasibility analysis.
STEP
P 2:: Conceptuall Design
• This constitutes the initial sizing of the aircraft, estimation of cost, performance,
stability, and evaluation of regulatory compliance issues.
• It absorbs just enough engineering to provide management with a reliable
assessment of desired performance, desired aesthetics, and basic understanding
of the scope of the development effort, including marketability, labor
requirements, and expected costs.
• Typically, the following characteristics are defined during this phase:
STEP
P 2:: Conceptuall Design
• The preliminary design phase is where engineers go a step further into the
design process to create a basic proof of concept (POC).
• In this stage the engineers will calculate requirements that the airplane will have
to conform with in order to fly, these can include
• Aerodynamics,
• Flight Mechanics,
• Structure stresses and stability. Following these is a preliminary design review, to ensure
the concept can become a reality and for a reasonable price.
• Typically,
yp y, the following characteristics are defined during this phase:
STEP
P 4:: Detaill Design
• At the detail design stage, every single component will be designed from and
tested.
• This is a highly complex and critical stage of the process.
• It also requires all the different design teams to work closely.
• The main aircraft components designed stages are:
• Detail design work (structures, systems, avionics, etc.).
• Structural detail design.
• Study of technologies (vendors, company cooperation, etc.).
• Mechanical detail design.
• Subcontractor and vendor negotiations.
• Avionics and electronics detail design.
• Prototype: Design of limited (onetime use) tooling (fixtures and jigs).
• Ergonomics detail design.
• Production: Design of multiuse tooling.
• Mockup fabrication.
• Iron-bird fabrication (for systems testing).
• Maintenance procedures planning.
• Material and equipment logistics.
STEP
P 5:: Flightt Testing
• At this stage, a prototype is build and will undergo rigorous flight tests.
• This is a very lengthy and expensive process to ensure quality and safety in the
new aircraft, this can take years to complete.
• There are two different types of aircraft certifications:
• Military Aircraft: e.g.: Mil-Specs
• Civil Aircraft: e.g.: EASA (Europe) or FAA (USA)
• In order to become certified the design must follow these standards,
• sometimes also referred to as Technical Standard Orders (TSOs) which govern
the approval of the design.
STEP
P 6:: Criticall Design
n Review
• Here the design is reviewed, final small changes are made to adjust for different
needs identified in flight testing.
STEP
P 7:: Certification
Once the aircraft is certified, it can now be allowed into commercial airspace and move into full use and
production.
During the final certification process there are a wide variety of approvals that are needed to be obtained for
design and safety:
1.Aircraft Software
2.Engines, Propellers, Aux power units
3.Human safety factors
4.Technical Standard Orders
5.Parts Manufacturer Approval
6.Original Design Approval Process
7.National Automated Conformity Inspection Process
This myriad of tests and approvals is done to ensure the safe operation and functions of the aircrafts.
Differentt versionss off aircrafts?

• Okay, so you have noticed that there are several versions of the Airbus A220
or even Boeing 777.
• Well, designing an aircraft from scratch is a very long process (15-20 years)
and extremely expensive.
• Hence a solution to this is to modify existing aircraft by upgrading some
parts.
• These newer versions are then released under a different variant name.
• These can be done much more quickly as most of the aircraft has
undergone the approval and certification processes already, this is why you
have the Airbus A320 family.
Differentt versionss off aircrafts?
20/03/2024
MECH 416– Aircraft Design
Lect. 13: Preliminary design procedure

Estimate aircraft Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW).
Preliminary design phase

• The purpose of this Lecture is to describe the preliminary design phase of an aircraft.
• Based on the systems engineering approach, an aircraft will be designed during three phases:
(i) conceptual design phase,
(ii) preliminary design phase, and
(iii) detail design phase.
• At the conceptual design phase, the aircraft will be designed in concept without precise
calculations.
• almost all the parameters are determined based on a decision-making process and selection
technique.
• in the preliminary design phase, the parameters determined are not final and will be altered
later.
• In addition, at this phase, parameters are essential and will influence the entire detail design
phase directly.
• Therefore, ultimate care must be taken to insure the accuracy of the results of the preliminary
design phase.
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• Three fundamental aircraft parameters determined during the preliminary
design phase are:
i. aircraft maximum take-off weight (MTOW),
ii. wing reference area (SW or Sref or S ), and
iii. engine thrust (T) or engine power (P).
• Hence, three primary aircraft parameters of WTO, S, and T (or P ) form the
output of the preliminary design phase.
• These three parameters will govern
• the aircraft size,
• the manufacturing cost, and
• the complexity of calculations.

• The preliminary design phase is performed in two steps:
Step 1. Estimate aircraft MTOW.
Step 2. Determine wing area and engine thrust (or power) simultaneously.
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Weight Build-up
• The MTOW is broken into four elements:
1. Payload weight (WPL).
2. Crew weight (WC).
3. Fuel weight (Wf).
4. Empty weight (WE).

WTO = WPL + WC + WF + WE
• The payload weight and crew weight are mostly known and determined from the
given data (by customer and standards), and not dependent on the aircraft take-
off weight.
• The empty weight and fuel weight are both functions of the MTOW.
Weight Build-up
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 1 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
1
𝑊 𝑊
3
20/03/2024
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
Weight Build-up 1
𝑊 𝑊
• In order to find WTO, one needs to determine the four variables of WPL, WC,
Wf/WTO, and We/WTO.
• The first three parameters, namely payload, crew, and fuel fraction, are
determined fairly accurately,
• but the last parameter (i.e., empty weight fraction) is estimated from statistics.
• Payload Weight, WPL
• W pass = 180 lb (≈ 80Kg)

• W luggage = 100 lb (≈ 46 Kg)
• WPL = N(W pass + W luggage )
• N= Number of passenger
Weight Build-up
• Crew Weight, Wc
• Two parameters must be determined in this part: 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
i. number of pilots and crew members and 𝑊 𝑊
1
ii. weight of each crew member. 𝑊 𝑊
• The FAA has regulated the number of crew for transport aircraft.
• Based on FAR Part 125, Section 125.269, for airplanes having more than 100
passengers, two flight attendants plus one additional flight attendant for each
unit of 50 passengers above 100 passengers are required:
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Weight Build-up
• Crew Weight, Wc
𝑊 𝑊
Weight Build-up 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
1
• Fuel Weight, Wf 𝑊 𝑊
• depends upon
• the mission to be followed,
• the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft, and
• the engine specific fuel consumption (SFC).
• The first step to determine the total fuel weight is to define the flight mission
segments.
Typical mission profiles for three typical aircraft:
(a)transport aircraft,
(b)fighter,
(c)reconnaissance
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𝑊 𝑊
Fuel Weight, Wf 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
1
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
1
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
1
𝑊 𝑊
Fuel Weight, Wf
• For flight safety, it is recommended to carry reserve fuel in case the intended
airport is closed, so the aircraft has to land at another nearby airport.
• FAA regulation requires a transport aircraft to carry 20% more fuel than needed on
a flight of 45 minutes to observe airworthiness standards.
• The extra fuel required for safety purposes is almost 5% of the aircraft total
weight, so it is applied as follows:
𝑊 𝑊
1.05 1
𝑊 𝑊
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Fuel Weight, Wf
• There are primarily six flight segments: take-off,
climb, cruise, loiter, descent, and landing.
• These flight segments can be divided into two

groups:
1. The segments during which the fuel weight that is burnt

is almost nothing and negligible compared with the
MTOW. (taxi, take-off, climb, descent, approach, and
landing).
The fuel weight fractions for these mission segments
are estimated based on the statistics.
2. The segments during which the fuel weight that is burnt

is considerable. (cruise and loiter) determined through
mathematical calculations.
Cruise Weight Fraction

• Cruise Weight Fraction for Jet Aircraft
• The fuel weight fraction for the cruise segment is determined by
employing the Breguet range equation. i i+1
𝑉 ⁄ 𝐿 𝑊
𝑅 ln
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊
• Where: Rmax
• Wi = the aircraft weight at the beginning of cruise

• Wi+1 = the aircraft weight at the end of the cruising flight.
• Wi/Wi+1 = the fuel weight fraction for the cruise segment.
• Ct = TSFC
• L/D = the lift-to-drag ratio.
Use historical values and
the two parameters of C and (L/D)max are unknown at this employ data for similar aircraft.
moment (preliminary design phase)
the aerodynamic aspect of the aircraft and also the
propulsion system are not determined.
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Use historical values and
the two parameters of C and (L/D)max are unknown at this employ data for similar aircraft.
moment (preliminary design phase)
the aerodynamic aspect of the aircraft and also the
propulsion system are not determined.

• For jet Engine Aircraft Equation of range is modified as follows:
𝑉 ⁄ 𝐿 𝑊
𝑅 ln
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊
From Aircraft performance course we know that, the best Range for jet aircraft will occur at
𝐿 3 𝐿 𝐿
0.866
𝐷 2 𝐷 𝐷
𝑉 𝐿 𝑊
𝑅 0.866 ln
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊
Therefore, the cruise fuel weight ratio is determined as:
𝑊 .
𝑒
𝑊
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• Cruise Weight Fraction for Prop-Driven Aircraft
𝜂 𝐿 𝑊
𝑅 ln
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊
From Aircraft performance course we know that, the best Range for jet aircraft will occur at
𝑊
𝑒
𝑊
Loiter Weight Fraction
• Loiter Weight Fraction for Jet Aircraft

• The fuel weight fraction for the Loiter segment is determined by
employing the Breguet Endurance equation.
1 𝐿 𝑊
𝐸 ln
𝐶 𝐷 𝑊
• the fuel weight ratio for a loitering flight is determined as:
𝑊
𝑒
𝑊
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Loiter Weight Fraction

𝜂 𝐿 𝑊
• Loiter Weight Fraction for Prop-Driven Aircraft 𝐸
𝐶𝑉 𝐷
ln
𝑊
From Aircraft performance course we know that, the best Endurance for Prop-driven aircraft will occur at
𝐿 𝐿
0.866
𝐷 𝐷
0.866 𝜂 𝐿 𝑊
𝐸 ln
𝐶𝑉 𝐷 𝑊
• the fuel weight ratio for a loitering flight is determined as:
𝑊 .
𝑒
𝑊
The minimum power speed for most prop-driven aircraft is about 20–40% higher than the stall speed. Then:
𝑉 𝑉 1.2𝑉 𝑡𝑜 1.4𝑉
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
Empty Weight, We 𝑊 𝑊
1
𝑊 𝑊
• WE/WTO At this moment (preliminary design phase),

the aircraft has been designed only conceptually,
hence there is no geometry or sizing.
• Therefore, the empty weight fraction cannot be
calculated analytically.
• The only way is to use past history and statistics.
𝑊
𝑎𝑊 𝑏
𝑊
where a and b are found in Table 4.8. Note that Equation is

curve-fitted in the British units system. Thus, the unit for
MTOW and empty weight is lb.
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𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
Empty Weight, We 𝑊 𝑊
1
𝑊 𝑊
• Another Equation to estimate the Empty weight Ration We/WTO. Obtained from Raymer is
given
𝑊
𝐴𝑊 𝐾
𝑊
Practical Steps of the Technique

The technique to determine the aircraft MTOW has 11 steps, as follows:
Step 1. Establish the flight mission profile and identify the mission segments.
Step 2. Determine the number of flight crew members.
Step 3. Determine the number of flight attendants.
Step 4. Determine the overall weight of flight crew and flight attendants and also flight
crew and attendants weight ratio.
Step 5. Determine the overall weight of payloads (i.e., passengers, luggage, bag, cargo, etc.).
Step 6. Determine fuel weight ratios for the segments of taxi, take-off, climb, descent,
approach, and landing (use Table 4.3).
Step 7. Determine fuel weight ratios for the segments of range and loiter using equations.
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Practical Steps of the Technique
Step 8. Find the overall fuel weight ratio

𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
and 1.05 1
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
Step 9. Substitute the value of overall fuel weight ratio into.
𝑊 𝑊
𝑊
𝑊 𝑊
1
𝑊 𝑊
Step 10. Establish the empty weight ratio by using Equation
𝑊 𝑊
𝑎𝑊 𝑏 or 𝐴𝑊 𝐾
𝑊 𝑊
Step 11. Finally, Equation (derived in step 9) and Equation (derived in step 11)
step (10) must be solved simultaneously to find the two unknowns of WTO and WE/WTO.
12
Preliminary Design 145
value of h greater than the specified h C , or any altitude higher than the required ceiling,
is satisfying the ceiling requirement, so the region below the graph is acceptable.
Employ extreme caution to use a consistent unit when applying Equations (4.100) and
(4.101) (either the SI system or the British system). In the SI system, the unit of ROC is
m/s, the unit of W is N, the unit of P is W, the unit of S is m2 , and the unit of ρ is kg/m3 .
However, in the British system, the unit of ROC is ft/s, the unit of W is lb, the unit of
P is lb ft/s or hp, the unit of S is ft2 , and the unit of ρ is slug/ft3 . If British units are
used, convert the unit of W /P to lb/hp to make the comparison more convenient. Recall
that each unit of horsepower (hp) is equivalent to 550 lb ft/s. An example application is
presented in Section 4.4.
4.4 Design Examples

In this section, two fully solved design examples are provided: Example 4.3 estimates
MTOW (WTO ) and Example 4.4 determines the wing reference area (S ) and engine
power (P ).
Example 4.3: Maximum Take-Off Weight

Problem statement: You are to design a conventional civil transport aircraft that can
carry 700 passengers plus their luggage. The aircraft must be able to fly with a cruise
speed of Mach 0.8, and have a range of 9500 km. At this point, you are only required
to estimate the aircraft MTOW. You need to follow FAA regulations and standards.
Assume that the aircraft is equipped with two high-bypass ratio turbofan engines and
is cruising at 35 000 ft altitude.
Solution:
Hint: Since FAR values are in British units, we convert all units to British units.
• Step 1. The aircraft is stated to be civil transport and to carry 700 passengers.
Hence, the aircraft must follow FAR Part 25. Therefore, all selections must be based
on FAR. The regular mission profile for this aircraft consists of taxi and take-off,
climb, cruise, descent, loiter, and landing (see Figure 4.19).
Cruise
3 4
Climb
Descent
1 6
2 5
Landing
Take-off
Figure 4.19 Mission profile for the transport aircraft in Example 4.3
• Step 2. Flight crew. The aircraft is under commercial flight operations, so it would
be operating under Parts 119 and 125. The flight attendant’s weight is designated
146 Aircraft Design
to be 119.3. In Subpart I of Part 125, there are pilot-in-command and second-in-

command qualifications. There may be space on the aircraft for more crew members,
but based on the language of the document, two flight crew members is the minimum
allowed. Also, the criteria for determining minimum flight crew could be found
from Appendix D of FAR Part 25. In order to have flight crew to perform the
basic workload functions (listed in Appendix D of FAR Part 25 and in Section
119.3) safely and comfortably, we designate two crew members as one pilot and
one copilot.
• Step 3. Flight attendants. The number of flight attendants is regulated by FAR Part
125 Section 125.269:
For airplanes having more than 100 passengers – two flight attendants plus one
additional flight attendant for each unit (or part of a unit) of 50 passengers above
100 passengers.
Since there are 700 passengers, the number of flight attendants must be 14:
700 = 100 + (12 · 50) ⇒ 2 + (12 · 1) = 14
• Step 4. Weight of flight crew and attendants. As defined in Section 125.9 Def-
initions, flight crew members are assumed to have a weight of 200 lb. In contrast,
the flight attendant’s weight is designated to be 119.3 and requires that 140 lb be
allocated for a flight attendant whose sex is unknown. Thus, the total weight of flight
crew members and flight attendants is:
200 + 200 + (14 · 140) ⇒ WC = 2360 lb
• Step 5. The weight of payloads. The payload for a passenger aircraft primarily
includes passengers and their luggage and baggage. In reality, passengers could be
a combination of adult males, adult females, children, and infants. Table 4.1 shows
the nominal weight for each category. To observe the reality and to be on the safe
side, an average weight of 180 lb is selected. This weight includes the allowance for
personal items and carry-on bags. In contrast, 100 lb of luggage is considered for
each passenger. So the total payload would be:
(700 · 180) + (700 · 100) ⇒ WPL = 196 000 lb
• Step 6. Fuel weight ratios for the segments of taxi, take-off, climb, descent,
approach, and landing. Using Table 4.3 and the numbering system shown in
Figure 4.2, we have the following fuel weight ratios:
W2
Taxi, take-off: = 0.98
W1
W3
Climb: = 0.97
W2
W5
Descent: = 0.99
W4
W6
Approach and landing: = 0.997
W5
• Step 7. Fuel weight ratio for the segment of range. The aircraft has jet (turbofan)
engine, so Equation (4.16) must be employed. In this flight mission, cruise is the
third phase of flight.
W4 −RC
= e 0.866V (L/D)max (4.16)
W3
where range (R) is 9500 km, C is 0.4 lb/h/lb (from Table 4.6) or 4/3600 1/s, and
(L/D)max is 17 (chosen from Table 4.5). The aircraft speed (V ) would be the Mach
number times the speed of sound [5]:
V = M · a = 0.8 · 296.6 = 237.3 m/s = 778.5 m/s (4.65)
where the speed of sound at 35 000 ft altitude is 296.6 m/s or 973.1 ft/s. Thus,
0.4
W4 −RC −9500 000·3.28· 3600
W4
=e 0.866V (L/D)max =e 0.866·973.1·17 = e−0.3053 ⇒ = 0.737 (4.16)
W3 W3
• Step 8. Overall fuel weight ratio. By using equations similar to Equations (4.10)
and (4.11), we obtain:
W6 W W W W W W
= 2 3 4 5 6 = 0.98 · 0.97 · 0.737 · 0.99 · 0.997 ⇒ 6 = 0.692
W1 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W1
(4.10)
! "
Wf W Wf
= 1.05 1 − 6 = 1.05 (1 − 0.692) ⇒ = 0.323 (4.11)
WTO W1 WTO
• Step 9. Substitution. The known values are substituted into Equation (4.5):
WPL + WC 196 000 + 2360 198360
WTO = ! " ! "= ! "= ! "
Wf WE WE WE
1− − 1 − 0.323 − 0.677 −
WTO WTO WTO WTO
(4.5)
• Step 10. Empty weight ratio. The empty weight ratio is established by using
Equation (4.26), where the coefficients a and b are taken from Table 4.8:
a = −7.754 · 10−8 , b = 0.576 (Table 4.8)
Thus:
WE W
= aWTO + b ⇒ E = −7.754 · 10−8 WTO + 0.576 (4.26)
WTO WTO
• Step 11. Final step. The following two equations (one from step 9 and one from
step 10) must be solved simultaneously:
198360
WTO = ! " (1) (step 9)
WE
0.677 −
WTO
148 Aircraft Design
WE
= −7.754 · 10−8 WTO + 0.576 (2) (step 10)
WTO
MathCad software may be used to solve this set of two non-linear algebraic
equations, as follows:
assumption: x := 0.6 y := 1 000 000
Given
198 360
y= x = −7.754 · 10−8 · y + 0.576
0.677 − x
! "
0.493
Find (x , y) =
1075664.161
Thus, the empty weight ratio is 0.493 and the MTOW is:
WTO = 1 075 664 lb = 4 784 792 N
So, the maximum take-off mass is:
mTO = 487 913 kg
An alternative way to find WTO is the trial-and-error technique, as shown in

Table 4.16. It is observed that after seven trials, the error reduces to only 0.4%,
which is acceptable. This technique produces a similar result (WTO = 1 074 201).
The third alternative is to solve the equations analytically. We first manipulate
Equation (4.1) as follows:
! " ! "
198 360 WE 198360 WE
WTO = ! " ⇒ 0.677 − = ⇒
WE WTO WTO WTO
0.677 −
WTO
198360
= 0.677 −
WTO
Then, we need to substitute the right-hand side into Equation (4.2) and simplify:
198360
0.677 − = −7.754 · 10−8 WTO + 0.576
WTO
198360
⇒ 7.754 · 10−8 WTO + 0.576 − 0.677 + =0
WTO
198360
⇒ −7.754 · 10−8 WTO + − 0.101 = 0
WTO
This non-linear algebraic equation has one unknown (WTO ) and only one acceptable
(reasonable) solution. This alternative technique also produces the same result. For
comparison, it is interesting to note that the MTOW of the giant transport aircraft
Table 4.16 Trial-and-error technique to determine maximum take-off weight of

the aircraft in Example 4.3
Iteration Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Error (%)
Guess Substitute W TO of Substitute W E /W TO of

W TO (lb) Step 1 into the Step 2 into the
first equation: second equation:
WE
= −7.754 · 10−8 198, 360
W TO W TO = ! "
W TO + 0.576 WE
0.677 −
W TO
1 1,500,000 0.456 912,797 lb −64
2 912,797 0.505 1,154,744 lb 20.9
3 1,154,744 0.486 1,041,047 lb −10.9
4 1,041,047 0.495 1,091,552 lb 4.6
5 1,091,552 0.491 1,068,525 lb −2.1
6 1,068,525 0.493 1,078,902 lb 0.96
7 1,078,902 0.4923 1,074,201 lb −0.4
Airbus 380 with 853 passengers is 1 300 700 lb. Thus, the aircraft maximum aircraft
weight would be:
WTO = 1 074 201 lb ⇒ mTO = 487 249 kg
Example 4.4: Wing and Engine Sizing

Problem statement: In the preliminary design phase of a turboprop transport aircraft,
the MTOW is determined to be 20 000 lb and the aircraft CDo is determined to be 0.025.
The hob airport is located at a city with an elevation of 3000 ft. Using the matching
plot technique, determine the wing area (S ) and engine power (P ) of the aircraft that
is required to have the following performance capabilities:
1. Maximum speed: 350 KTAS at 30 000 ft.
2. Stall speed: less than 70 KEAS.
3. ROC: more than 2700 fpm at sea level.
4. Take-off run: less than 1200 ft (on a dry concrete runway).
5. Service ceiling: more than 35 000 ft.
6. Range: 4000 nm.
7. Endurance: 2 hours.
Assume any other parameters that you may need for this aircraft.
01/04/2024
Lect. 14: Constraint Analysis

• The preliminary design phase is performed in two steps:
Step 1. Estimate aircraft MTOW.
Step 2. Determine wing area and engine thrust (or power) simultaneously.
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01/04/2024
Typical constraint analysis: Transport Aircraft

imposed by:
• Customer requirements
• Design max cruise Mach number (Mcru)
• Climb rate (R/C) while operating at specific altitude(s)
• Stalling speed @ take-off and landing (Vstall) Very well known
• Balanced field length and apparent
• FAR 25 take off and landing distance (Sto)(Sland)
• Service ceiling (hceiling)
• Airworthiness requirements (for safety)
• Second stage climb gradient
Not Very well known and
• Missed approach gradient need time to understand it
Raymer’s big six parameters

• Wing related
1. Thickness ratio (t/C)
2. Taper ration (λ)
3. Sweep angle (Λ)
4. Aspect ratio (AR) If you get those 6 parameters you
will handle the aircraft design very
well
• Aircraft related
5. Wing loading (W/S)
6. Thrust (Power) loading (T/W), (P/W)
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01/04/2024
Importance of (W/S) and (T/W)

