PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES

HANDOUT

Phonemes:

ENGLISH VOWELS: They are speech sounds produced with vibrating vocal chords and a continuous
unrestricted flow of air coming from the mouth…

ɑ: / ˄ / æ / Ə / e / ɝ / I / i: / ɒ / : / Ʊ / u:
NAME PHONEME SOUND EXAMPLE
Long A ɑ: Aaa / f ɑ: ð ɝ /
Stressed schwa ˄ a (ae) /k˄p/
Unstressed schwa Ə a (ae) /ƏweI/
Happy A æ aaa  /kæt/
R colored vowel ɝ ar + er + rr /tɝn/
(rothocized)
Short E e ee /bed/
Short I I I /sItIŋ/
Long I I: iii / b I: /
British O ɒ O(very alike to ɑ:) /rɒk/
Long O : Oo / k : l /
Short U Ʊ u /kƱd/
Long U u: Uuu / b l u: /

ENGLISH CONSONANTS (easy to feel): they are sounds made by blocking the flow of air coming out from the
lungs. The blockage must be accompanied by vibration of the vocal chords, in which case the consonant is
voiced; if there is no vibration, the consonant is voiceless.

b / p / m / w / v / f / ð / θ / d / t / z / s / n / l / r / Ʒ / ∫ / ʤ / t∫ / j / g / k / ŋ / h /

Phoneme Sound Manner of Point of Voicing Possible Spelling

Articulation Articulation
/b/ Ba Stop BILABIAL Voiced b (table) bb (robber)
/p/ Pa Stop Voiceless p (people) pp (shopping)
/m/ Mm Nasal Voiced m (family) mm (summer) “Last sounds
 are silent mb (comb) mn (autumn)
/w/ Wa Approximant Voiceless w (woods) wh (what) u-after Q
(Glide) (question) u-after G (language) u-after S
(persuade) o (once) Silent on (write,
wrong, answer, two)
/v/ Va Fricative LABIO DENTAL Voiced v (river) unusual = (of)
/f/ Fff Fricative Voiceless f (funny) ff (office) ph (alphabet) gh
(laugh)
/ð/ Da Fricative DENTAL Voiced th (there) (together) (clothes)
/θ/ Da Fricative Voiceless th (think) (something)
(completely
labiodental)
/d/ Da Stop ALVEOLAR Voiced d (date) dd (address)
/t/ Ta Stop Voiceless t (try) tt (getting)
/z/ Zzz Fricative Voiced z (zoo) zz (buzz) ze (prize) s (easy) se
(please) ss (dessert) x-gz (example)
/s/ Ss Fricative Voiceless s (serious) ss (kiss) c-before (e-i-y)
(bicycle) se (horse) sc (scene) x-ks
(next) xc (exciting)
/n/ Nn Nasal Voiced n (name) nn (dinner) K/G silent (knife)
(foreign)
/l/ Lll Approximant Voiced l (early) ll (really) Sometimes silent (half)
(Liquid) (should) (palm)
/r/ Rr Approximant PALATAL Voiced r (repeat) rr (tomorrow) rh (rhythm) wr
(Alveolar) (wrong)
/Ʒ / Sh….. Fricative Voiced s (usually) ge (garage) z (seizure)
/∫/ Shsh Fricative Voiceless sh (show) ci (special) ssi (profession)
su (sure) ce (ocean)
unstressed endings ti (televition)
/ʤ / Ya/Ye/ Affricate Voiced j (enjoy) dge (judge) g-before e/i/y
Yi/Yo/ (agency) d-before U (graduate)
yu-Sh
(for J/Y)
/t∫/ Ch Affricate Voiceless ch (choose) tch (watch) t-before U
(picture) ti-before S (suggestion)
/j/ Ia Approximant Voiceless y (yesterday) u (use) ew (view) eu
(Glide) (europe) i-after n/l (opinión)
(familiar)
/g/ Ga Stop VELAR Voiced g (grass) gg (bigger) gu (guitar)
gh (ghost) x-gz (example)
 /k/ Kk Stop Voiceless k (kitchen) c (call) ck (jacket) cc
(occasion) ch (chemistry) x (six) xc
(excellent) qu (quiet) silent before N
(know) ks-before E/I (success)
/ŋ/ Ngng Nasal Voiced ng (morning) before-K (bank)
before-G (english)
/‫ב‬/ {r} (Allophone for VELAR Voiced (city) (betty) (cutie)
T)
FLAP
/h/ Ja Fricative GLOTTAL Voiceless h (hope) wh (whose)
/wh/ Jua Combined GLOTTAL- Voiced (where) (when)
Sound BILABIAL

PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES

They are changes in pronunciation that occur within or between words to their relation with neighboring
sounds.

