Auto Notes Unit 5 (2)

UNIT - V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
UNIT - V
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) defines an alternative fuel as a product that is substantially
nonpetroleum which yields energy security and environmental benefits. The Energy Policy Act of 1993
(EP Act) DOE currently recognizes the following as alternative fuels: Mixtures containing 85 % or more
by volume of alcohol fuel, including methanol and denatured ethanol.
In the simplest form, an alternative fuel is one that is not produced by using crude oil. They are
simply fuels that replace conventional gasoline as a means of powering vehicles. Alternative fuels have
desirable energy efficiency and pollution reduction features. The 1990 Clean Air Act encourages
development and sale of alternative fuels
Some examples are; Natural gas (Compressed or Liquefied), Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
(Propane), Hydrogen, Coal-derived liquid fuels, Fuels derived from biological materials, Electricity
(including electricity from solar energy) and 100 % Biodiesel (B100).
USE OF NATURAL GAS IN AUTOMOBILES

A natural gas vehicle or NGV is an alternative fuel vehicle that uses compressed natural gas (CNG)
or liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a cleaner alternative to other fossil fuels. The natural gas is consisted
mainly of methane (up to 97 %) with small quantities of ethane and propane. It occurs deep under the earth
either alone or along with oil above the petroleum deposits. It is obtained by drilling holes in the earth.
After extraction from wells, the gas is purified to remove impurities such as water and sulphur. It is also
called a clean fuel because it burns without producing any smoke. It can be used with many type vehicle
classes.
Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, mainly methane, and is produced either from gas wells
or in conjunction with crude oil production. Natural gas is consumed in the residential, commercial,
industrial, and utility markets.
Natural gas can either is stored onboard a vehicle as compressed natural gas (CNG) or as liquefied
natural gas (LNG). Natural gas can also be blended with hydrogen. LNG is produced by cooling the
methane cryogenically. LNG is used in medium and heavy duty trucks and busses.
Differences between LNG and CNG fuels

Though LNG and CNG are both considered NGVs, the technologies are vastly different. Refueling
equipment, fuel cost, pumps, tanks, hazards, capital costs are all different. One thing they share is that due
to engines made for gasoline, computer controlled valves to control fuel mixtures are required for both of
DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 115

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
them, often being proprietary and specific to the manufacturer. The on-engine technology for fuel metering
is the same for LNG and CNG.
CNG as an auto fuel
CNG, or compressed natural gas, is stored at high pressure, 3000 to 3600 pounds per square inch
(21 to 25 MPa). The required tank is more massive and costly than a conventional fuel tank. Refueling
stations are more expensive to operate than LNG stations because of the energy required for compression.
Time to fill a CNG tank varies greatly depending on the station. Home re-fuelers typically fill at about 0.4
GGE/hr. "Fast-fill" stations may be able to refill a 10 GGE tank in 5 to 10 minutes. Also, because of the
lower energy density, the range on CNG is limited by comparison to LNG.
LNG as an auto fuel

LNG, or liquefied natural gas, is natural gas that has been cooled to a point that it is a cryogenic
liquid. In its liquid state, it is still more than 2 times as dense as CNG. LNG is dispensed from bulk storage
tanks at LNG fuel stations at rates exceeding 20 GGE/min. Because of its cryogenic nature, it is stored in
specially designed insulated tanks. Generally speaking, these tanks operate at fairly low pressures (about
70 to 150 PSI) when compared to CNG. A vaporizer is mounted in the fuel system that turns the LNG into
a gas (which may simply be considered low pressure CNG).
Advantages of natural gas over gasoline and diesel

NGVs and especially CNGs tend to corrode and wear the parts of an engine less rapidly than
gasoline. Thus it's quite common to find NGV with diesel-engine like mileage, such as over 500000 miles.
Emissions are cleaner, with lower emissions of carbon and lower particulate emissions per equivalent
distance traveled. There is generally less wasted fuel.
Chemical composition of natural gas

The primary component of natural gas is methane (CH 4), the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon
molecule. It may also contain heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane (C 2H6 ), propane (C3H8 ) and
butane (C4H10), as well as other gases, in varying amounts. Hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) is a common
contaminant, which must be removed prior to most uses.
Energy content of natural gas