• Appear in many performance equations
(W/S) alone
• Stalling speed
• Landing distance (W/S) and (T/W)
• Ceiling • Take-off distance
• Instantaneous turn • Range and Endurance
• Climb Performance
• Sustained turn rate
(T/W) alone
• Climb gradient
• Missed approach gradient
Approaches to Estimate (T/W) & (W/S)

• Approach No (1)
• Estimate T/W from constraints on
• Missed approach gradient or take-off Climb gradient
• Estimate W/S meeting other constraints
• Approach No (2)
• Estimate W/S from constraints on
• Stalling speed, Landing distance, Ceiling, Instantaneous turn
• Estimate T/W meeting other constraints
• Approach No (1) generally preferred

• Less variability in T/W from past data
• Constraint on gradients easy to implement
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01/04/2024
Approach No (1)
Estimate T/W from constraints from specified constraints
• T/W directly effects aircraft performance
• High T/W
• Higher Vcr , acceleration, rate of climb and sustained turn rate
• Higher fuel consumption, heavier aircraft
• T/W keep changing during mission

• lower W due to fuel consumption
• T (or P) changing due to changes in altitude, velocity and ηprop
• Design T/W obtain at

• ISA, SLS, Wgross, max throttle setting
• Calculated T/W to be adjusted to (design T/W)
Typical values of (T/W) & (P/W)
• Jet Engine Aircraft (T/W) • propeller Engine Aircraft (P/W)

• Units = Dimension less • Units = watts/g
• Civil • Civil
• Powered sailplane 0.07
• Transport (2 Engine) 0.2
• G.A (1 Engine) 0.12
• Transport (2 Engine) 0.3 • Homebuilt 0.13
• Transport (2 Engine) 0.4 • Agriculture 0.15
• Military • Flying boat 0.16
• Strategic bomber 0.2 • G.A (2 Engine) 0.3
• Tactical 0.3 • Twin Turboprop 0.33
• Trainer 0.4 • Aerobatic 0.45
• Fighter 0.6 • Military
• Interception 0.9 • Bomber 0.35
• Cargo 0.4
• Air superiority >1.0
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01/04/2024
Raymer give T/W and P/W as function of Mmax or Vmax
Approach No (1)
How to calculate (T/W) climb gradient considerations
• Approach No (1)
• Estimate T/W from constraints on
• Missed approach gradient
• take-off Climb gradient
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝐶𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐺 𝑆𝐸𝑇
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑆𝐸𝑇=specific excess thrust
𝑇 𝑇 𝑉 𝑇 1 𝑅/𝑐
𝑅⁄𝐶 𝐺 𝑉 𝑊 𝐿 𝑉
𝑊 𝐷
• The 2 major climb gradient constraints are :

• Missed approach
• 2nd stage climb
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01/04/2024
Take-off and landing climb gradients

Brief explanation
The 4 climb segments

• 1st segment
Brief explanation • From the end of the take-off
distance to the point the
landing gear is fully retracted
• 2nd segment
• From point where the landing gear
is retracted to an altitude of at
least 400 ft (obstacle dependent)
• 3rd segment
• the horizontal distance required to
accelerate at a constant altitude to
facilitate flap/slat retraction &
acceleration to final climb speed
• final segment
• End of the 3rd segment to at least
1500 ft (obstacle dependent) with
flap/slats retracted, max continuous
power and final climb speed
𝑇 𝐷
𝛾 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊
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01/04/2024
FAR 25 requirements
Segment Engine Thrust Landing gear Flap speed Weight altitude
1st OEI Takeoff Down Takeoff VLo Takeoff 35 ft
2nd OEI Takeoff UP Takeoff 1.2 Vs Takeoff 35 -400 ft
3rd OEI Max cont. UP UP 1.25 Vs End of 400 ft
Takeoff
4th Enroute OEI (2) Max cont. UP UP any End of seg 3 Clear
2EI (3/4) obstacles
Approach OEI Takeoff UP < landing 1.5 Vs Landing
landing AEO 8 sec after Down Landing 1.3 Vs Landing
idle to
takeoff
• OEI = one Engine inoperative

• AEO = all engines operating .
• 2EI = 2 engine inoperative
• Vs = stalling speed
• VLO = lift off speed
Design Requirements and Specifications

Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)
Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach.

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.,
2012.
7
01/04/2024
Approach No (1)
2nd segment climb gradient
• FAR 25 requirement:
Sufficient thrust must be installed in the aircraft so that in event of an
engine failure, the following minimum gradient may be sustained, with
flaps in take-off position, but with landing gear retracted
γSscg No of Engines
𝑇 𝑁 1
3% 4 𝛾
𝑊 𝑁 1 𝐿
2.7% 3 𝐷
2.4% 2
𝑇 𝐷
𝛾
𝑊
𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝐷 when
1.flaps in take−off configuration and
2.landing gear up
Missed approach gradient

• The situation in which the aircraft is on final
approach to landing but does not land for one
or several reasons, instead, power is applied
and aircraft climbs, usually to circle the airport
and initiate another landing approach.
• FAR 25 regulation:
Sufficient thrust for the aircraft to climb at
specified gradient (γMA) with one engine
inoperative and at max landing weight
γMA No of Engines 𝑇 𝑁 1
2.7% 4 𝛾
𝑊 𝑁 1 𝐿
2.4% 3 𝐷
2.1% 2 N= number of Engines
𝑇 𝐷 L/D = lift-to-drag ratio at condition of flap
Where 𝛾 𝑊
during climb in approach and landing gear down
* Constraint on γMA puts a lower limit on (T/W)
𝛾 = required missed approach gradient
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01/04/2024
Comparison between
𝛾 𝛾
• Aircraft is heavier
• Aircraft is lighter
• Flap is lesser
• Flap is larger
• Landing gear up
• Landing gear down
• Drag smaller
• Drag larger
• L/D larger
• L/D lower
• Required 𝛾 is larger
• Required 𝛾 is lesser
𝑇 𝑁 1
𝛾
𝑊 𝑁 1 𝐿
𝐷
Not known which one will impose higher constraint

Calculate both and take the higher value to be the lower limit
Approach No (2)
Estimate W/S from constraints from specified constraints
• Approach No (2) • Airworthiness requirements for operational safety
• Estimate W/S from constraints on
• Stalling speed 𝑉 1.1𝑉 ,𝑉 1.2𝑉 Military and Civil aircraft
• Landing distance
𝑉 1.2𝑉 ,𝑉 1.1𝑉 Military aircraft
• Ceiling
• Instantaneous turn 𝑉 1.3𝑉 ,𝑉 1.15𝑉 Civil aircraft
• Stalling speed • Airworthiness regulation

• W/S directly affected by Vstall
𝑘𝑚
𝑊 𝑉 61 kt 112.97 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
ℎ𝑟
𝑉
1
𝜌𝑆𝐶
2
• Determination of CL max is important
1
𝑊 ⁄𝑆 𝜌𝑉 𝐶
2 • Constraint on Vstall put upper limits on W/S
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01/04/2024
Approach No (2)
Estimate W/S from constraints from specified constraints
• Approach No (2)
• Estimate W/S from constraints on Hobstical=50 ft Touch down Stop point
• Stalling speed
θapp
• Landing distance
• Ceiling Sa
• Instantaneous turn Landing distance (LD)
FAR Landing field length
• Landing distance constraint
• Raymer’s approx. formula FAR 25 LFL=1.67xLD
𝑊 𝑙𝑏 1 Sa=approach distance
𝑆 80 𝑆 𝑓𝑡
𝑆 𝑓𝑡 𝜎𝐶 1000𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 3 𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Sa=approach distance, depends on θapp & Hobs 600𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺. 𝐴 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ
450𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑇𝑂𝐿 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 7 𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
• Constraint on LFL put an upper limits on W/S
constraints that depend on both W/S and T/W

𝐷 𝑇
𝐺
(W/S) and (T/W) 𝑊 𝑊
𝐶
𝐷 𝑞𝑆𝐶 𝑞𝑆
• Climb Performance 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊 𝑊
• Sustained turn rate 𝐷 𝑞𝐶 𝑊 1 𝑇
𝐺
• Take-off distance 𝑊 𝑊 𝑆 𝑞𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑊
𝑆
• Range and Endurance 𝑇 𝑇 𝐶
𝐺 ∓ 𝐺 4 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝑆 2
𝑞𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
• Constraint from R/C
• R/C = vertical velocity
Interesting observation
• Climb gradient G =(T-D)/W
𝑇 𝐶
𝐺 2
𝑊 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
10
01/04/2024

Take-off ground roll constraint
(W/S) and (T/W) 𝑉 𝑉 2𝑎𝑆
• Climb Performance 𝑉
𝑆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Sustained turn rate 2𝑎
• Take-off distance 𝑉
2𝑊
𝐶
𝐶
𝑜𝑟 0.826𝐶
• Range and Endurance 𝜌𝑆𝐶 1.21
𝑊 𝑇
𝐹 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇 𝑎 → 𝑔 𝑎
• Constraint on take-off field length 𝑔 𝑊
V1= decision Speed 2𝑊 𝑊
35 ft (Civil) 𝑉 𝜌𝑆𝐶 𝑘
𝑆 𝑆
50 ft (Military) 2𝑎 𝑇 𝑇
Take-off ground roll, STgr 2𝑊𝑔 𝜎𝐶
𝑊
𝑊
Eng failure @V1 Stop distance 𝑘 𝑆 𝜌 1
∴𝑆 𝜎 and k
Take-off BFL 𝑇 𝜌 𝑔𝜌
𝜎𝐶
𝑊

• Constraint on take-off field length 𝐹 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇
𝑊
𝑎 →
𝑇
𝑔 𝑎
V1= decision Speed 𝑔 𝑊
2𝑊 𝑊
35 ft (Civil) 𝑉 𝜌𝑆𝐶 𝑘 𝑆
50 ft (Military) 𝑆
Take-off ground roll, STgr 2𝑎 𝑇 𝑇
2𝑊𝑔 𝜎𝐶
𝑊
𝑊
Eng failure @V1 Stop distance 𝑘 𝑆 𝜌 1
∴𝑆 𝜎 and k
Take-off BFL 𝑇 𝜌 𝑔𝜌
𝜎𝐶
𝑊
Take-off ground roll constraint Let us define take-off parameter, TOP
𝑉 𝑉 2𝑎𝑆 𝑊
𝑆 𝑆
𝑉 𝑇𝑂𝑃
𝑘 𝑇
𝑆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜎𝐶
2𝑎 𝑊
𝑊 𝑇 𝑊 ℎ𝑝
2𝑊 𝐶 𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝜎𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝜎𝐶
𝑉 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 0.826𝐶 𝑆 𝑊 𝑆 𝑊
𝜌𝑆𝐶 1.21
Jet engine A/C Propeller A/c
11
01/04/2024

• Constraint on take-off field length
𝑊
𝑆 𝑆 𝜌 1
𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝜎 and k
𝑘 𝑇 𝜌 𝑔𝜌
𝜎𝐶
𝑊
take-off parameter, TOP

𝑊 𝑇 𝑊 ℎ𝑝
Estimation of TOP 𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝜎𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝜎𝐶
𝑆 𝑊 𝑆 𝑊
TOP
Jet engine A/C Propeller A/c
Simple constraint diagram

Look for
higher W/S
Lower T/W
Solution Design point
space higher W/S give small wing
Lower T/W give small Engine
Design point lowest T/W &

higher W/S that meet all
constraints
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01/04/2024
Maximum Speed Take-Off Run
Rate of Climb
Stall Speed
Ceiling
13
03/04/2024
Tutorial on Constraint Analysis of Transport

Aircraft
Lect. 15
constraints for Boing B787 Dreamliner

Tutorial on Constraint Analysis of Transport Aircraft
03/04/2024
constraints for Boeing B787 Dreamliner

