MECHANICS

MECHANICS I

Introduction

Mechanics is concerned with the effect of forces in material objects. It is sometimes called
classical mechanics or Newtonian mechanics. A major development in the theory of motion was
provided by Isaac Newton in 1687.

Physical quantities and units

A physical quantity is a measurable property with a definite meaning. Its meaning is stated by
either a word definition or a defining equation.

The international system of units (SI Units)

This brings about the notion of base and derived quantities. A base quantity has a standard SI
unit whereas a derived quantity is gotten from the combination of two or more base quantities.

Base quantity Base units

Name Dimension Name Unit
Mass M Kilogram Kg
Time T Second s
Length L Meter m
Electric current I Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance N mole mol
Luminous intensity J Candela Cd

Derived quantity Derived units

Name Dimension Name Unit
Volume V Meters cube m3
Energy E Joule Kgm2s2(J)
power P Watt Kgm2s-3(W)

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Homogeneity of physical equations

A physical equation is homogeneous if the base units on the left hand side is equal to the base
units on thee right hand side. This can also be taken in terms of dimensions. Dimensionless or
unitless constants are ignored
d when checking for homogeneity of an equation

Given a physical equation;

A = B+C, the units of A = units of B = units of C.

A,B and C are physical quantities.

Vector and scalar quantities

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. For instance: velocity, displacement, force
force,
acceleration, gravitational field strength etc…

Hint (vector dot product and vector cross product).

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A scalar quantity has only magnitude and no direction. For instance: speed, distance, volume
etc…

DYNAMICS

Dynamics is the science of motion. It deals with velocity, acceleration, force and energy of large
objects such as cars, and airplanes and tiny objects such as the electrons in your television set
which provide the pictures.

I. Linear motion
1. Definition of some terms
a. Displacement:

it is a vector quantity and defined as the distance moved in a constant direction e.g. from a
position S1 to a position S2,

∆S = S2-S1
b. Velocity:

it is also a vector quantity. It is the rate of change of displacement.

V= where is change in displacement and dt is the time interval

Average velocity is a ratio of the displacement that occurs during a particular time interval.
∆
Vave = =
∆

This can also be gotten by calculating the slope of the straight line graph between S1 and S2 on a
displacement – time graph.

As the time interval ∆ shrinks almost close to zero, the average velocity approaches a limiting
value called the instantaneous velocity
∆
Vi = lim∆ → ( ) = lim∆ → ∆

c. Distance (x):

It is a scalar quantity that differs from displacement in that it regards just the magnitude and no
direction.

d. Speed (v):

Just like distance, is a scalar given by;

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V= ∆

The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity.

e. Acceleration (a)

It is the rate of change of velocity. Average acceleration is given by;

∆
a= ∆
=

The slope of a velocity – time graph at a particular time called the instantaneous acceleration, is
given by;
∆
a = lim∆ → = lim∆ → ∆

Acceleration is a vector quantity and has units, m/s2.

II. EQUATIONS OF MOTION (Kinematical equations)

The notations used are as follows:

U = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, s = displacement, t = time and g =

acceleration due to gravity.

Linear motion u v a/g s t Motion under gravity

1) v = u + at √ √ √ x √ v = u + gt
2) s = ut + at2 √ x √ √ √ s = ut + gt2
3) v2 = u2 + 2as √ √ √ √ x v2 = u2 + 2gs
4) S = (u + v)t √ √ X √ √ S = (u + v)t

DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS

Displacement-time graphs show and object’s position relative to its starting point over a period
of time. They’re useful because they can be used to describe an object’s motion as well as find
its velocity at a give point

Acceleration on displacement-time graphs

The gradient of a displacement-time graph shows velocity. Acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity, so on a distance-time graph, acceleration is the rate of change of the gradient.

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A graph of displacement against time for an accelerating object always produces a curve. If the
object’s accelerating at a uniform rate, then the rate of change of the gradient will be constant.

Finding the velocity

When velocity is constant, the displacement-time graph is a diagonal straight line. This is
because velocity is defined as;

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS

Velocity-time graphs show, as the name suggests, an object’s velocity over time. As with
displacement-time graphs, their shape can be used to find out about an object’s movement at
different points in time.