Combustion of one cubic meter yields 38 MJ (10.6 kWh). Natural gas has the highest
energy/carbon ratio of any fossil fuel, and thus produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy.
Transportation of natural gas

The major difficulty in the use of natural gas is transportation. Natural gas pipelines are economical
and common on land and across medium-length stretches of water (like Langeled, Interconnector and
Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline), but are impractical across large oceans. Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
tanker ships, railway tankers, and tank trucks are also used.
Storage of natural gas
116 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

CNG is typically stored in steel or composite containers at high pressure (3000 to 4000 psi, or 205
to 275 bar). These containers are not typically temperature controlled, but are allowed to stay at local
ambient temperature. There are many standards for CNG cylinders, the most popular one is ISO
11439.For North America the standard is ANSI NGV-2.
LNG storage pressures are typically around 50 to 150 psi, or 3 to 10 bar. At atmospheric pressure,
LNG is at a temperature of –260° F (–162° C), however, in a vehicle tank under pressure the
temperature is slightly higher (see saturated fluid). Storage temperatures may vary due to
varying composition and storage pressure. LNG is far denser than even the highly compressed
state of CNG. As a consequence of the low temperatures, vacuum insulated storage tanks
typically made of stainless steel are used to hold LNG.
CNG can be stored at lower pressure in a form known as an ANG (Adsorbed Natural Gas) tank at
35 bar (500 psi, the pressure of gas in natural gas pipelines) in various sponge like materials, such as
activated carbon and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). The fuel is stored at similar or greater energy
density than CNG. This means that vehicles can be re-fuelled from the natural gas network without extra
gas compression; the fuel tanks can be slimmed down and made of lighter, less strong materials.
Conversion kits for natural gas vehicle

Conversion kits for gasoline or diesel to LNG/CNG are available in many countries, along with
the labor to install them. However, the range of prices and quality of conversion vary enormously.
Recently, regulations involving certification of installations in USA have been loosened to include
certified private companies; those same kit installations for CNG have fallen to the $ 6000 + range
(depending on type of vehicle).
Synthetic natural gas

It is prepared from coal by heating finely powdered coal with hydrogen under pressure in the
presence of suitable catalysts. During this process, the complex organic molecules present in coal get
converted into methane by reacting with hydrogen.
𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
Coal + H 2 CH 4 + Residual Substance
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
The future holds great potential for natural gas because it can potentially be used in fuel cell
vehicles to make hydrogen. Researchers found that fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen produced from
natural gas could present an attractive solution for cutting greenhouse gas emissions.
USE OF LPG IN AUTOMOBILES

The petroleum when liquefied under pressure is called liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). A strong
smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan (C2H5 SH) is added to the LPG gas cylinder to help in the
detection of gas leakage. LPG contains mainly propane and then butane in liquid form.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is predominantly a mixture of hydrocarbon gases [mainly propane
(C3H8) and butane (C4H10)]. These gases can occur either individually or in combination. Under pressure,
these gases liquefy; hence the term liquefied petroleum gas. LPG can occur naturally with other
hydrocarbons such as wet natural gas in oil and gas fields, or it can be extracted at oil refineries during the
production of other petroleum products. LPG is used as a fuel source for commerce/industry and domestic
use, in particular, industrial, space and water heating. LPG is also used as an automotive fuel, commonly
known as auto gas.
LPG is a popular alternative fuel choice for vehicles. Propane is produced as a by-product of natural
gas processing and petroleum refining so there is already an infrastructure of pipelines, processing
facilities, and storage for its efficient distribution. Light duty vehicles which can be fueled with propane
or gasoline, medium and heavy duty trucks and busses are fueled by propane.
LPG Composition
Properties of LPG
⮚ By-product of natural gas processing and crude oil refining.
⮚ HD5, the automotive propane standard, a mixture of 90 % propane and other hydrocarbons.
⮚ Contains 33 % to 41 % less energy content per gallon than gasoline.
⮚ LPG vehicles can demonstrate a 60 % reduction in ozone-forming emissions compared to gasoline.
⮚ High octane properties (~104) allow LPG vehicles to operate with higher compression ratios; leads
to higher efficiency/fuel economy.
Equipment for LPG vehicles

Fuel container for storing the liquid LPG together with valves and equipment to control the flow
of LPG entering and leaving the container. Fuel lock valve (or filter and fuel lock) which prevents the flow
of fuel when the engine stops. Vaporizer regulator (or convertor), which regulates the outlet gas pressure
in accordance with engine demands. An air/gas mixer that measures air flow and meters the flow of gas
into the engine. The following figure shows the LPG fuel system for an automobile.