As specified by the User
Parameter Value Units Conditions
2nd Stage Climb Gradient 3.49 % @ W=476000lb, SL ISA
Missed Approach Gradient 2.1 % @ W=365000lb, SL ISA
Take-off Stalling Speed 138 Kt EAS @ W=476000lb, SL ISA
Landing Stalling speed 102 Kt EAS @ W=365000lb, SL ISA
Landing Ground Roll 2037 ft @ W=365000lb, SL ISA
Climb Rate at Cruise 429 fpm @ W=Wcr,begin , H=37000ft, ISA
Balanced Field Length 9255 ft @ W=476000lb, SL ISA
constraints for boing B787 Dreamline

Converted to SI units
2nd Stage Climb Gradient 3.49 % @ W=215971 kg, SL ISA
Missed Approach Gradient 2.1 % @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA
Take-off Stalling Speed 71 m/s EAS @ W=215971 kg, SL ISA
Landing Stalling speed 52.46 m/s EAS @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA
Landing Ground Roll 621 m @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA
Climb Rate at Cruise 2.2 m/s @ W=Wcr,begin , H=11278 m, ISA
Balanced Field Length 2812 m @ W=215971 kg, SL ISA
03/04/2024
Useful Data about Boeing B 787-8
Aircraft Performance Data Aerodynamics Data

• Mcr = 0.85
• CD0 = 0.01277
• Mmax =0.9
• Hcr = 11278 m • CLmax, To =1.91
• WTo = 215971 kg
• CLmax,Land = 2.66
• Wcr, begin = 203457 kg
• Wland = 165608 kg • ΔCDflap,To = 0.01
• λwing =0.1528
• ΔCDflap+LG,land = 0.1135
• ARwing =10.87
• (t/c)wing =9.4% • eOswald@ M=0.85 =
• Λ25,wing =32.2 deg
• Ne =2
• Thrust laps ratio @ Hcr= 0.1789
Oswald Efficiency at various M
.
0.142 𝑓 𝜆 𝐴𝑅 10 𝑡 𝑐 0.1 3𝑁 1
e 1 0.12𝑀 1 .
cos Λ , 4 𝐴𝑅
𝑓 𝜆 0.005 1 1.5 𝜆 0.6
𝑀 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜆 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑀1, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛
𝛬 , 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑀2 𝑎𝑠:
𝐴𝑅 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑐 1 0.12𝑀
𝑁 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
1 0.12𝑀
03/04/2024
B787-8 Oswald Efficiency at Mcr

.
0.142 𝑓 𝜆 𝐴𝑅 10 𝑡 𝑐 0.1 3𝑁 1
e 1 0.12𝑀 1 .
cos Λ , 4 𝐴𝑅
𝑓 𝜆 0.005 1 1.5 𝜆 0.6

Calculate:
Data: • 𝑓(𝜆_𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 )= 𝑓 𝜆 0.005 1 1.5 𝜆 0.6
• Ma = Mcr= 0.85
• A= 1 0.12𝑀
• Λwing =0.1528 Value:
.
• Arwing =10.87 . ⁄ • 𝑓(𝜆_𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 ) = 0.0065
• B =
• (t/c)wing =9.4% , • A =1.0453
• Λ25,wing=32.2 deg .
• B =0.2924
• C = .
• Ne =2 • C =0.0821
• eMcr = {A . [1 + B + C ]}-1 • eMcr =0.6961
Lets start with a first cut estimation of T/W

From Mmax considerations
03/04/2024
Typical values of (T/W) & (P/W)

• Jet Engine Aircraft (T/W) • propeller Engine Aircraft (T/W)
• Units = Dimension less • Units = watts/g
• Civil • Civil
• Powered sailplane 0.07
• Transport (2 Engine) 0.2
• G.A (1 Engine) 0.12
• Transport (2 Engine) 0.3 • Homebuilt 0.13
• Transport (2 Engine) 0.4 • Agriculture 0.15
• Military • Flying boat 0.16
• Strategic bomber 0.2 • G.A (2 Engine) 0.3
• Tactical 0.3 • Twin Turboprop 0.33
• Trainer 0.4 • Aerobatic 0.45
• Fighter 0.6 • Military
• Interception 0.9 • Bomber 0.35
• Cargo 0.4
• Air superiority >1.0
 Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2012.
T/W as function of Mmax

For B 787-8 @ Mmax =0.9
Estimate T/W0
0.267 . 𝑀 . 0.257
 Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2012.
03/04/2024
constraints that depend on T/W alone
Second stage climb gradient

Missed Approach gradient
Limit on T/W from Constraint on 2nd stage climb gradient

2nd Stage Climb Gradient 3.49 % @ W=476000lb, SL ISA
𝑇 𝑁 1
𝛾
𝑊 𝑁 1 𝐿
𝐷
Ne = number of engines =2
[L/D]ssc =L/D in 2nd stage climb configuration
Flap in Take-off configuration ΔCD,flap,ssc =0.01
Landing gear up ΔCD,LG,ssc =0
γ = required 2nd stage climb gradient =3.49%
Estimate L/D in 2nd stage climb

03/04/2024
Steps in Estimating [L/D] in 2nd stage climb
1. Calculate Atmospheric Parameters during SSC T, ρ, and 𝑎
2. Calculate Mach No. in SSC Mssc
3. Calculate Oswald Efficiency Factor in SSC essc
4. Calculate Induced Drag Coefficient in SSC CDi, SSC
5. Calculate Lift-to-Drag ratio in SSC [L/D]ssc
1. Calculate Atmospheric Parameters During SSC T, ρ, and 𝑎
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Select Units SI
Select hight H= 0 m
Temperature, T= 288.19 K
Pressure, P= 101358.82 N/m^2
Density, ρ= 1.225 kg/m^3
Dynamic Viscosity, μ= 1.78959E-05 kg/(m.s)
Speed of sound, a= 340.32 m/s
Kinematic Viscosity, ν= 1.46089E-05 m^2/s
Ratio
θ = T/To 1
P/Po 1
σ = ρ/ρo 1
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3. Calculate Mach No. in SSC (Mssc) 3. Calculate Oswald Efficiency Factor in SSC (essc)
Take-off Stalling 71 m/s @ W=215971 kg, SL ∵𝑀 0.25
Speed EAS ISA
𝑉 ∵𝑀 0.85 ; 𝑒 0.695
𝑀
𝑎
𝑉 1.2 𝑉 , 𝐹𝐴𝑅 25 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 1 0.12 0.85 𝑀

𝑒 0.695
𝐸𝐴𝑆 71 1 0.12 0.25
𝑇𝐴𝑆 71𝑚/𝑠
𝜎 . 1
𝑉 , 𝑇𝐴𝑆 71 71𝑚/𝑠 ∴𝑒 0.7269
∴𝑉 1.2 71 85.18 𝑚/𝑠
85.18
∴𝑀 0.25
340.32
4. Calculate Induced Drag Coefficient in 5. Calculate Lift-to-Drag ratio in SSC [L/D]ssc

SSC (CDi, SSC) 𝐿 𝐶
𝐷 𝐶
𝐶
𝐶 , 𝜋𝑒 𝐴𝑅
∆𝐶 0.01 , ∆𝐶 =0 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝐶 , 1.91 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 , 𝑒 0.7269 , , , ,
2𝑊 2𝑊 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 , ∆𝐶 , , ∆𝐶 , ,
𝐶 , and 𝐶
𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
𝑉 1.2 𝑉 , 𝐹𝐴𝑅 25 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶 0.01277+ 0.0709 0.01 0 0.0936
𝐶 , 1.91
∴𝐶 1.326 𝐿 1.326
1.44 1.44 ∴ 14.16
𝐷 0.0709
1.326
∴𝐶 , 0.0709
1.44
03/04/2024
TSL/WTo for 2nd stage Climb Gradient

𝑇 𝑁 1
𝛾 We know that [TSSC/WTO] ≥ 0.211 and σ =1
𝑊 𝑁 1 𝐿
𝐷
TSSC =Thrust @ ISA and TSL =Thrust @ ISA
Ne =2 ⁄
For subsonic TF Engine, α 𝜎, 𝑇
[L/D]ssc = 14.16
γsscg =3.49% . ⁄
𝑇 2 1
0.0349 0.211 𝑇
𝑊 2 1 14.16 ∴ 0.211
𝑊
But this value has to be converted to [TSL/WTO]ssc
constraint Line due to 2nd Stage Climb Gradient

03/04/2024
Limit on T/W from Constraint on Missed Approach

Gradient
Landing Stalling speed 52,46 m/s EAS @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA
Constraint on Missed Approach Gradient

𝑇 𝑁 1
𝛾
𝑊 𝑁 1 𝐿
𝐷
N= number of Engines = 2
(L/D)MAG = at condition of flap in approach and landing gear down
∆𝐶 , , ∆𝐶 , , 0.1135
𝛾 = required missed approach gradient =2.1%
We need to estimate L/D in Missed Approach

03/04/2024
Steps in Estimating [L/D] in Missed Approach

1. Calculate Atmospheric Parameters during MA T, ρ, and 𝑎
2. Calculate Mach No. in MA MMA
3. Calculate Oswald Efficiency Factor in MA eMA
4. Calculate Induced Drag Coefficient in MA CDi, MA
5. Calculate Lift-to-Drag ratio in MA [L/D]MA
Atmospheric parameters at Missed Approach

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
Select Units SI
Select hight H= 0 m
Temperature, T= 288.19 K
Pressure, P= 101358.82 N/m^2
Density, ρ= 1.225 kg/m^3
Dynamic Viscosity, μ= 1.78959E-05 kg/(m.s)
Speed of sound, a= 340.32 m/s
Kinematic Viscosity, ν= 1.46089E-05 m^2/s
Ratio
θ = T/To 1
P/Po 1
σ = ρ/ρo 1
03/04/2024
2. Calculate Mach No. in MA (MMA) 3. Calculate Oswald Efficiency Factor in MA (eMA)

Landing Stalling 52.47 m/s @ W=165608 kg, SL ∵𝑀 0.2
Speed EAS ISA
∵𝑀 0.85 ; 𝑒 0.6961
𝑉 𝑎 @ 𝐼𝑆𝐴 340.32𝑚/𝑠
𝑀
𝑎
1 0.12 0.85 𝑀
𝑒 0.6961
1 0.12 0.2
𝑉 1.3 𝑉 , 𝐹𝐴𝑅 25 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉 1.3 𝑥 52.47 68.2m/s ∴𝑒 0.7276
68.2
∴𝑀 0.2
340.32
4. Calculate Induced Drag Coefficient in 5. Calculate Lift-to-Drag ratio in MA [L/D]MA

MA (CDi, MA) 𝐿 𝐶
𝐷 𝐶
𝐶
𝐶 , 𝜋𝑒 𝐴𝑅
∆𝐶 0.1135 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝐶 , 2.66 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 , 𝑒 0.7276 , ,
2𝑊 2𝑊 𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 , ∆𝐶 , , ∆𝐶 , ,
𝐶 , and 𝐶
𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
𝑉 1.3 𝑉 , 𝐹𝐴𝑅 25 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶 0.01277+ 0.0997 0.1135 0.22597
𝐶 , 2.66
∴𝐶 1.574 𝐿 1.574
1.69 1.69 ∴ 6.966
𝐷 0.22597
1.574
∴𝐶 , 0.0997
𝜋0.7276𝑥10.87
03/04/2024
TMA/WMA for Missed Approach
𝑇 𝑁 1 We know that [TMA/WMA] ≥ 0.3291 and σ =1

𝛾
𝑊 𝑁 1 𝐿
𝐷
TMA = TSL , WMA=WLand
Ne =2
β 0.7668
[L/D]ssc = 6.966
𝑇 𝑇
γsscg =2.1% 𝛽 0.3291 ∗ 0.7668
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇 2 1
0.021 0.3291 𝑇
𝑊 2 1 6.966 0.2524
𝑊
But this value has to be converted to [TSL/WTO]ssc
constraint Line for Missed Approach Gradient