Finding the acceleration

The gradient of a velocity-time graph tells you the acceleration, since:

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Finding displacement

A speed-time graph is very similar to a velocity-time graph. The big difference is that velocity-
time graphs can have negative regions to show something travelling in the opposite direction.

The area under a velocity-time graph represents the displacement of an object, since
displacement, S, of an object with uniform acceleration can be found using

Acceleration-time graphs

Acceleration-time graphs show an object’s acceleration over time. Just like V-t and s-t graphs,
their shape can be used to find out about an object’s movement at different points in time.

Reading acceleration-time graphs

The height of an acceleration-time graph at any point gives the object’s acceleration at that time.
Positive acceleration means the object is speeding up, whereas negative acceleration means the
object is slowing down (deceleration). If a = 0, then the object is moving with constant velocity.
A straight horizontal line (where a ≠ 0) shows uniform acceleration (or uniform deceleration)

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Finding velocity from an a-t graph

If you want to find the overall change in velocity on a graph with both acceleration and
deceleration, you have to treat he area under the time axis as negative.

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III. MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Projectile motion

Any object given an initial velocity and then left to move freely under gravity is a projectile. In
projetile motion, the horizontal and vertical components of the object’s motion are completely
independent. Projectiles follow a curved path because the horizontal velocity remains constant,
while the vertical velocity is affected by the acceleration due to gravity, g.

Projectile Motion at an angle

If something’s projected at an angle (like, say, a javelin) you start off with both horizontal and
vertical velocity. This can make solving problems trickier. To solve this kind of problem, you
need to use this method.

Resolve the initial velocity into horizontal and vertical components.

Use the vertical component to work out how long it’s in the air and/or how high it goes.

Use the horizontal component to work out how far it goes in the horizontal direction while it’s in
the air.

usin u
H – Height

R – Range
H
Y – vertical displacement

X – horizontal displacement

a – initial velocity
x

ucos R
g, acts only vertically, so
From the equation of motiona, (ii) there is no acceleration in
the horizontal direction.
y = utsin - gt2 (against gravity)……(1)

x = utcos (g = 0)………………………(2)

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By making t the subject in equation (2) and substituting in (1) gives the Equation of trajectory as
below

y = xtan -

Time of flight (T)

This is when y = 0 => y = utsin - gt2 = 0

 T=

Range (R)

The range R = x = utcos , where t = T – time of flight

R =( ucos )( )

R=

Maximum height (H)

At maximum height, the vertical velocity = 0. The time to reach H is considered to be half the
time of flight;

 tH = is the time to reach maximum height.

Using the 3rd equation of motion where v = 0,

 0 = (usin )2 - 2gH, H – maximum height

 H=

N/B

Relative Velocity

If VA is the velocity of A and VB that of B, then the relative velocity of A with respect to B will
be ;

VAB = VA -VB

IV. CENTER OF MASS

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Centre of mass is defined as
∑
rcm = = ∑
∑

The centre of mass moves as if the mass of various particles is concentrated at the location of the
centre of mass.

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MECHANICS II

V. LAWS OF MOTION, FORCE AND MOMENTUM

Newton’s laws of motion

Law 1:

Everybody continues to be in a state of rest or to move with uniform velocity unless a resultant
force acts on it. (INERTIA)

LAW2:

The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the applied force and the momentum change
takes place in the direction of the force.
⃗ ⃗
⃗= , but acceleration ⃗ =

 ⃗ = m⃗

LAW 3

To every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction.

VI. FORCE

F = ma, where m – mass of body, a – acceleration of body

SI unit of force is Newton (N)

1N is the force which gives a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 ms-2

Weight (W)

It is defined as the force acting on an object due to the gravitational pull on it.