LPG fuel system for an automobile
Vehicle operation with LPG

The LPG fuel/air mixture burns well, so engine starting problems are less common than with liquid
fuels. LPG has a lower energy density but higher octane rating than gasoline. Consequently, LPG produces
fewer miles per gallon but the octane value allows higher compression ratios and higher power and fuel
efficiency.
For the same compression ratio, the amount of gaseous LPG air/fuel mixture that can be burned is
about 5 % to 10 % less than in gasoline engines. Overall, there usually is a small loss in engin e power
output. To keep the range of LPG vehicles similar to gasoline vehicles. LPG vehicles will require larger
storage tank volume. For the same fuel volume, a LPG tank weighs more, but not significantly more, than
a tank for gasoline.
The vehicle structures need to be modified for LPG

Where the installation of LPG equipment involves major structural alterations such as removal of
portions of a sub-frame, floor pan or roof support pillar. It is possible that the vehicle’s structural strength
may have been downgraded. In such cases, it is recommended that an Engineering Signatory experienced
in chassis/body design be consulted to ensure that the modified vehicle is safe.
Advantages of LPG
⮚ Vehicle emission is a major source of air pollution especially in the urban area. To reduce pollution,
many governments would encourage the use of cleaner alternative fuel. LPG is one of the leading
alternative fuels.
⮚ LPG is cleaner than petrol and diesel because it is composed of predominantly simple hydrocarbon
compounds. LPG is free of lead and most additives and contains very little sulphur.
⮚ Compared with emissions from vehicles on petrol and diesel, emissions from LPG-driven vehicles
contain lower levels of hydrocarbon.
⮚ Compounds (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides, air toxics, and particulates.
⮚ LPG is used by approx 5% of passenger vehicles in Aust.
⮚ Reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approx 13% (passenger vehicles on dedicated LPG).
⮚ LPG is potentially hazardous.
⮚ Efficiency and Performance.
Disadvantages of LPG

⮚ LPG is, again, in some ways the least "alternative" of alternative fuels; because its source is partly
petroleum, it does less to help relieve the petroleum dependency problem than some other alternative
fuels, and given the dominance of the petroleum source.
⮚ So LPG does help to remedy the national security component of the overall petroleum dependency
problem.
⮚ Further, LPG is not recommended for mountains or any kind of rough terrain as it does not provide
power and torque to the vehicle, as with other fuels.
⮚ Using LPG means the vehicle drives 20 % less than with other sources of fuel, resulting in more
frequent refueling.
⮚ In contrast to petrol or diesel vehicles, starting is always a problem with LPG driven vehicles under
32° F (cold conditions), because at lower temperatures it has a lower vapor pressure.
⮚ Using LPG in a vehicle damages the valves, resulting in a decrease of the life of the engine.
⮚ Widespread infrastructure of pipelines, processing facilities, and storage.
⮚ Increased vehicle costs.
⮚ For vehicles, need to balance range vs. payload reduction caused by larger fuel tanks.
The emissions benefit of LPG
⮚ Propane vehicles emit about one-third fewer reactive organic gases than gasoline-fueled vehicles.
⮚ Nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide emissions are also 20 % and 60 % less, respectively.
⮚ Unlike gasoline-fueled vehicles, there are no evaporative emissions while LPG vehicles are running
or parked, because LPG fuel systems are tightly sealed.
⮚ Small amounts of LPG may escape into the atmosphere during refueling, but these vapors are 50 %
less reactive than gasoline vapors, so they have less of a tendency to generate smog-forming ozone.
⮚ LPG’s extremely low sulfur content means that the fuel does not contribute significantly to acid rain.
Safety characteristics of LPG