MAG
0.400
0.350
0.300
T/W
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
W/S [kg/m2]
𝑇
0.2524
𝑊
03/04/2024
constraints that depend on W/S alone
 Take-off Stalling Speed

 Landing Stalling Speed
 Landing Ground Roll
Limit on W/S from Constraint on Takeoff Stalling Speed

Landing Stalling speed 52,46 m/s EAS @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA
Landing Ground Roll 621 1 m @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA

𝑊2.2⁄𝑆 𝜌 𝑉 𝐶@ W=W
Climb Rate at Cruise 2 m/s cr,begin , H=11278 m, ISA

03/04/2024
WTO/S for Takeoff Stalling Speed

𝑊 1
𝜌 𝑉 𝐶
𝑆 2
• CLmax, To =1.91 from Slide No 06
𝑊 1
1.225 71 1.91
𝑆 2
𝑊 𝑘𝑔
5897.34 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 601.16
𝑆 𝑚 𝑚
constraint Line due to Takeoff Stalling Speed

T.O.stalling speed
0.400
0.350
0.300
T/W
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
W/S [kg/m2]
𝑊 𝑘𝑔
601.16
𝑆 𝑚
03/04/2024
Limit on W/S from Constraint on Landing Stalling Speed

1
Climb Rate at Cruise 𝑊 ⁄𝑆2.2 𝜌
m/s 𝑉 𝐶cr,begin , H=11278 m, ISA
@ W=W
2
WTO/S for Landing Stalling Speed

1
𝑊 ⁄𝑆 𝜌 𝑉 𝐶
2
• CLmax, Land =2.66 from Slide No 06
𝑊 1
1.225 52.46 2.66 4483.8 𝑁⁄𝑚 𝑜𝑟 457.2 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
𝑆 2
𝑊 𝑘𝑔
4483.8 𝑁 𝑜𝑟 457.2
𝑆 𝑚 𝑚
But this value has to be converted to [WTO/S]!!!

03/04/2024
WTO/S for Landing Stalling Speed

𝑊 𝑘𝑔
457.2
𝑆 𝑚
𝑊 215971 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊 165608 kg

𝑊 165608
𝛽 0.7668
𝑊 215971
/ / .
596.24𝑘𝑔/𝑚
.
𝑊
∴ 596.24𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑆
constraint Line due to Landing Speed

land.stalling speed
0.400
0.350
0.300
T/W
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
W/S [kg/m2]
𝑊
∴ 596.24𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑆
03/04/2024
Limit on W/S from Constraint on Landing Ground Roll
Missed Approach Gradient 2.1 %1.69 𝛽. 𝑊 @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA

𝑆
Take-off Stalling Speed 𝜌𝑆𝐶
71 𝐷 m/s EAS
𝜇 𝛽𝑊 𝐿
@ W=215971 kg, SL ISA
Landing Ground Roll

 Specifications  Aassumptions
• Atmosphere = ISA • α =1
• h =Sea level
• SLand ≤ 621 m • μroll =0.4
• DLand = L Land =0
• ρ= 1.225 kg/m3
 Data
 Ccalculate β
• CL, max @ landing • β =0.7668
• CL, land =2.66
03/04/2024
Landing Ground Roll

1.69 𝛽. 𝑊
𝑠
𝜌𝑆𝐶 𝐷 𝜇 𝛽𝑊 𝐿
With DLand = L Land = 0, we get
𝑊 𝑠 𝜌𝐶 𝜇
𝑆 1.69𝛽
𝑊 621 1.225 2.66 0.4

624.6 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
𝑆 1.69 0.7668
constraint Line due to 2nd Stage Climb Gradient

Landing ground roll
0.400
0.350
0.300
T/W
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
W/S [kg/m2]
𝑊
624.6 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
𝑆
03/04/2024
constraint that depend on both

W/S and T/W
 Rate of Climb @ Cruise

 Balanced Field Length
Limits on T/W and W/S from Constraint

on Rate of Climb @ Cruise

𝑇 𝛽 𝑞 𝐶 𝑛𝛽 𝑊 1 𝑑ℎ 1 𝑑𝑉
Take-off Stalling Speed 71 𝑘m/s EAS @ W=215971 kg, SL ISA
𝑊 𝛼 𝛽 𝑊 𝑞 𝑆 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
Landing Stalling speed 52.46 𝑆 m/s EAS @ W=165608 kg, SL ISA

03/04/2024
Rate of Climb @ Cruise

 Data  Aassumptions
• ROC = 2.2 m/s @ ISA • CD0 = 0.01277
• n = 1 & dV/dt=0 • W To = 215971 kg
• Mcr = 0.85 • CD0 = 0.01277
• Hcr = 11278 m • ARwing = 10.87
• Wcr, begin = 203457 kg • α @ Mcr = 0.1789

• ecr@ Mcr =0.6961
 Calculate k1, β, Vcr& q
Estimation of k1, β, Vcr & q @ Hcr
 Induced drag factor k1=1/(𝜋𝑒 𝐴𝑅 =0.04207
 β = 203457/215971 =0.9421
 ρcr = ρ @ H=11278 m =0.3494 kg/m3
 Vcr = Mcr * a =0.85*295.08 = 250.8 m/s
 qcr, = 0.5*0.3494*250.82= 10989.7 N/m2 =1120.6 kg/m2

03/04/2024
Rate of Climb @ Cruise

𝑇 𝛽 𝑞 𝐶 𝑛𝛽 𝑊 1 𝑑ℎ 1 𝑑𝑉
The Master Equation is : 𝑘
𝑊 𝛼 𝛽 𝑊 𝑞 𝑆 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝑆
𝑇 0.9421 1120.6 0.01277 1 0.9421 𝑊 2.2

Substituting values: 0.04207
𝑊 0.1789 0.9421 𝑊 1120.6 𝑆 250.9
𝑆
𝑇 𝐴 𝑊
𝐵 𝐶
𝑊 𝑊 𝑆
𝑆
𝐴 79.956, 𝐵 1.8618 10 , 𝐶 0.0046
Using this, we get various W/S and T/W combinations as:
WTo/S [kg/m2] 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
TSL/WTO 0.369 0.340 0.321 0.308 0.299 0.294 0.291 0.290
constraint Line due to Rate of Climb @ Cruise

Rate of Climb
0.4
0.35
0.3
T/W
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
W/S [kg/m2]
03/04/2024
Limits on W/S and T/W from Constraint on

Balanced Field Length
Take-off Stalling Speed 71 𝑊 m/s EAS 𝑊

@ W=215971 kg, SL ISA
𝑆 𝑇 𝑆
𝑇𝑂𝑃 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Landing Stalling speed 𝜎𝐶
52.46, 𝑇 m/s EAS 𝑊 @𝜎𝐶W=165608𝑇𝑂𝑃
kg, SL ISA
𝑊 ,
constraint on Take-off BFL
 BFL= 9225 ft @ ISA
 Ne =2
 TOP =233 lb/ft2
 TOP =1138 kg/m2

233
 σ= 1
03/04/2024
W/S and T/W for Constraint on Take-off BFL

𝑊 𝑇 𝑊
𝑆 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆
𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝑊 𝜎𝐶 𝑇𝑂𝑃
𝜎𝐶 𝑇 ,
, 𝑊
𝐶 ,
1.91, 𝜎 1, 𝑇𝑂𝑃 1138 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
𝑇 𝑊 𝑇
, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑊 𝑆
𝑊 1 1.91 1138 𝑊
𝐴 4.84 10
𝑇 𝑊
∴ 4.6 10 𝑆
𝑊
W/S [kg/m2] 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
T/W 0.138 0.161 0.184 0.207 0.230 0.253 0.276 0.299
constraint Line due to BFL

BFL
0.4
0.35
0.3
T/W
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
W/S [kg/m2]
03/04/2024
By superimposing all constraint lines one by one

Plot the constraint diagram
SSCG MAG T.O.stalling speed land.stalling speed
Landing ground roll Rate of Climb BFL
0.400
0.350
0.300
T/W
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
W/S [kg/m2]
Design Point W/S=590 kg/m2 ; T/W=0.30

SSCG MAG T.O.stalling speed land.stalling speed
Landing ground roll Rate of Climb BFL Design point
Design Point
0.400
 W/S=590 kg/m2
0.350
 T/W=0.30
0.300
Wing area S=366 m2
Thrust T=635.602 KN
T/W
0.250
0.200
Boeing 787 Specification

0.150
Wing area 325m2 (3501sq ft).

0.100
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 Thrust 622.751 KN (140000 lb).
W/S [kg/m2]
16/04/2024
Lect. 16: Wing Design- part 1
Introduction
• During design, major aircraft component such as wing, fuselage, horizontal
tail, vertical tail, propulsion system, landing gear and control surfaces are
designed one-by-one.
• Each aircraft component is designed as an individual entity at this step, but in
later design steps, they were integrated as one system – aircraft- and their
interactions are considered.
• The wing may be considered as the most important component of
an aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft is not able to fly without it.
• why wing design First?
• the wing geometry and its features are influencing all other aircraft
components
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16/04/2024
Introduction
 The primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or simply
lift (L). However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or
drag (D) and nose-down pitching moment (M).
 While a wing designer is looking to maximize the lift, the other two (drag and
pitching moment) must be minimized.
wing design process

• During the wing design process, 18th parameters must be determined. They
are as follows:
1. Wing reference area (SW or Sref or S) 2. Number of the wings

3. Vertical position relative to the fuselage 4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage
5. Cross section (or airfoil) 6. Aspect ratio (AR)

7. Taper ratio (λ) 8. Tip chord (Ct)
9. Root chord (Cr) 10. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C)
11. Span (b) 12. Twist angle (or washout) (αt)
13. Sweep angle (ʌ) 14. Dihedral angle (Γ)
15. Incidence (iw) (or setting angle, αset) 16. High lifting devices such as flap
17. Aileron 18. Other wing accessories
2
16/04/2024
wing design process

1. Wing reference area (SW or Sref or S) has been calculated during the preliminary design step
4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage will be discussed later, when the fuselage and tail have been designed.
17. Aileron has a variety of design requirements, so it will not be discussed in this
section
Flowchart of wing design

It starts with the known variable (S) and ends with optimization.
Determine other wing parameters (AR, λ, iw , αt)
Wing Design requirements

(Performance, Stability, producibility, operational requirements, cost, flight safety) Calculate lift, drag, and pitching moment
Select Number of wings No

Requirements satisfied?
Select wing vertical location
Yes
Select/Design high lift device Optimization
Select/Determine sweep (Λ) & dihedral angle (Γ)

