FURTHER CURVE The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑓(𝑥) is the set of values

SKETCHING for which 𝑓(𝑥) > 0

1. Domain and Range The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) is simply the domain

of 𝑓(𝑥)
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then the domain is the largest
possible set of real values 𝑥 can take and the Example
range is the largest set of real values that 𝑦 can
Find the domain of
take.
Example i) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
𝑥+5
ii) 𝑦 = ln ( 𝑥−2 )
𝑥 2 +4
Find the domain and range of 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑒 𝑥
𝑥 2 −4 iii) 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 −1
Solution
2. Intercepts
𝑥 2 +4
For the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = ,
𝑥 2 −4 These are the points where the curve crosses the
𝑥2 + 4 x- axis or y – axis.
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 2, −2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) Example
𝐷(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 ≠ 2, −2} 𝑥 2 −9
Determine the intercepts of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥+1
= ] − ∞, −2[∪] − 2,2[∪]2, +∞[
Solution
For the range, let y = f(x).
𝑥2 − 9
𝑥 2 +4 𝑦=
Then, 𝑦 = 𝑥+1
𝑥 2 −4
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = −9
⇒ 𝑦𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4
𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 − 9 = 0
⇒ (𝑦 − 1)𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 − 4 = 0
⇒ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) = 0
𝑥∈ℝ⇒Δ≥0
⇒ 𝑥 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3
⇒ 02 − 4(𝑦 − 1)(−4𝑦 − 4) ≥ 0
So, our intercepts are
⇒ (𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 + 1) ≥ 0
(0, −9), (−3,0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3,0) .
Constructing a sign table,
3. Asymptotes
𝑦 ≤ −1 −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1 𝑦≥1
𝑦−1 - - + An asymptote is a line that a curve approaches
𝑦+1 - + + but does not touch
(𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 + 1) + - +
⇒ 𝑦 ≤ −1 ∪ 𝑦 ≥ 1 The line x = a is a vertical asymptote if
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥→𝑎
⇒ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = ] − ∞. −1] ∪ [1, +∞[
The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote if
Note
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏
𝑥→±∞
The domain of 𝑦 = √𝑓(𝑥) us the set of values
of x for which 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0.

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The line 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is an incline or oblique 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎 = lim ( )
asymptote if lim (𝑓(𝑥) − (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)) = 0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
𝑥→±∞
𝑏 = lim (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑎𝑥)
Example 𝑥→∞

𝑥−4
Determine the asymptotes of the curve iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln (𝑥−1)
𝑥+3 𝐷(𝑓) =] − ∞, 1[∪]4, +∞[
i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1
To find the limits easily, it is helpful
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2
to first rewrite f(x) as
𝑥−4
iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln( ) 𝑥−4 3
𝑥−1
𝑓(𝑥) = ln ( ) = ln (1 − )
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
Solutions 𝑥−4
lim ln ( )
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−1
𝑥+3 𝑥+3
i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1 = (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 3
= lim ln (1 − ) = 𝑙𝑛1 = 0
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞ = lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−1
𝑥→1 𝑥→−1 𝑥−4
lim ln (𝑥−1)
⇒ x = 1 and x = -1 are the vertical 𝑥→+∞
asymptotes 3
= lim ln (1 − ) = 𝑙𝑛1 = 0
𝑥+3 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥−1
lim ( 2 )=0 𝑥−4
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 − 1 lim− ln (𝑥−1)
𝑥→1
⇒y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote 3
So the asymptotes are x = -1, x = 1 = lim− ln (1 − ) = ln(+∞)
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
and y = 0 = +∞
𝑥−4
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
lim ln (𝑥−1)
ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥→4 +
𝑥+2 3
2
𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 = lim+ ln (1 − ) = 𝑙𝑛(0+ )
lim = +∞ 𝑥→4 𝑥−1
𝑥→−2 𝑥+2 = −∞
⇒ x = -2 is a vertical asymptote Hence, y = 0, x = 1 and x = 4 are
asymptotes
Simplifying using f(x) using long division,
20 4. Center of symmetry
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 7 +
𝑥+2
Recall the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 has a rotational
20 symmetry about the origin because 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is
lim (𝑓(𝑥) − (𝑥 − 7)) = lim ( )=0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 2 an odd function given that 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for
⇒ y = x – 7 is an inclined asymptote all x. In this case, the origin (0, 0) is called the
center of symmetry of the curve.
Note
There are other functions which are not odd
If the degree up is less or equal to the degree
functions, but which have some points (a, b)
down, then the curve has a horizontal asymptote.
about which they show rotational symmetry. If
But if the degree up is bigger than the degree −𝑎
down, then the curve has an inclined asymptote. the translation with shift vector( ) is effected,
−𝑏
it gives the function 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) − 𝑏 whose center
If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 is an inclined asymptote to 𝑦 = is now at the origin and the function is now
𝑓(𝑥), then: 𝑓(−𝑥 + 𝑎) − 𝑏 = −( 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) − 𝑏)