⮚ Propane is an odorless, nonpoisonous gas that has the lowest flammability range of all alternative fuels.
⮚ High concentrations of propane can displace oxygen in the air, though, causing the potential for
asphyxiation.
⮚ While LPG itself does not irritate the skin, the liquefied gas becomes very cold upon escaping from a
high-pressure tank, and may therefore cause frostbite, should it contact unprotected skin.
⮚ As with gasoline, LPG can form explosive mixtures with air. Since the gas is slightly heavier than air,
it may form a continuous stream that stretches a considerable distance from a leak or open container,
which may lead to a flashback explosion upon contacting a source of ignition.
USE OF BIO-DIESEL IN AUTOMOBILES

Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl
(methyl, ethyl, or propyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids [e.g.,
vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)] with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters.
Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and
waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petro-

diesel. Biodiesel can also be used as a low carbon alternative to heating oil. The National Biodiesel Board
(USA) also has a technical definition of "biodiesel" as a mono-alkyl ester.
Pure bio-diesel (B100) is considered an alternative fuel under EP Act. But lower-level biodiesel
blends are not considered alternative fuels. Primary components of bio-diesel are vegitable oil, animal fats
or recycled restaurant grease. The main fuel source for bio-diesel is soybean oil or jatropha oil.
Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create
a biodiesel blend. It can be used in compression-ignition (diesel) engines with little or no modifications.
Biodiesel can be used as a pure fuel or blended with petroleum in any percentage. B20 (a blend of 20
percent by volume biodiesel with 80 percent by volume petroleum diesel) has demonstrated significant
environmental benefits.
Any vehicle that runs on diesel today is suitable for bio-diesel usage with no modifications for up
to 5 % blend. Many engines also compatible with 20 % blend.
Biodiesel is registered as a fuel and fuel additive with the EPA and meets clean diesel standards
established by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). Neat (100 percent) biodiesel has been
designated as an alternative fuel by the Department of Energy (DOE) and the US Department of
Transportation (DOT).
Blends of biodiesel
Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly
distributed for use in the retail diesel fuel marketplace. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B"
factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix:
⮚ 100 % biodiesel is referred to as B100, while.
⮚ 20 % biodiesel, 80 % petro-diesel is labeled B20.
Blends of 20 % biodiesel and lower can be used in diesel equipment with no, or only minor
modifications, although certain manufacturers do not extend warranty coverage if equipment is damaged
by these blends. The B6 to B20 blends are covered by the ASTM D7467 specification. Biodiesel can also
be used in its pure form (B100), but may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and
performance problems. Blending B100 with petroleum diesel may be accomplished by:
⮚ Mixing in tanks at manufacturing point prior to delivery to tanker truck.
⮚ Splash mixing in the tanker truck (adding specific percentages of biodiesel and petroleum diesel).
⮚ In-line mixing, two components arrive at tanker truck simultaneously.
⮚ Metered pump mixing, petroleum diesel and biodiesel meters are set to X total volume, transfer
pump pulls from two points and mix is complete on leaving pump.
Applications of biodiesel

1. Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any
concentration in most injection pump diesel engines.
2. New extreme high-pressure (29000 psi) common rail engines have strict factory limits of B5 or
B20, depending on manufacturer.
3. Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petro-diesel, and will degrade natural rubber gaskets
and hoses in vehicles (mostly vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend to wear out
naturally and most likely will have already been replaced with FKM, which is nonreactive to
biodiesel.
4. Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the fuel lines where petro-diesel
has been used. As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition
to pure biodiesel is made. Therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and
heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend.
Properties of biodiesel
⮚ Biodiesel has better lubricating properties and much higher cetane ratings than today's lower sulfur
diesel fuels. Biodiesel addition reduces fuel system wear, and in low levels in high pressure systems
increases the life of the fuel injection equipment that relies on the fuel for its lubrication.
⮚ Depending on the engine, this might include high pressure injection pumps, pump injectors (also
called unit injectors) and fuel injectors.
⮚ The calorific value of biodiesel is about 37.27 MJ/kg. This is 9 % lower than regular number 2
petro-diesel.
⮚ Variations in biodiesel energy density are more dependent on the feedstock used than the
production process. Still, these variations are less than for petro-diesel.
⮚ It has been claimed biodiesel gives better lubricity and more complete combustion thus increasing
the engine energy output and partially compensating for the higher energy density of petro-diesel.
⮚ Biodiesel is a liquid which varies in color between golden and dark brown depending on the
production feedstock.
⮚ It is immiscible with water, has a high boiling point and low vapor pressure.
⮚ The flash point of biodiesel (>130° C, >266° F) is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel
(64° C, 147° F) or gasoline (−45° C, −52° F).
⮚ Biodiesel has a density of ~ 0.88 g/cm³, higher than petro-diesel (~ 0.85 g/cm³).
⮚ Biodiesel has virtually no sulfur content, and it is often used as an additive to Ultra -Low Sulphur
Diesel (ULSD) fuel to aid with lubrication, as the sulfur compounds in petro-diesel provide much
of the lubricity.
USE OF GASOHOL IN AUTOMOBILES