Calculate b, MAC, Ct, Cr
Select/ Design wing airfoil section
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16/04/2024
Number of Wings
Wing Vertical Location
4
16/04/2024
High Wing
Advantages
1. Eases and facilitates the loading and unloading of loads and cargo into and out
of cargo aircraft.
2. Eases installation of engine on the wing.
3. Facilitates the installation of strut to handle higher tensile stress
4. Facilitates the taking off and landing from sea.
5. High wing will increase the dihedral effect (C lβ). It makes the aircraft laterally
more stable.
6. The wing will produce more lift compared with mid and low wing.
7. the aircraft will have lower stall speed
8. The aerodynamic shape of the fuselage lower section can be smoother
9. There is more space inside fuselage for cargo, luggage or passenger.
High Wing
Disadvantages
1. The aircraft frontal area is more (compared with mid wing)
2. The ground effect is lower, compared with low wing.
3. If landing gear is connected to fuselage and there is not sufficient space for
retraction system, an extra space must be provided to house landing gear after
retraction. This will increase fuselage frontal area and thus will increase aircraft
drag.
4. The wing is producing more induced drag (Di), due to higher lift coefficient.
5. The horizontal tail area of an aircraft with a high wing is about 20% larger than the
horizontal tail area with a low wing. (more downwash of a high wing on the tail.)
6. A high wing is structurally about 20% heavier than low wing.
7. The aircraft lateral control is weaker compared with mid wing and low wing, since
the aircraft has more laterally dynamic stability.
8. The wing drag is producing a nose-up pitching moment, so it is longitudinally
destabilizing..
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Low Wing
Advantages
1. The aircraft take off performance is better; compared with a high wing configuration; due
to the ground effect.
2. The pilot has a better higher-than-horizon view
3. The retraction system inside the wing is an option along with inside the fuselage.
4. Landing gear is shorter if connected to the wing. This makes the landing gear lighter and
requires less space inside the wing for retraction system. This will further make the wing
structure lighter
5. In a light GA aircraft, the pilot can walk on the wing in order to get into the cockpit.
6. The aircraft is lighter compared with a high wing structure.
7. Aircraft frontal area is less.
8. The application of wing strut is usually no longer an option for the wing structure.
9. The wing has less induced drag.
10.It is more attractive to the eyes of a regular viewer.
11.The wing has less downwash on the tail, so the tail is more effectiveness.
12.The tail is lighter; compared with a high wing configuration
13.The wing drag is producing a nose-down pitching moment, so a low wing is
longitudinally more stable than high wing.
Low Wing
Disadvantages
1. The wing generates less lift; compared with a high wing configuration; since
the wing has two separate sections.
2. the aircraft will have higher stall speed; compared with a high wing
configuration (due to a lower CLmax.)
3. The take-off run is longer.
4. The aircraft has lower airworthiness due to a higher stall speed
5. The wing has less contribution to the aircraft dihedral effect, thus the aircraft is
laterally dynamically less stable.
6. The aircraft has a lower landing performance, since it needs more landing run.
7. The pilot has a lower-than-horizon view.
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Mid Wing
• In general, the features of a mid wing configuration stands somewhat between
the high wing and the low wing configuration.
• some new features of a mid wing configuration are as follows:
1. The aircraft structure is heavier, due to the necessity of reinforcing wing root
at the intersection with the fuselage.
2. The mid wing is more expensive compared with high and low wing
configurations.
3. The mid wing is more attractive compared with two other configurations.
4. The mid wing is aerodynamically streamliner compared with two other
configurations.
5. The strut is usually not used to reinforce the wing structure.
6. The pilot can get into the cockpit using the wing as a step in the small GA
aircraft.
The Selection Process

• The best approach to select the wing vertical location is to produce a table such as
below, consists of weight of each option for various design objectives.
• a sample table to compare four wing configurations in the wing design process for a
cargo aircraft.
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16/04/2024
Airfoil
There are two ways to determine the wing airfoil section:
The design of the airfoil is a complex and

time consuming process and needs
1. Airfoil design
expertise in fundamentals of
aerodynamics at graduate level.
Two reliable airfoil resources are NACA and

2. Airfoil Selection
Eppler.
Ref
1. Eppler, Richard, Airfoil Design and Data, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990
2. Abbott I. H. and Von Donehoff A. F., Theory of Wing Sections, Dover, 1959
Airfoil
• regular flight operation consists of take off, climb, cruise, turn, maneuver,
descent, approach and landing.
• Basically, the airfoil’s optimum function is in cruise, that an aircraft spend much of
its flight time in this flight phase.
• At a cruising flight
1
𝐿 𝑊 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶 𝑚𝑔 1
2
1
𝐷 𝑇 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶 𝑛𝑇 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 2
2
1 𝑛𝜂 𝑃
𝐷 𝑇 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 3
2 𝑉
The variable “n” ranges between 0.6 to 0.9

For the airfoil initial design, it is suggested to use 0.75
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General Features of an Airfoil
General Features of an Airfoil

Flow around an airfoil
Pressure distribution around an airfoil
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The pressure centre movement as a function of angle of attack
pressure centre to aerodynamic centre

It is convenient to move the location of the resultant force – that is moving along
- to the new location; aerodynamic center; that is almost stable.
Aerodynamic center a point about which the moments are independent of angle of
attack.
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Aerodynamic forces on Airfoil

the aerodynamic force can be resolved into two forces,
• perpendicular (lift) and
• parallel (drag) to the relative wind.
• The lift is always defined as the component of the aerodynamic
force perpendicular to the relative wind.
• The drag is always defined as the component of the aerodynamic
force parallel to the relative wind.
Aerodynamic Coefficient for Airfoil

In the process of wing airfoil selection, we examine the airfoil operational
outputs that are more informative to satisfy design requirements.
we evaluate the performance and characteristics of an

airfoil by looking at the following graphs.
1. The variations lift coefficient versus angle of attack

2. The variations pitching moment coefficient versus angle of attack
3. The variations of pitching moment coefficient versus lift coefficient
4. The variations of drag coefficient versus lift coefficient
5. The variations of lift-to-drag ratio versus angle of attack
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Characteristic Graphs of an Airfoil

1. The graph of lift coefficient (Cl) versus angle of attack (α)
Seven significant features of this graph are:
1. stall angle (αs),

2. maximum lift coefficient (Clmax)
3. zero lift angle of attack (αo)
4. ideal lift coefficient (Cli)
5. angle of attack corresponding to ideal lift
coefficient (α Cli)
6. lift coefficient at zero angle of attack (Clo)
7. lift curve slope (Clα).

1. Stall angle (αs): is the angle of attack at which
the airfoil stalls, the lift coefficient will no longer
increase with increasing angle of attack.
The maximum lift coefficient that corresponds to stall
angle is the maximum angle of attack.
2. The maximum lift coefficient (Clmax):
The stall speed (Vs) is inversely a function of
maximum lift coefficient, thus the higher Clmax leads
The typical stall angles for majority of
in the lower Vs.
airfoils are between 12 to 16 degrees.
Thus the higher Clmax results in a safer flight.
Therefore, the higher maximum lift coefficient is
desired in an airfoil selection process.
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3. The zero lift angle of attack (αo): is the airfoil

angle of attack at which the lift coefficient is zero.
A typical number for αo is around -2 degrees when no
high lift device is employed.
when a high lift device is employed; such as -40

degrees of flap down; the αo increases to about -12
degrees.
The design objective is to have a higher αo (more

negative), since it leaves the capacity to have more lift
at zero angle of attack.
4. The ideal lift coefficient (Cli): is the lift

coefficient at which the drag coefficient does not
vary significantly with the slight variations of
angle of attack.
The ideal lift coefficient is usually corresponding to
the minimum drag coefficient.
This is very critical in airfoil selection, since the

lower drag coefficient means the lower flight cost.
the design objective is to cruise at flight situation

such that the cruise lift coefficient is as close as
possible to the ideal lift coefficient. The typical value of ideal lift coefficient for GA aircraft is about
0.1 to 0.4, and for a supersonic aircraft is about 0.01 to 0.05
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5. The angle of attack corresponding to ideal lift
coefficient (αCli) The wing setting angle is often
selected to be the same as this angle, since it will
result in a minimum drag.
the minimum drag is corresponding to the minimum
engine thrust, which means the minimum flight cost.
The typical value of α Cli is around 2 to 5 degrees.
6. The lift coefficient at zero angle of attack (Clo):

is the lift coefficient when angle of attack is zero.
From design point of view, the more Clo is the better,
since it implies we can produce a positive lift even at
zero angle of attack. Thus, the more Clo is the better.

7. The lift curve slope (Clα) is the slope of variation
of lift coefficient with respect to the change in the
angle of attack, and its unit is 1/deg or 1/rad.
the higher the slope, the better the airfoil.
The typical value of lift curve slope of a 2d airfoil is around 2π (or 6.28)
per radian (about 0.1 per degrees).
It implies that for each 1 degree of change in the airfoil angle

of attack, the lift coefficient will be increased by 0.1. The lift
curve slope (1/rad) may be found by the following empirical
equation
𝑑𝐶 𝑡
𝐶 1.8𝜋 1 0.8
𝑑𝛼 𝑐
tmax/c is the maximum thickness to chord ratio of the airfoil.
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2. The variations pitching moment coefficient versus angle of attack

The negative slope is desirable, since it stabilizes the
flight, if the angle of attack is disturbed by a gust.
• The design objective is to have the Cm close to zero

as much as possible.
• The reason is that the aircraft must be in
equilibrium in cruising flight.
• the higher Cm (more negative) results in a larger

tail, which means the heavier aircraft.
• the airfoil which has the lower Cm is more
desirable.
• It is interesting to note that the pitching moment
coefficient for a symmetrical airfoil section is zero.
3. The variations of drag coefficient as a function of lift coefficient

The typical variations of drag coefficient as a function
of lift coefficient for a positive cambered airfoil.
The lowest point of this graph is called minimum drag

coefficient (Cdmin).
The corresponding lift coefficient to the minimum
drag coefficient is called Clmin
• A line drawn through the origin and tangent to the graph
locates a point that denotes to the minimum slope.
• This point is also of great importance, since it indicates the
flight situation that maximum Cl/Cd ratio is generated
• A typical value for min Cd is about 0.003 to 0.006. where K is called section drag factor.
Therefore the airfoil which has the lower Cdmin is The parameter K can be determined by selecting
more desirable. a point on the graph (Cl1and Cd1 ) and plugging
in the equation
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3. The variations of drag coefficient as a function of lift coefficient

the typical variations of drag coefficient as a function of lift coefficient
for a laminar airfoil; such as in 6-series NACA airfoils.
This graph has a unique feature which is the bucket, due to the bucket
shape of the lower portion of the graph.
The unique aspect of the bucket is that the Cdmin will not vary for a
limited range of Cl.
this is very significant, since it implies that the pilot can stay at the
lowest drag point while changing the angle of attack.
This situation matches with the cruising flight, since the aircraft weight
is reduces as the fuel is burned. Hence, the pilot can bring aircraft nose
down (decrease the angle of attack) with being worried about an
increase in the aircraft drag.
Therefore it is possible to keep the engine throttle low during cruising
flight.
For cruising flight, flying at the point where
The middle point of the bucket is called ideal lift coefficient (Cli), while the lift coefficient is equivalent with Cli is the
highest Cl in the bucket region is referred to as design lift coefficient (Cld). goal,
These two points are among the list of significant criteria to select/design an for loiter, the objective is to fly at the point
airfoil. Remember that the design lift coefficient occurs at the point whose where lift coefficient is equivalent with Cld .
Cd/Cl is minimum or Cl/Cd is maximum.
4. The variations of lift-to-drag ratio (Cl/Cd) as a function of angle of attack
The last interesting graph that is utilized in the process of

airfoil selection is the variations of lift-to-drag ratio (Cl/Cd)
as a function of angle of attack.
As it is noted, this graph has one maximum point where the

value of the lift-to-drag ratio is the highest at this point.
The angle of attack corresponding to this point is an

optimum candidate for a loitering flight (αl)
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Airfoil Selection Criteria

• subsonic flight design requirements are very much different from a
supersonic flight design objectives.
• The designer must consider requirements such as airworthiness, structural,
manufacturability, and cost requirements.
• the criteria to select an airfoil for a wing with a collection of design
requirements:
1. The airfoil with the highest maximum lift coefficient (Clmax).
2. The airfoil with the proper ideal or design lift coefficient (Cld or
Cli).
3. The airfoil with the lowest minimum drag coefficient (Cdmin).
4. The airfoil with the highest lift-to-drag ratio ((Cl/Cd)max).
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5. The airfoil with the highest lift curve slope (Clαmax).
6. The airfoil with the lowest pitching moment coefficient (Cm).
7. The proper stall quality in the stall region (the variation must be
gentile, not sharp).
8. The airfoil must be structurally reinforceable. The airfoil should not
that much thin that spars cannot be placed inside.
9. The airfoil must be such that the cross section is manufacturable.
10. The cost requirements must be considered.
11. Other design requirements must be considered. For instance, if the
fuel tank has been designated to be places inside the wing inboard
section, the airfoil must allow the sufficient space for this purpose.
12. If more than one airfoil is considered for a wing, the integration of
two airfoils in one wing must be observed.