W = mg, g is the gravitational field strength given by 9.81 N/kg

Motion in resisting medium

Consider an object moving upwards, its equation of motion is given by:

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ma
ma = - (F + mg)

 a = - ( + g). where F – friction/ air resistance, mg –

weight. Both F and mg are directed downwards.
m
When it is moving downwards:

ma = mg – F,

F mg  a = (g - ). F and mg are acting in opposite directions

VII. LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

Momentum is given by the product of mass and velocity. It is a vector quantity. Suppose an
object of mass m, changes in velocity from u to v when a force F, acts on it; then change of
momentum is given by

mv – mu, and from Newton’s second law;

F= , => F = , = a, => F = ma

 Ft = mv – mu = momentum change

Fxt is known as the impulse of the force F on the object.

Conservation of linear momentum

The principle of the conservation of linear momentum states that if no external forces act on a
system of colliding objects, the total momentum of the objects in a given direction before
collision is equal to the total momentum in same direction after collision.

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 +m2v2,

Where m1u1 and m2u2 are initial momentums of object one and two respectively; m1v1 and m2v2
are final momentums of objects one and two respectively.

Inelastic and elastic collisions

Inelastic collision = collision where total kinetic energy is not conserved (total momentum
always conserve in any type of collision)

Elastic collision = collision when momentum and total kinetic energy are both conserved.

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Final kinetic energy = initial kinetic energy

m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2

NOTE

When a ball A collides with another ball B and the two move away at an angle to the initial
direction, their velocities are resolved into vertical and horizontal components. The momentum is
yet conserved in the direction of the initial velocity.

vAsin vA If B is a stationary ball and A is

moving with velocity v,

vAsin = vBsin
vAcos + vBcos
MA MB
from the LCLM
A v B
mAv = mAvAcos + mBvBcos

vBsin vB

Momentum and explosive forces

From the principle of conservation of linear momentum, when a bullet is fired, the total
momentum of bullet and riffle is still zero.

mv (bullet) + MV (riffle) = 0

mv = -MV, OR V = - v

In this case, the lighter mass is given the highest kinetic energy because kinetic energy depends
on square of velocity.

 Kinetic energy of the two masses is related as such:

 = = , E1 – k.e. of bullet, E2 – k.e. of riffle.
VIII. ENERGY WORK AND POWER

When and engine does work quickly, it is said to be operating at high power.

Power = , but work done = Force, F x distance, d

.
Engine power = , but d/t = velocity, v

 Power of engine = F.v

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Kinetic energy (E)

Kinetic energy = ½ mass x speed squared

E = ½ mv2

Gravitational potential energy (GPE)

GPE = mgh, h – vertical height

Note: a falling ball loses gravitational potential energy and gains an equal amount of kinetic
energy, in the absence of air friction.

IX. FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

Parallelogram rule Two forces F1 and F2 act at the point O to directions OB and OA
respectively.
B D
The resultant of the two forces F is given by;

F= +
F1 F
F is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from
O A
point O.
F2

Component of a force

Sometimes we need to find the resolved component or the effect of a force in a particular
direction at an angle , to F

P’ The resolved component P of F is given by;

P = Fcos , and

Q F Q’ Q = Gsin

This notion is applicable for forces on an inclined plane

Moments

The moment of a force, F is given as: F X perpendicular distance from line of action of the force
to the axis.

F
moment = F.OA

moment and equilibrium

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The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any
point is zero when those forces are in equilibrium.
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90o

Couple and torque

A couple = two equal and parallel forces acting in opposite directions

Moment of a couple or torque = one of the forces in a couple multiplied by the perpendicular
distance between the two forces.

F B The moment of the couple ( Torque) is given by;

A F Ƭ = F.AB

Conditions for equilibrium

1. With three or more non- parallel forces acting on an object, a closed triangle or a close
polygon can be drawn to represent the forces in magnitude and direction.
2. The algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point is zero.
3. The algebraic sum of the resolved components of all the forces in any direction is zero.

Center of mass and center of gravity

Center of mass

Let be the distance of the center of mass from the y-axis and be the distance of the center of
mass from the x-axis as seen in the figure below.

The x coordinate of center of mass

X1
∑ ∑
= ∑
=
xc

X2 The y coordinate
∑
=

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Center of gravity

It is the point where the resultant force of attraction or weight of the body acts or appears to act.

Center

The centre of gravity of a uniform rod as show is at its centre.