Gasohol is an alternative fuel consisting of a mixture of typically 90 percent gasoline with 10
percent anhydrous ethanol. Gasohol can be used in most modern and light duty vehicles with an internal
combustion. The Gasohol blend of 90 percent gasoline and 10 percent anhydrous ethanol has been
approved for use in several countries and can be used with no modification to the vehicle's engine.

Gasohol is the combination of gasoline (petrol) and alcohol. Light duty vehicles and medium &
heavy duty trucks and busses are flexible fuel vehicles that are fueled by E85 (85 % Anhydrous Ethanol +
15 % Petrol) or any combination of the two fuels. Mostly heavy duty busses are fueled by M85
(85 % Methanol + 15 % Petrol).
Gasohol is useful in decreasing the population's dependence on foreign oil, and reduces the carbon
monoxide emissions by up to 30 percent. The ethanol typically used in the Gasohol production is derived
from fermenting agricultural crops. Fuel containing ethanol normally has an "E" number which explains
the mixture. E10 consists of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline whereas E85 is a blend of 85
percent anhydrous ethanol and 15 percent gasoline. E5 and E7 are also common ethanol blends.
Countries using gasohol

Ethanol blends are used in the following countries:
E10 - Australia, E10 - Austria, E10 - China, E20 to E25 - Brazil, E5/E10 - Canada, E10
- Colombia, E7 - Costa Rica, E5 - Denmark, E5 - Finland, E5 - India, E10 - Jamaica, E10 - Pakistan, E12
- Paraguay, E5 - Sweden, E10/E20 - Thailand and E10 - United States (in 10 states). E95 - Sweden,
E100 - Brazil, late 1970.
Common blends of gasohol
E5 to E25 are known as low ethanol blends (called as gasohol), and have 5 to 25 percent ethanol
blended with 95 to 75 percent gasoline. E30 to E85 are considered to be high ethanol blends and have 30
to 85 percent ethanol mixed with 70 to 15 percent gasoline. The most popular Gasohol blend is E10, which
consists of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline due to the fact that no modifications are needed to
a vehicle's engine to use E10. E100 is pure ethanol fuel - 100 % hydrous ethanol.
Advantages of gasohol
In a search for alternative fuel options the usage of Gasohol has certain advantages:
1. Emissions from using Gasohol are less than that of vehicles using gasoline. Emissions are not only
harmful to the environment but can cause serious problems and even death in humans. By minimizing
the emissions expelled into the atmosphere, we not only ensure a greener environment, but also a
physically healthier population eliminating illness. Such as, asthma and heart disease, caused by
vehicle emissions.
2. Using Gasohol assists in the reduction of oil imported from other countries. Not only does this lessen
our carbon footprint but, with Gasohol production of up to 85 percent ethanol, less oil needs to be
imported to manufacture gasoline.
3. Crop prices are raised with the production of Gasohol. Ethanol is an alcohol derived from crops such
as cane, grains and sorghum. This increases the demand and ultimately the price of these crops.
4. Gasohol is typically cheaper than petroleum as it is cheaper to manufacture.
With most of the world's automobiles running on Gasohol, it is only a matter of time before vehicles
capable of running on pure ethanol will be designed.