• Usually, there is no unique airfoil that that has the optimum values
for all above-mentioned requirements.
• you may find an airfoil that has the highest Clmax, but not the
highest (Cl/Cd)max.
• The weighting process must be used to compromise, because not
all design requirements have the same importance.
• As a guidance, the typical values for the airfoil maximum
thickness-to-chord ratio of majority of aircraft are about 6% to
18%.
Requirement (t/c)max
low speed aircraft with a high lift (cargo aircraft) 15% - 18%.
high speed aircraft with a low lift (high subsonic passenger aircraft) 9% - 12%.
supersonic aircraft 6% - 9%.
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NACA Airfoils
• The main focus of this section is how to select a wing airfoil from
the available list of NACA airfoils
• Three following groups of NACA airfoils are more interesting:
• 4-digit NACA airfoils
• 5-digit NACA airfoils
• 6 series NACA airfoils
4-digit NACA airfoils

• the oldest and simplest NACA airfoils to generate.
• The camber of a four-digit airfoil has made up of two parabolas.
• One parabola generates the camber geometry from the leading edge to the maximum
camber,
• another parabola produces the camber shape from the maximum camber to the trailing
edge.
• The first digit indicates the maximum camber in percent chord.
• The second digit indicates the position of maximum camber in tenths of chord
length.
• The last two digits represent the maximum thickness-to-chord ratio.
NACA 1 4 0 8
maximum camber =0.01*C (t/c)max = 0.08
maximum camber is located at =0.4*C from the leading edge
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• The camber of a five-digit airfoil section has made up of one
parabola and one straight line.
• The parabola generates the camber geometry from the leading edge to the maximum camber, and
• then a straight line connects the end point the parabola to the trailing edge.
• the first digit represents the 2/3 of ideal lift coefficient in tenths
• The second digit indicates the position of maximum camber in two hundredths of
chord length.
NACA 2 30 12
Cli=(2*(1.5))/10 (t/c)max = 12/100
maximum camber is located at =(0.3*0.5)*c/100 from the leading edge

• The first digit is always 6; that is the series designation.
• The second digit represents the chordwise position of minimum pressure in
tenths of chord for the basic symmetrical section at zero lift.
• The third digit indicates the ideal lift coefficient in tenths.
• A zero in the third digit means that this airfoil is a symmetrical airfoil section.
(t/c)max = 18/100
NACA 6 3 3 – 2 18
Series
minimum pressure in this airfoil is located

at =3*0.1C
the lift coefficient range =3/10
The ideal lift coefficient =2/10
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Characteristics of several NACA airfoil sections
The wing airfoil section of several prop-driven aircraft
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The wing airfoil section of several Jet aircraft
Example
• Identify Cli, Cdmin, Cm, (Cl/Cd)max, αo (deg), αs (deg), Clmax, ao (1/rad), (t/c)max
of the NACA 63-209 airfoil section (flap-up). You need to indicate the
locations of all parameters on the airfoil graphs.
• Solution:
• By referring to figure 5.22, the required values for all

parameters are as determined follows:
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NACA 63-209 airfoil section (flap-up).
Practical Steps for Wing Airfoil Section Selection

• It is assumed that an airfoil section data base (such as NACA or Eppler) is
available and the wing designer is planning to select the best airfoil from
the list. The steps are as follows:
1. Determine the average aircraft weight (Wavg) in cruising flight:
1 Wi = the initial aircraft weight at the beginning of cruise

W avg  W i W f  Wf = the final aircraft weight at the end of cruise.
2
2. Calculate the aircraft ideal cruise lift coefficient (CLC). In a cruising flight, the aircraft weight is equal to
2W avg Vc is the aircraft cruise speed,

C LC  ρ is the air density at cruising altitude,
V C2S S is the wing planform area.
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C LC
3. Calculate the wing cruise lift coefficient (CLCw) C LC 
w
0.95
C LC
4. Calculate the wing airfoil ideal lift coefficient (Cli). C li  w
0.9
Vs is the aircraft stall speed,
2W To
5. Calculate the aircraft maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) C L  ρo is the air density at sea level,
max
oV s2S WTO is the aircraft maximum take-off
C Lmax weight.
6. Calculate the wing maximum lift coefficient (Clmax,w). C LC max 
With the same logic that was described in step 3,. w
0.95
CL
7. Calculate the wing airfoil gross maximum lift coefficient C l max  maxw
(Cl max gross)
gross
0.9
8. Select/Design the high lift device (type, geometry, and maximum deflection). This step will be
discussed in details later.

9. Determine the high lift device (HLD) contribution to the wing maximum lift coefficient (∆Cl HLD).
This step will also be discussed in details later.
10. Calculate the wing airfoil “net” maximum lift coefficient (Clmax) C l max  C l max  C l HLD
gross
11. Identify airfoil section alternatives that deliver the desired Cli (step 4) and Clmax (step 10). This is a
very essential step. Figure 5.23 shows a collection of Cli and Clmax for several
12. If the wing is designed for a high subsonic passenger aircraft, select the thinnest airfoil (the lowest (t/c)max).
The reason is to reduce the critical Mach number (Mcr) and drag-divergent Mach number (Mdd). This allow
the aircraft fly closer to Mach one before the drag rise is encountered. In general, a thinner airfoil will have
a higher Mcr than a thicker
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Variation of wing drag coefficient versus Mach number with

airfoil thickness ratio as a parameter .The wing is swept where
the sweep angle is 47 degrees.

13. Among several acceptable alternatives, select the optimum airfoil section by using a
comparison table. A typical comparison table which includes a typical weight for each
design requirement is shown in table below is a rich resource for the systematic
procedure of the selection technique and table construction.
A sample table to compare the features of five airfoil sections
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Wing Incidence -Aspect Ratio-Taper Ratio

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Wing Incidence
• The wing incidence (iw) or wing setting angle (αset): is the angle between
fuselage center line and the wing chord line at root.
• This angle could be selected to be variable during a flight operation, or be

constant throughout all flight operations.
• If it is selected to vary during flight, there is no need to determine wing
setting angle for the purpose of the aircraft manufacture.
• fixed setting angle is much safer compared with variable setting angle.
Wing Incidence
• The wing incidence must satisfy the following design requirements:
1. The wing must be able to generate the desired lift coefficient during
cruising flight.
2. The wing must produce minimum drag during cruising flight.
3. The wing setting angle must be such that the wing angle of attack could
be safely varied (in fact increased) during take-off operation.
4. The wing setting angle must be such that the fuselage generates
minimum drag during cruising flight (i.e. the fuselage angle of attack must be
zero in cruise).
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Wing Incidence
• These design requirements naturally match with the wing airfoil angle of attack
corresponding to the airfoil ideal lift coefficient
• The typical number for wing incidence for majority of aircraft is between 0o to 4o
As a general guidance, the wing setting angle in

• supersonic fighters, is between 0o to 1o
• GA aircraft, between 2o to 4o and
• jet transport aircraft is between 3o to 5o
Aspect Ratio (AR)

• Aspect ratio (AR) is defined as the ratio between the wing span; b to the wing
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C).
• The wing planform area with a rectangular or straight tapered shape is defined
as the span times the mean aerodynamic chord:
• Thus, the aspect ratio shall be redefined as:
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Aspect Ratio (AR)

• Several rectangular wings with the same planform area but different
aspect ratio
Aspect Ratio (AR)

1. the effects of aspect ratio on various flight features such as aircraft
performance, stability, control, cost, and manufacturability.
• as the AR is increased, the aerodynamic features of a three-dimensional wing

(such as CLα, αo, αs, CLmax, CDmin) are getting closer to its 2D airfoil section
(such as Clα, αo, αs, Clmax, Cdmin).
• This is due to reduction of the influence of wing tip vortex.
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Aspect Ratio (AR)

2. as the AR is increased, the wing lift curve slope (CLα) is increased
toward the maximum theoretical limit of 2π 1/rad
𝐶
𝐶
𝐶
1
𝜋𝐴𝑅
For this reason, a high AR (longer) wing is desired.
Aspect Ratio (AR)

3. As the AR is increased, the wing stall angle (αs) is
decreased toward the airfoil stall angle. Since the wing
effective angle of attack is increased
For this reason, the horizontal tail is required to have an
aspect ratio lower than wing aspect ratio to allow for a higher
tail stall angle.
This will result in the tail to stall after wing has stalled, and
allow for a safe recovery.
For the same reason, a canard is desired to have an aspect
ratio to be more than the wing aspect ratio. For this reason, a
high AR (longer) wing is desired.
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Aspect Ratio (AR)

4. as the AR is increased, the wing maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) is increased
toward the airfoil maximum lift coefficient (Clmax). This is due to the fact that
the wing effective angle of attack is increased . For this reason, a high AR
(longer) wing is desired.
Aspect Ratio (AR)

5. As the AR is increased, the wing will be heavier.
The reason is the requirement for structural stiffness.
As the wing gets longer, the wing weight (Ww) moment arm (T) gets larger
(since T=(Ww*b/4), and wing root will have a higher stress.
Thus, the wing root must be stronger to hold the long wing.
This requires a heavier wing.
The more weight of the wing translates to more cost. For this reason, a low
AR (shorter) wing is desired.
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Aspect Ratio (AR)

6. As the AR is increased, the aircraft maximum lift-to-drag ratio is increased.
Since
𝐿 1 1
𝐷 𝐾
4𝐾𝐶 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
For this reason, a high AR (longer) wing is desired.

This is one of the reasons that the gliders have large aspect ratio and long wing.
Aspect Ratio (AR)

7. As the AR is increased, the wing induced drag is decreased, since the
induced drag (CDi) is inversely proportional to aspect ratio. For this reason, a
long AR wing is desired.
8. As the AR is increased, the effect of wing tip vortex on the horizontal tail is
decreased.
9. As the AR increases, the aileron arm will be increased, since the aileron are
installed outboard of the wing. This means that the aircraft has more lateral
control.
10. As the AR increases, the aircraft mass moment of inertia around x-axis will be
increased. This means that it takes longer to roll (reduces the maneuverability
of aircraft in roll).
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Aspect Ratio (AR)

11. If the fuel tank is supposed to be inside wing, it is desirable to have a low
aspect ratio wing. This helps to have a more concentrated fuel system. For
this reason, a low AR (shorter) wing is desired.
12. As the aspect ratio is increased, the wing stiffness around y-axis is decreased.
13. A shorter wing needs lower cost to build compared with a long wing. For the
cost reason, a low AR (a shorter wing) is desired.
14. As the AR is increased, the occurrence of the aileron reversal (Ref. 10) is
more expected, since the wing will be more flexible. For this reason, a low AR
(shorter) wing is desired.
Aspect Ratio (AR)
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Taper Ratio (λ)

• Taper ratio (λ) is defined as the ratio between the tip chord (Ct) to the
root chord (Cr).
• This definition is applied to the wing, as well as the horizontal tail, and
the vertical tail.
Taper Ratio (λ)

• rectangular wing planform is aerodynamically inefficient, while it has a few
advantages, such as performance, cost and ease of manufacture.
• A wing with a rectangular planform has a larger downwash angle at the tip
than at the root.
• Therefore, the effective angle of attack at the tip is reduced compared with that at the
root. the wing tip will tend to stall later than the root.
• The spanwise lift distribution is far from elliptical; where it is highly desirable
to minimize the induced drag. Hence, one of the reasons to taper the
planform is to reduce the induced drag.
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Taper Ratio (λ)
Taper Ratio (λ)