- To simplify the production of complex words.

- To facilitate the articulation.

LINKING: It is made on the connection of final sounds to initial sounds.

1. Glide Linking:

Word or Syllable ends in a tense vowel or diphthong and the next word or syllable begins with a
vowel. (j or w sounds appear)

BE A SPORT // …the area… // …easy and…

HOW ARE YOU? // …no other… // …you are…

2. Consonant – Vowel Linking:

Word or Syllable ends in a single consonant and the next word or syllable begins with a vowel.

STOP IT // …can also… // … for only…

3. Consonant Cluster – Vowel Linking (Resyllabification):

Word or Syllable ends in a consonant cluster and the next word or syllable begins with a vowel.

FIND OUT // …hills of… // …largest and…

 4. Consonant - Consonant Linking:

Word or Syllable ends in a consonant STOP sound and the next word or syllable begins with a
consonant STOP sound or consonant AFFRICATE sound. Also, it can happen when we find 2
identical consonant sounds together in both words.

Stop Sound – Stop Sound (/ b / p / d / t / g / k /) -- (/ b / p /d /t / g / k /)

BLACK DOOR // …and began… // …giant buildings…

Stop Sound – Affricate Sound (/ b / p /d /t / g / k /) – (/ ʤ / t∫ /)

SICK CHILD // …red jeans… // …up channel…

2 identical consonants come together.

HOT TEA // …in northern… // …and destroyed…

ASSIMILATION: It happens when a given sound (assimilating sound) takes the characteristics of a
neighboring sound (conditioning sound).

1) Progressive Assimilation (perseverative)

The Conditioning Sound precedes and affects the following sound; it happens with plurals and regular
past of 1 syllable words…

(Plurals: VOICED sounds = z // VOICELESS sounds = s)

(Regular Past: VOICED sounds = d // VOICELESS sounds = t)

BAG /b æ g z / // …jeans /ʤi:nz/… // …adults /æd˄lts/…

MOVE /m u: v d/ // …changed /t∫einʤd/… // …switched /swit∫t/…

 2) Regressive Assimilation (anticipatory)

The Assimilating Sound precedes and it is affected by the Condition Sound, changing this way the
pronunciation…

(nasal sounds “m/n/ŋ/” - bilabial sounds “/b/p/m/w/”)

ONE MILLION // …began moving… // …moving west…

TEN BOATS // …clothing more…

3) Coalescent Assimilation (coalescence)

It is a reciprocal assimilation in which, the first sound in a near relationship with the second sound produces a
third sound with features of both. Normally, it occurs with final STOP – FRICATIVE / ALVEOLAR sounds
(/s/z/t/d/) combined with an APPROXIMANT PALATAL sound (/j/). They become into PALATAL / FRICATIVE
– AFFRICATE (/∫/Ʒ/t∫/ʤ/)
(/s/z/t/d/) + (/j/) = (/∫/Ʒ/t∫/ʤ/)
…this/s/ year (∫) … // …is/z/ your (Ʒ)…
…not/t/ young (t∫) … // …old /d/ yogurt (ʤ)…
DELETION… It is a radical form of adjustment in connected speech in which sounds disappear or are not
clearly articulated.

1) Loss of /t/ when there is nt between 2 vowels or before a syllabic l…

ENTER // …century…

WALTZ // …adults…

2) Loss of /t/ or /d/ when they occur second in sequence or cluster…

EXACTLY // …important… // …condor… // KINDNESS

3) Word Final on /t/ or /d/ in cluster or compound words starting in consonants…

EAST SIDE // …tent canvas… // BLIND MAN

4) Loss of unstressed vowel or syllable …

EVERY // TEMPERATURE

EPENTHESIS: It happens when it is necessary to insert a vowel or syllable to pronounce plurals and
regular past.

For nouns which finish in /s/.

(Plurals: (Əs) endings in s or z sounds)

For regular verbs which finish on /t/ or /d/…

(Regular Past: ID (Əd) for d or t sounds endings)

PLACE /pleisƏz/ // JUICE / ʤu:sƏz/

DECIDE /dIsƏIdId/ // RENT /rentId/