Although not the perfect solution, Gasohol is a step in the right direction to finding alternative fuels
for our automobiles. The positive aspects of Gasohol outweigh the negatives and, with more countries
making Gasohol available at their gas stations, everybody is making an effort in ensuring less dangerous
gasses are expelled into the atmosphere.
Disadvantages of gasohol
1. Disadvantages to ethanol fuel blends when used in engines designed exclusively for gasoline include
lowered fuel mileage, metal corrosion, deterioration of plastic and rubber fuel system components,
clogged fuel systems, fuel injectors, and carburetors, delamination of composite fuel tanks, varnish
buildup on engine parts, damaged or destroyed internal engine components, water absorption, fuel
phase separation, and shortened fuel storage life.
2. Many major auto, marine, motorcycles, lawn equipment, generator, and other internal combustion
engine manufacturers have issued warnings and precautions about the use of ethanol-blended gasoline
of any type in their engines.
3. The Federal Aviation Administration and major aviation engine manufacturers have prohibited the use
of automotive gasoline blended with ethanol in light aircraft due to safety issues from fuel system and
engine damage.
4. Ethanol has significantly lower heat content than gasoline (23.4 MJ/L vs. 35 MJ/L). Studies have
concluded that the net fossil fuel energy savings when using ethanol is zero.
5. Along with criticisms of raising food prices by taking significant crop production out of the world's
food supply and massive government subsidies required to create a cost neutral experience for
consumers make some observers are wary of increasing dependence on food derived ethanol as a fuel
viable energy alternative.
Modifications to engines using gasohol

The use of ethanol blends in conventional gasoline vehicles is restricted to low mixtures, as ethanol
is corrosive and can degrade some of the materials in the engine and fuel system. Also, the engine has to
be adjusted for a higher compression ratio as compared to a pure gasoline engine to take advantage of
ethanol's higher oxygen content, thus allowing an improvement in fuel efficiency and a reduction of
tailpipe emissions. The following table shows the required modifications to gasoline engines to run
smoothly and without degrading any materials.

USE OF HYDROGEN IN AUTOMOBILES

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power. Hydrogen
vehicles include hydrogen fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles and other transportation vehicles.
The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either
by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell
to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is a key element of a
proposed hydrogen economy.
Hydrogen as a fuel
⮚ The simplest and lightest fuel is hydrogen gas. Hydrogen may contain low levels of carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide, depending on the source.
⮚ It is in gaseous state at atmospheric & ambient pressures.
⮚ Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit weight of any known fuel 120.7 kJ/g.
⮚ Hydrogen burns cleanly. When hydrogen is burnt with oxygen, the only byproducts are heat and
water. When burnt with air, which is about 79 % nitrogen, some oxides of nitrogen are formed.
⮚ Hydrogen in its liquid form has been used as a fuel in space vehicle for years.
⮚ Hydrogen has high combustion energy per pound relative to any other fuel meaning hydrogen is
more efficient on a weight basis than fuel currently used in air or ground transportation. This weight
factor makes hydrogen an attractive fuel.
⮚ It is most frequently made from methane or other fossil fuels.
Complications with hydrogen fuel
The drawbacks of hydrogen use are high capital cost, low energy content per unit volume, high
tankage weights, high storage vessel pressures, the storage, transportation and filling of gaseous or liquid
hydrogen in vehicles, the large investment in infrastructure that would be required to fuel vehicles, and
the inefficiency of production processes. Hydrogen is really explosive and we ca n’t get one by itself
without it being dangerous and stable.
Fuel properties of hydrogen

⮚ The combustion products of hydrogen when it is burned completely with air consist of water,
oxygen, and nitrogen. In the meantime, it has been suggested, hydrogen is too valuable to burn.
Laboratory tests conducted on internal combustion engines burning hydrogen demonstrate good
performance.
⮚ In comparison with an engine burning gasoline, the emission of nitrogen oxides is far less for the
engine-fueled hydrogen.
⮚ The product of hydrogen combustion with air is water vapor and negligible pollution when the
peak temperature is limited. Some oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are formed at very high combustion
temperatures (< 2300 K); fortunately, the auto ignition temperature of hydrogen is only 858 K.
⮚ Hydrogen has good properties as a fuel for internal combustion engines in automobiles. Some of
the characteristic properties of a hydrogen-air mixture that can definitely influence the engine

design and performance are low ignition energy, low density, and wide range of ignition limits,
high diffusion speed, and high flame speed.
Production of hydrogen fuel