• The effect of wing taper can be summarized as follows:
1. The wing taper will change the wing lift distribution.
One of the wing design objective is to generate the lift such that the
spanwise lift distribution be elliptical.
Based on this item, the exact value for taper ratio will be determined by
lift distribution requirement.
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Taper Ratio (λ)

2. The wing taper will increase the cost of the wing manufacture, since
the wing ribs will have different shapes.
3. The taper will reduce the wing weight, since the center of gravity of
each wing section (left and right) will move toward fuselage center
line. This results in a lower bending moment at the wing root.
4. Due to item 3, the wing mass moment of inertia about x-axis, Ixx
(longitudinal axis) will be decreased. Consequently, this will improve
the aircraft lateral control. In this regard, the best taper is to have a
delta wing (λ = 0).
5. The taper will influence the aircraft static lateral stability (Clβ), since
the taper usually generates a sweep angle (either on the leading
edge or on quarter chord line).
Taper Ratio (λ)

• In the normal flight range, the resultant aerodynamic forces acting on any
lifting surface (e.g. lift, tail) can be represented as a lift and drag acting at the
Aerodynamic Center (ac), together with a pitching moment which is
independent of angle of attack.
• Methods for determining planform aerodynamic center locations may be found
in most aerodynamic textbooks. Until compressibility effects begin to play a
role, it is experienced that the planform aerodynamic center ranges from %25
to about %30 of Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC or C).
• In the transonic and supersonic speed range, the ac close to the %50 percent
chord point on the MAC.
• For a general planform, the location of length of the MAC can be determined
using the following integral:
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Taper Ratio (λ)

• For a constant taper and sweep angle (trapezoidal) planform, Mean
Aerodynamic Chord is determined as follows:
The Significance of Lift and Load Distributions
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Wing sweep, Twist Angle, Dihedral Angle and High-
Lift Device (HLD)

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Sweep Angle (Λ)

• Leading edge sweep (ΛLE) :The angle between the wing leading
edge and the y-axis of the aircraft.
• Trailing edge sweep (ΛTE) :The angle between the wing trailing
edge and the y-axis of the aircraft.
• Quarter chord sweep (Λc/4) :The angle between the wing quarter
chord and the y-axis of the aircraft.
• a wing is being swept for the following five design goals:
1. Improving the wing aerodynamic features (lift, drag, and pitching
moment) at transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic speeds by
delaying the compressibility effects.
2. Adjusting the aircraft center of gravity.
3. Improving static lateral stability.
4. Impacting longitudinal and directional stability.
5. Increasing pilot view (especially for fighter pilots).
Sweep Angle (Λ)

• How to know the wing is straight or swept wing?
When the LE of the smaller

chord is forward of the LE line,
the wing is Forward swept
When the smaller chord is

inside the LE and TE lines the LE
line, the wing is straight
When the TE of the smaller

chord is aft of the TE line, the
wing is aft swept (swept back)
Note: If any portion of the LE or TE crosses the LE or TE lines, it is considered either forward or aft swept.
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Sweep Angle (Λ)
Example
An aircraft has a wing area of S =20 m2, aspect ratio AR=8, and taper ratio λ=0.6. It is
required that the 50% chord line sweep angle be zero. Determine the tip chord, root chord,
MAC, and span, as well as the leading edge sweep, trailing edge sweep, and quarter chord
sweep angles.
Solution: Since the 50% chord line sweep angle is zero (ΛC/2 = 0),
the leading edge, trailing edge, and quarter chord sweep
To determine the unknown variables, we first angles are determined using the triangle law in triangle
employ the following equations: ABC
𝑏
AR ⇒𝑏 𝑆. 𝐴𝑅 20 ∗ 8 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝒎
𝑆
𝑏 𝑏 12.65
∵ AR ⇒∴ 𝐶 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝒎
𝐶̅ 𝐴𝑅 8
. .
∵ 𝐶̅ 𝐶 ⇒ 1.58 𝐶
.
⇒∴𝐶 𝟏. 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝒎
∵𝜆 ⇒ 0.6
.
⇒∴ 𝐶 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝒎
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Solution:
𝐶 𝐶 1.936 1.161
𝐴𝐵 2 2 2 2 ⇒Λ
tan Λ ⇒Λ tan tan 3.5 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝐵𝐶 𝑏 12.65
2 2
Λ 3.5 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
The quarter chord sweep angle is

determined using the tangent law in a
similar triangle as follows:
𝐶 𝐶
Λ tan 4 4
⁄
𝑏
2
1.936 1.161
tan 4 4 ⇒Λ
⁄
12.65
2
1.753 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
Example
An aircraft has a wing area of S =20 m2, aspect ratio AR=8, and taper ratio λ=0.6. It is
required that the 50% chord line sweep angle be 30 deg. Determine the tip chord, root
chord, MAC, and span, as well as the leading edge sweep, trailing edge sweep, and quarter
chord sweep angles.
Solution: Since the 50% chord line sweep angle is zero (ΛC/2 = 0),
the leading edge, trailing edge, and quarter chord sweep
To determine the unknown variables, we first angles are determined using the triangle law in triangle
employ the following equations: ABC
𝑏
AR ⇒𝑏 𝑆. 𝐴𝑅 20 ∗ 8 𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟓𝒎
𝑆
𝑏 𝑏 12.65
∵ AR ⇒∴ 𝐶 𝟏. 𝟓𝟖𝒎
𝐶̅ 𝐴𝑅 8
. .
∵ 𝐶̅ 𝐶 ⇒ 1.58 𝐶
.
⇒∴𝐶 𝟏. 𝟗𝟑𝟔𝒎
∵𝜆 ⇒ 0.6
.
⇒∴ 𝐶 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝒎
4
29/04/2024
Solution:
Solution:
5
29/04/2024
Twist Angle
• If the wing tip is at a lower incidence than the wing root, the wing is said to have negative
twist or simply twist (αt) or washout.
• if the wing tip is at a higher incidence than the wing root, the wing is said to have positive
twist or washin.
• There are two major goals for employing the twist in a wing design process:
1. Avoiding tip stall before root stall.
2. Modification of the lift distribution to an elliptical one.
• Unwanted output in twist:
• Reduction in lift.
• any section has a zero-lift
angle of attack (αo), the
criterion is formulated as
follows:
𝛼 𝑖 𝛼
A typical value for the geometric twist is between −1 and −4 deg
Twist Angle
6
29/04/2024
Dihedral Angle
the angle between the chord line plane of a wing with the xy plane is referred to as the wing dihedral (Γ).
• wing dihedral angle provides the necessary restoring rolling moment.

• The lateral static stability is primarily represented by a stability derivative called the aircraft dihedral effect
(Clβ = dCl /dβ ) that is the change in aircraft rolling moment coefficient due to a change in aircraft sideslip
angle (β).
Dihedral Angle
The effective wing planform area as a function of dihedral angle is determined as follows:
𝑆 𝑆 cos Γ
7
29/04/2024
High-Lift Device (HLD)

The Functions of a High-Lift Device
One of the design goals in wing design is to maximize the capability
of the wing in the generation of the lift.
1
𝐿 𝑊 ⇒ 𝜌𝑉 𝐶 𝑆 𝑚𝑔
2
High-Lift Device Classification
• Two main groups of HLDs are:
1. leading edge high-lift device (LEHLD) and
2. trailing edge high-lift device (TEHLD or flap).
High-Lift Device (HLD)

• At the airfoil level, a HLD deflection tends to cause the following six changes in the
airfoil features:
1. Lift coefficient (Cl) is increased.
2. Maximum lift coefficient (Clmax ) is increased.
3. Zero-lift angle of attack (αo) is changed.
4. Stall angle (αs) is changed.
5. Pitching moment coefficient is changed.
6. Drag coefficient is increased.
7. Lift curve slope is increased.
8
29/04/2024
Design Technique
• In designing the HLD for a wing, the following items must be determined:
1. HLD location along the span.
2. The type of HLD.
3. HLD chord (Cf).
4. HLD span (bf).
5. HLD maximum deflection (down) (δfmax ).
must be selected through an evaluation and analysis technique

considering all advantages and disadvantages of each option
regarding design requirements.
Design Technique
• HLD span (bf).
• The HLD span is usually introduced as the ratio to the wing span (i.e., bf/b).
• In some references, bf/b refers to the ratio between flap span and net wing span (i.e.,
from root to tip, not from center line to tip).
• As an initial value, it is recommended to allocate 70% of the wing span to the HLD.
• HLD chord (Cf).
• It is important to note that the deflection of a HLD will increase the wing drag.
• As an initial value, it is recommended to allocate 20% of the wing chord to the HLD.
• HLD maximum deflection (down) (δfmax ).
• As an initial value, it is recommended to consider a deflection of 20 deg during take-
off and 50 deg for landing.
9
29/04/2024
Design Technique
Characteristics of high-lift devices for several
aircraft
10

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MECH

H 416–– Aircraftt Design

Lect. 09: Aircraft Design Process Overview

Dr. Yasser Abdullah Mahjoub Nogoud

Aircraft Design Process

• Many different industries follow a similar engineering design map

Typical approach to any product development

Differentt versionss off aircrafts?

MECH 416– Aircraft Design

Lect. 13: Preliminary design procedure

Dr. Yasser Abdullah Mahjoub Nogoud

Preliminary design phase

Preliminary design phase

Preliminary design phase

2. Crew weight (WC).

3. Fuel weight (Wf).

4. Empty weight (WE).

• W pass = 180 lb (≈ 80Kg)

• These flight segments can be divided into two

1. The segments during which the fuel weight that is burnt

2. The segments during which the fuel weight that is burnt

Cruise Weight Fraction

• Wi = the aircraft weight at the beginning of cruise

Cruise Weight Fraction

Cruise Weight Fraction

Therefore, the cruise fuel weight ratio is determined as:

Cruise Weight Fraction

Loiter Weight Fraction

• Loiter Weight Fraction for Jet Aircraft

• the fuel weight ratio for a loitering flight is determined as:

Loiter Weight Fraction

• the fuel weight ratio for a loitering flight is determined as:

• WE/WTO At this moment (preliminary design phase),

where a and b are found in Table 4.8. Note that Equation is

Practical Steps of the Technique

Practical Steps of the Technique

Step 8. Find the overall fuel weight ratio

4.4 Design Examples

Example 4.3: Maximum Take-Off Weight

to be 119.3. In Subpart I of Part 125, there are pilot-in-command and second-in-

700 = 100 + (12 · 50) ⇒ 2 + (12 · 1) = 14

200 + 200 + (14 · 140) ⇒ WC = 2360 lb

(700 · 180) + (700 · 100) ⇒ WPL = 196 000 lb

V = M · a = 0.8 · 296.6 = 237.3 m/s = 778.5 m/s (4.65)

a = −7.754 · 10−8 , b = 0.576 (Table 4.8)

WTO = 1 075 664 lb = 4 784 792 N

So, the maximum take-off mass is:

mTO = 487 913 kg

An alternative way to find WTO is the trial-and-error technique, as shown in

Table 4.16 Trial-and-error technique to determine maximum take-off weight of

Iteration Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Error (%)

Guess Substitute W TO of Substitute W E /W TO of

1 1,500,000 0.456 912,797 lb −64

2 912,797 0.505 1,154,744 lb 20.9

3 1,154,744 0.486 1,041,047 lb −10.9

4 1,041,047 0.495 1,091,552 lb 4.6

5 1,091,552 0.491 1,068,525 lb −2.1

6 1,068,525 0.493 1,078,902 lb 0.96

7 1,078,902 0.4923 1,074,201 lb −0.4

Screenshot 2024-05-15 at 9.27.03 AM

Screenshot 2024-05-15 at 9.27.03 AM

Screenshot 2024-05-15 at 9.27.03 AM