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FORCES IN FLUIDS

Pressure (P)

It is defined as the average force per unit area, units = Nm-2, Pascal or mmHg.

P = F/A where F – force, A – area

Observation shows that the pressure increases with the depth, h, below the liquid surface and
with density, ρ, giving the expression;

P = ρgh g = 9.8 m/s2

By definition, 1 atmosphere = 1.01325x105 Pa

Density (ρ)

Density is given by

ρ= = m/v

 m = ρv

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

It states that the upthrust is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object when fully or
partially immersed in a fluid.

Upthrust = weight of liquid displaced

 vρg = mg where v ρ = mass of fluid displaced.

For an object moving through a fluid; for instance a small spherical ball dropped in water. When
the velocity of the ball is terminal (point where upthrust = weight of ball), the upthrust can be
given by;

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The resultant downward force

ma = W-U-F

at terminal velolcity, a = 0

 W-U-F = 0

U = weight of liquid displaced and

Volume of liquid displaced = volume of sphere

 U=4 3 ρwg , ρw - density of water

F = 6 ƞrv (Stokes law) ƞ – viscousity

W=4 3 ρsg where ρs – density of sphere

Hence, ( 4 3 ρsg) – (4 3 ρwg) – (6 ƞrv) = 0

( )
vt = ƞ
where vt is the terminal velocity

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CIRCULAR MOTION AND SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

I. CIRCULAR MOTION

Angular speed Consider an object moving in a circle with a uniform

speed round a fixed point O, as center as shown in
v the figure.

v Angular speed , about O is defined as the change of

the angle , (A to B) per second
B
= / => =

is measured in radians (2 radians = 360o). so, is

A expressed in rads/s-1

The period of the circle is given as

T=2 / , at this time = 2 , and t is time for 1 revolution.

By definition of an angle in radians,

s/r = => s = r

dividing both side by t

 s/t = r / , s/t = v and =

 the speed v of the rotating object is v =

acceleration in a circle (a)

a = v2/r (towards centre), since v =

 a = r2 2/r = r2
 a = 2r

NB: The acceleration of the object towards the centre is provided by the centripetal force F
that is acting towards the centre to keep the object in a circular path.

Since a = v2/r and from linear motion

F = ma

 F = mv2/r

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*For an instance, consider the concept of water in a rotated bucket at a particular v where
mv2/r > mg to keep water in bucket when rotated in a vertical plane.

Forces on a rotating object in a vertical circle

A At A, The centripetal force is provided by the weight

of the object and the tension of the string.
T+mg
 T + mg = mv2/r => T = mv2/r –mg
B T T D
At D and B, only the tension provides mv2/r
T
 T = mv2/r
mg mg
At C,
C
T – mg = mv2/r => T = mv2/r + mg
Mg
Therefore, the tension of the string is greatest at C.

CONICAL PENDULUM

O r – radius of the circle

The centripetal force, mv2/r acts towards the centre B

Tcos T The horizontal component of the tension, provides

the force

 Tsin = mv2/r -------------------(1)

Tsin B Also, Tcos = mg -------------------------(2)

A r
Where mg – is the weight of object on string
( )
=> tan = v2/rg but for circular motion, V2/r = linear
( )
mg acceleration. => tan = a/g

Motion of car round a banked track

Banking of roads and rails of a train prevent side-slips.

The resultant action on the wheels of a car (R) can be resolved into vertical and horizontal
components; such that

Rsin = mv2/r ------------------- (1)

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R = (R1 +R2) for two wheels of a car.

Rcos = mg ----------------------- (2)

( )
( )
=> tan = v2/rg the greater the speed, the greater the angle of banking.

II. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Definition: SHM is the motion of a particle whose acceleration is always

(I) Directed towards a fixed point

(II) Directly proportional to its distance from that point.

M A

Z O P Q t

Amplitude

F Period, T

Let the distance ZM be y and the angle AZO be as illustrated on the diagram.

A particle at A, has displacement y = MZ

It’s acceleration is given by:

2
a=- rsin but rsin = y which is the distance from a fixed point.
2
 a=- y

The negative sign shows that the acceleration reduces as the objects move away from centre Z.