Two methods are used to produce hydrogen fuel. They are; 1. Electrolysis method and 2.
Synthesis gas production from steam reforming or partial oxidation. It can also be produced by renewable
energy technologies, such as wind, solar, geothermal, and hydro-electric power.
1. Electrolysis method: Uses electrical energy to split water molecules into hydrogen & oxygen. Electrical
energy can come from any electricity production sources including renewable fuels
2. Synthesis gas production: Predominant method for producing synthesis gas is steam reforming of
natural gas.
Reforming Methanol
The molecular formula for methanol is CH3OH. The goal of the reformer is to remove as much of
the hydrogen (H) as possible from this molecule, while minimizing the emission of pollutants such as
carbon monoxide (CO). The process starts with the vaporization of liquid methanol and water. Heat
produced in the reforming process is used to accomplish this. This mixture of methanol and water vapor
is passed through a heated chamber that contains a catalyst.
As the methanol molecules hit the catalyst, they split into carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
gas (H2).
CH3OH → CO + 2H2.
The water vapor splits into hydrogen gas and oxygen; this oxygen combines with the CO to form
CO2. In this way, very little CO is released, as most of it is converted to CO 2 .
H2O + CO → CO2 + H2.
Reforming natural gas

Natural gas, which is composed mostly of methane (CH 4), is processed using a similar reaction.
The methane in the natural gas reacts with water vapor to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases.
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2
Just as it does when reforming methanol, the water vapor splits into hydrogen gas and oxygen, the
oxygen combining with the CO to form CO 2 .
H2O + CO → CO2 + H2
Hydrogen vehicle
When burned in an internal combustion engine, however, combustion also produces small amounts
of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide due to engine lubricants and exhaust is free of carbon dioxide.
Liquid hydrogen and the required refrigeration system need 6-8 times more storage space than gasoline

for equivalent energy content. Compressed hydrogen gas requires 6-10 times more storage space. There
are no vehicles currently available that use hydrogen.
Hydrogen engine
Hydrogen can be used in SI engines. In the direct introduction of H 2 into cylinder, H2 is stored in
the liquid form, in a cryogenic cylinder. A pump this liquid through a small heat exchanger where it is
converted into cold H2 gas. The metering of the H2 is also done in this unit. The cold H 2 helps to prevent
pre-ignition and also reduces NOx formation. The following figure shows the hydrogen engine.
Hydrogen engine
The HCNG (20 % hydrogen & 80 % CNG) engines demonstrated lower emissions than similar
engines fueled by CNG alone. This blend provided no significant change in fuel efficiency. Hydrogen is
being explored for use in combustion engines and fuel cell electric vehicles. The energy density of
hydrogen is very low under ambient conditions which present greater transportation and storage hurdles
than for liquid fuels. Storage systems are being developed to address these problems.
Storage of hydrogen fuel
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal to about one-third
that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored as liquid hydrogen in a cryogenic tank or in a compressed
hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energy density (MJ/liter) is small relative to that of gasoline.
Hydrogen has a three times higher specific energy by mass compared to gasoline (143 MJ/kg versus 46.9
MJ/kg). Some research has been done into using special crystalline materials to store hydrogen at greater
densities and at lower pressures. A recent study by Dutch researcher Robin Gremaud has shown that metal
hydride hydrogen tanks are actually 40 to 60 percent lighter than an equivalent energy battery pack on an
electric vehicle permitting greater range for H2 cars.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Electric vehicle is defined as the vehicle powered by an electric motor instead of an IC engine. All-
electric vehicle (EVs) uses a battery to store the electrical energy that powers the motor. EV batteries are
charged by plugging the vehicle into an electric power source. EVs are sometimes referred to as battery
electric vehicles (BEVs). Electricity production may contribute to air pollution, but EVs are considered

zero-emission vehicles, because their motors produce no exhaust. Because EVs use no other fuel, they
help eliminate petroleum consumption.
Heavy-duty vehicles are available now, and more light-duty EVs are beginning to enter the market.
EVs are more expensive than similar conventional and hybrid vehicles, but owners can offset costs through
fuel savings, tax credits, or incentives. EVs have a shorter range per charge than conventional vehicles
have per tank of gas. The custom-order, all-electric Tesla Roadster has a 220-mile range. Less expensive
vehicles under development are targeting a 100-mile range.
Benefits of electric vehicles

