Refractory

 Refractory is a non-metallic materials having those chemical and physical

properties that make them applicable for structures, or as components of systems,
that are exposed to environments above 1000°F (811K; 538°C).
 They are used as linings in high-temperature furnaces, reactors and other processing
units. These linings provide resistance to thermal stresses as well as it protects the
system from physical wear and corrosion.
 Properties:
o Withstand high temperature and sudden changes of it
o Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot gasses etc.
o Withstand load at service conditions
o Conserve heat
o Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
o Withstand abrasive forces
o Will not contaminate the load

Common Use of Refractories

Incinerators: Furnace for combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials.

Classification of Refractories
 Based on chemical composition:
• Acidic refractory: It can only be used in acidic environment. The acidity of the
refractories is defined by the C/S ratio. It is less than 1 for acidic refractories.
– Example: Silica and alumina-silica.
• Basic refractory: It can be only be used in basic environment. Basicity of the
refractories is also defined on basis of C/S ratio. It is greater than 1 for basic
refractories.
– Example: Magnesia and dolomite.
• Neutral refractory: It can be used in both acidic and basic environment.
– Example: Alumina and carbon

 Based on fusion temperature range:

• Fusion temperature of 1580O-1780OC for normal refractory materials.
• Fusion temperature of 1780O-2000OC for highly refractory materials.
• Fusion temperature above 2000OC for super-refractory materials.

 On basis of porosity:
• Porous refractories: Contain air pores which act as insulators. They are used in the
backup lining.
• Non porous refractories: They do not contain any air spaces. They are used in the
working lining of the furnaces.

 On basis of carbon content:

• Carbon containing refractories: They have some carbon content in their composition.
They are again classified on the basis of their oxidation resistance.
o Ex: Magnesia carbon refractories.
• Non carbon containing refractories: they do not have any carbon content in their
composition.

 Based on shape:
• Shaped Refractories: They have the fixed size and shapes. These may be further
divided into standard shapes and special shapes. Standard shapes have dimension that
are conformed by most refractory manufacturers and are generally applicable to kilns
or furnaces of the same types. Special shapes are specifically made for particular kilns
or furnaces.
• Unshaped Refractories: These are without definite form and are only given shape
upon application. These types are better known as monolithic refractories. The
common examples are plastic masses, ramming masses, castables, gunning masses,
fettling mix, mortars etc.
Properties of Refractories
Refractory properties can be classified as follows:

Physical
 Density
 Porosity
 Strength
 Abrasion

Thermal
 Thermal shock
 Thermal conductivity
 Thermal diffusivity

Chemical
 Corrosion/erosion

Physical

Density and Porosity (ASTM D-20):

The values of density and porosity determined by standard methods are used to recommend
or predict the use of refractories for specific uses. In general, the higher the density, the lower
the porosity. Also, other physical properties, such as strength, abrasion, and gas permeability,
are often related to the density and porosity of the refractory.

Cold Compressive Strength (ASTM C-133):

The cold compressive strength of a refractory material is an indication of its suitability for
use of refractories in construction. It is a combined measure of the refractory for the strength
of the grains and also of the bonding system.

Cold Modulus of Rupture (ASTM C-133). The cold modulus of rupture of a refractory
material indicates the flexural strength and its suitability for use in construction. It is
indicative of the strength of the bonding system of the refractory product. Since the test is
done at room temperature, it can only show its suitability and its use in construction. It
provides no indication of how the refractory will behave at elevated temperatures.

Hot Modulus of Rupture (ASTM C-583):

The hot modulus of rupture provides the indication of a refractory material about its flexural
strength at elevated temperatures. Since refractories are used at elevated temperatures, the hot
modulus of rupture is the true indicator of the suitability and performance of a refractory at
high temperatures. Hence, in recent years, the hot modulus of rupture has been prescribed and
required by users as the most important test criterion for selection and use of refractories.

Abrasion Resistance (ASTM C-704)

This is a measure of the resistance of a refractory material when high-velocity particles

abrade the surface of the refractory. It measures the strength of the bond and the refractory
particles and its resistance to the flow of high-velocity particles across its surface. The need
for good abrasion resistance of refractory materials is most evident in petrochemical
industries where fine particles impinge the refractory surface at high velocities at moderately
elevated temperatures. A direct correlation between abrasion resistance and cold crushing
strength has recently been established. Thus, the cold crushing strengths can provide, and
have a direct indication about, the predictability of a refractory material regarding its
resistance to abrasion.