Period and amplitude

The period T is given by;

T=2 / which is the time for the particle to move from C throngh F and back to C as
shown in the figure above.

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The number of such to-and-fro movements per second is called the frequency given as

F = 1/T => f = /2

As seen earlier,

y = rsin but = t for a circular motion;

 y = rsin when = 90o, y = r. whereas for a cosine curve, y =r when = 0, (y =

rcos )

y cosine curve

sine curve

Velocity in SHM

v= (obtained by differentiating y = rsin above)

v is maximum when t = 0

vmax =

v can be expressed in terms of y and r as;

v=± −

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+ v

A
amplitude
R
-y y
Centre- O
end end
y = -r y=r
v=0 v=0
-

a=amax

Oscillatin systems y = 0, v = vmax =

a. spring and mass

(i)

(ii)

Fig. Linear harmonic oscillator

Suppose the extension x, is directly proportional to the force F, in the spring (Hooke’s
Law). F acts in the opposite direction to x

 F = −kx k –force per unit extension or spring stiffness

From Newton’s second law of motion,

F = ma =>ma = -kx

2
=>a = − =− x

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2
= k/m Therefore, the motion of mass is simple harmonic and the period T is given by

T= =

Potential and kinetic energy in oscillating systems

P.e. = kx2 (because energy in a stretched spring is potential)

K. e. = mv2 (the energy of the mass is kinetic)

Total energy of spring + mass = kx2 + mv2 ……………………………………..(1)

2 2
= k/m, or k =m , v = rcos t, x = rsin ; substituting all of these in equation (1) above
gives,

2 2
Total energy = r = constant

energy Total energy

K.E.

P.E.

-r 0 +r

Fig. total energy in linear harmonic oscillator.

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Oscillation of mass suspended from helical spring

2
= k/m =g/e

The motion is SHM about O and the period is given by

T=2 e-extension.
e
Springs in series and in parallel (see fig. 2 and 3)
T x
(i) In series
mg
T1 = 2

T1 = √2T

(ii) In parallel
/
T2 = 2 =2 =
√
√
= =√4 =2
/√

Therefore, the period of the parallel springs is half that of

the serial springs

Simple pendulum
p
Period T = =2

T
g is s constant at a given place on the earth. Therefore,
l B g∝ √

y Oscillations of a liquid in a u-tube

O mg T =2
mgsin
fig. Simple pendulum

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ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

Torgue and Angular Acceleration

In linear motion,

Acceleration a = , in rotational motion, angular acceleration is , is given by

= = 0 + t

2
= + t ≡ v = u + at (linear motion) = 0t +
0

2 2
= 0 +2

The turning effect or Torque of a force F, applied tangentially to a wheel of radius r, spinning
about its centre is given by = F.r SI unit is Nm (Newton meter)

=I where I is the moment of inertia and is the angular acceleration.

Moment of inertia

Consider a large rigid mass X rotating about an axis O when a torque , acts on the object as
shown below:

r m

F = ma = mr => a = r = linear acceleration

If a number of such masses make up X, with different separations from O, moment of inertia

I=∑

The moment of inertia of a uniform rod of mass M length l is given by I = Ml2/12 when it rotates
about an axis at one end perpendicular to the rod.

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For a sphere of mass M and radius r spinning about its center, I = 2Mr2/5. Units of I is kgm2

Remark: I depends on position of the axis of rotation.

Angular momentum

=∑ = ∑ =I

Note: F.t (impulse) = momentum change

.t = angular momentum change

.t = I 2 -I 1

Conservation of angular momentum

The conservation of angular momentum, which corresponds to the conservation of linear

momentum states that the angular momentum about an axis of a given rotating body or system
of bodies is constant if no external torque acts about that axis.

Rotational k.e

It is given by

2
E= I

Kinetic energy of a rolling object is equal to the translation + the rotational kinetic energy

Total k.e = Mv2 + I 2

Illustration

mg – Te = Ma Te – tension
r=a
T0 = Ter = T0 – torque

m Mgr – I = mr2

a=

mg

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