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 𝒇(−𝒙 + 𝒂) + 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒂) = 𝟐𝒃 The asymptotes are 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 6 and
the center (1, 7) is the point of intersection
the point (a, b) is called the center of symmetry
of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(−𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑥 + From the first two examples, we observe that the
𝑎) = 2𝑏 center of symmetry of a curve will generally be
the point of intersection of the asymptotes. Take
Example note that this rule does not always work.
Furthermore, if there are two vertical asymptotes
i) Show that the point (2, 3) is the and a horizontal asymptote, then the center of
center of symmetry of the curve symmetry will maintain the y value of the
3𝑥−4 horizontal asymptote and fine the average x
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
value from the vertical asymptote. E.g.
Solution 𝑥−8
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥+2), x = -2 and x = 8 are the
3𝑥 − 4 vertical asymptotes and y = 0 is the horizontal
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2 asymptote. Therefore, the center of symmetry is
−2+8
( , 0) = (3, 0)
a = 2 , b = 3 ⇒2b = 6 2

𝑓(−𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) = 𝑓(−𝑥 + 2) + 5. Turning points

𝑓(𝑥 + 2) = 6 = 2𝑏
The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be monotonic
𝑑𝑦
⇒ (2, 3) is the center of symmetry increasing on interval I1 if 𝑓’(𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑥 > 0 on
I1
Note
Similarly, f is monotonic decreasing on I2 if
The asymptote here is x = 2 and y = 3 and 𝑓’(𝑥) < 0 on I2
center of symmetry (2, 3) is the point of
intersection of the asymptotes. Turning points on a curve occur where 𝑓’(𝑥) =
0
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+1
ii) Given that 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
show
that the point (1, 7) is the center of Note
symmetry of the curve g(x)
If 𝑓’(𝑥) = 0 gives a value of x that is not in the
Solution domain of the function, then, the curve does not
have a turning point
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+1
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 If f’(x) changes from positive through 0 to
negative, then, there is a maximum turning
x = 1, y = 7 ⇒ a = 1, b =7 point and if f’(x) changes from negative through
0 to positive, then, there is a minimum turning
𝑓(−𝑥 + 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) = 𝑓(−𝑥 + 1) + 𝑓(𝑥 + point.
1) = 14 = 2𝑏
6. Concavity and inflexion points
⇒ (1, 7) is the center of symmetry of g(x)
𝑑2 𝑦
Note If 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 , then the graph 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) is concave up on a given interval .

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 𝑑2 𝑦
similarly, 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 , then the graph y =
f(x) is concave downward.

𝑑2 𝑦
Inflexion points occur when 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0 ,and the
sense of concavity changes.

Example

Determine the inflexion point(s) on the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2

Solution

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
= 6𝑥 − 6

𝑑2 𝑦
For Inflexion points, 𝑑𝑥 2
=0

⇒ 6𝑥 − 6 = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = 1 , ⇒ 𝑦 = 1 − 3 = −2

x 1

𝑑2 𝑦 - +
𝑑𝑥 2

Hence, (1, -2) is an inflexion point.

7. Table of Variation

It shows the relationship between 𝑥, 𝑓’(𝑥) and

𝑓(𝑥), for values of x at vertical asymptote or
turning points and at the boundaries of the
domain.

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