Refractoriness is the ability of a material to withstand the heat, without appreciable

deformation or softening under particular service conditions.

Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE):

Refractoriness is usually determined by comparing the

behaviour of heat on cone of material to be tested with
that of a series of Segar cones of standard dimensions.
These cones are small pyramid-shaped, 38 mm high
and have a triangular base, with 19 mm long sides.
They melt or fuse at definite temperatures, when
heated under standard condition of 10OC/min. The
temperature at which the fusion or softening of the test
cone occurs is indicated by its apex touching the base.
The PCE value of the given refractory is taken as the
number of the standard cone, which fuses along with
the test-cone. If the test cones soften earlier than one
standard cone, but latter than the next cone, the PCE
value of the test sample is approximately measured as
the average value of the two.

Refractories in use, in industrial furnaces, have invariably to withstand varying loads of

the products, being manufactured at high operating temperatures. It is therefore, essential
that refractory materials must also possess high mechanical strengths, even at operating
temperatures, to bear the maximum possible load, without breaking.

Refractoriness under load (RUL):

RUL test is performed by applying a constant load (3.5 or 1.75 kg/cm2) to the refractory
specimen and heating in a carbon-resistance furnace at a standard rate (10OC/min). The
record of the height of the specimen vs. temperature is made by a plot, until the test-piece
deforms or collapses by 10%.

Thermal

Thermal Shock:

This is measure of the refractory property when the refractory is exposed to alternate heating
and cooling. It is an important property for a refractory material. Most high-temperature
processes experience heating and cooling. Both refractory grains and the bonding system
expand while being heated and contract during cooling. Having similar grains in the
structure, the thermal shock resistance depends on the matrix bonding the grains. Thus,
refractories having structures with built-in microcracks of defects show better thermal shock
resistance than with rigid systems. In some refractories, the bonding system, by nature,
possesses microstructural defects or cracks that provide better thermal shock resistance.

Thermal Conductivity:

Thermal conductivity is a measure of the refractory regarding its ability to conduct heat from
the hot to the cold face when it is exposed to high temperatures. The thermal conductivity
tests are particularly important for insulating refractories where the thermal gradients from
the hot face to the cold face dictate the use of a refractory material for the specific uses.

Basic Refractories
Basic refractories were so named because they exhibit resistance to corrosive reactions with
chemically basic slags, dusts and fumes at elevated temperatures. Broadly speaking, basic
refractories generally fall into one of five compositional areas:

1. Products based on deadburnt magnesite or magnesia.

2. Products based on deadburnt magnesite or magnesia in combination with chrome-

containing materials such as chrome ore.

3. Deadburnt magnesite or magnesia in combination with spinel.

4. Deadburnt magnesite or magnesia in combination with carbon.

5. Dolomitic products.

Raw Materials:

The principal raw materials used in the production of basic refractories are dead burnt and
fused magnesite, dead burnt dolomite, chrome ore, spinel and carbon. In recent year, the
trend has shifted to developing highly engineered basic refractories. One result of this effort
has been the development of technology to address specific wear mechanisms by employing
special additives.
High Alumina Refractories

The term high-alumna brick refers to refractory brick having an alumina content of 47.5% or
higher. High-alumina bricks are classified by their alumina content according to the
following ASTM convention. The 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% alumina classes contain their
respective alumina contents with an allowable range of ±2.5% from the respective nominal
values. The 85% and 90% alumina classes differ in their allowable range of ±2% from
nominal.

Several special classes high-alumina products:

 Mullite brick- Predominantly contains the mineral phase mullite (3Al2O3.2SiO2)

which contains 71.8% alumina and remaining silica.

 Chemically-bonded brick- Usually phosphate –bonded brick in 75% to 80% alumina

range.

 Alumina-chrome brick- Formed from very high purity, high alumina materials and
chrome oxide. At high temperature alumina-chrome forms a solid solution which is
highly refractory.

 Alumina-carbon brick- High alumina brick containing a carbonaceous ingredient such

as graphite.

 Zirconia is sometimes used to improve the spalling resistance of burnt basic

refractories.

 Metallic additives such as powdered aluminum, magnesium or silicon are used as

antioxidant.