⮚ EVs use no liquid fuels. Fuel economy of all-electric vehicles is usually expressed as cost per mile.
A typical electric vehicle costs $0.02 to $0.04 per mile for fuel.
⮚ EVs have zero emissions. However, emissions are produced from fuel-burning power plants that
supply electricity to the grid. But in most emissions categories, a vehicle running on gasoline or
diesel will produce more emissions than will the production of electricity required to power an EV.
If electricity is generated from nonpolluting, renewable sources, there are no emissions.
⮚ EVs are less expensive to operate than conventional gasoline and diesel vehicles.
⮚ EVs can charge at home or at public charging stations.
⮚ EV’s Purchase cost can be offset by fuel savings, tax credits, and incentives.
Availability of electric vehicles

Light-Duty Vehicles
⮚ A wide variety of light-duty HEVs is available.
⮚ Many auto manufacturers & start-up companies are working to make EVs and PHEVs available.
⮚ PHEV Conversions: Conventional and HEVs can be converted to PHEVs by adding additional
battery capacity. Converted vehicles can achieve up to 100 miles per gallon until the auxiliary
battery is exhausted, when the vehicle acts like an HEV. In some cases, conversions can affect the
vehicle's factory warranty. Several manufacturers offer PHEV conversion kits.
Heavy-Duty Vehicles
⮚ A variety of heavy-duty HEVs and all-electric vehicles are available.
⮚ Medium- and heavy-duty PHEV conversions are available for buses and utility trucks
⮚ There are several heavy-duty EVs available, including: Boulder Electric Vehicle, Enova Ze step
van, Ford Transit Connect, Navistar’s eStar, Smith Electric’s SEV Newton, Zero Truck & others.
Neighborhood Electric Vehicles:

⮚ Neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), also called low-speed vehicles, are commonly used for
neighborhood commuting, light hauling, and delivery.
⮚ A variety of companies are manufacturing these small vehicles.
⮚ NEVs are typically limited to areas with 35-mph speed limits or for off-road service on college
campuses, airports, and resort areas.

⮚ Clean Cities has developed an online resource called the Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles
Data Center, which provides information on where to find all these types of electric drive vehicles,
as well as information on other kinds of advanced vehicles.
Charging of electric vehicles

To keep PHEVs and EVs running, they need to be charged. Charging equipment, or Electric
Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE), for PHEVs and EVs is classified by the maximum amount of power
provided to the battery. Charging times range from 30 minutes to 20 hours, depending on how empty the
battery is, the type of battery and the type of charging equipment. There are three levels of charging:
Level 1: Level 1 equipment provides charging through a 120 volt (V), alternating-current (AC)
plug and requires a dedicated circuit. Equipment is portable and does not require installation. One end of
the cord has a standard, three-prong household plug. The other end connects to the vehicle. Reaching a
full charge can take 8 to 20 hours.
Level 2: Level 2 equipment offers charging through a 240 V, AC plug and requires installation
and a dedicated 40 amp circuit. Most homes have 240 V service available. Reaching a full charge can take
3 to 8 hours.
Level 3: Level 3 equipment is still in development. It will operate at a higher voltage and current
than Level 2. Reaching a full charge could take less than 30 minutes.
DC Fast Charging: Direct-current (DC) fast charging equipment (480 V) provides 50 kW to the
battery. This option enables charging along heavy traffic corridors and at public stations. A DC fast charge
can take less than 30 minutes to fully charge a battery.
Inductive Charging: Inductive charging equipment installed for EVs in the early 1990s is still
being used in certain areas. Some companies are working on inductive charging options for future EVs.
Maintenance and Safety

HEVs & PHEVs have internal combustion engines, so maintenance requirements are similar to those
of conventional vehicles. The electrical system (battery, motor, & associated electronics) does not require
scheduled maintenance. Regenerative braking reduces brake wear, extending the life of brake systems.
EVs typically require less maintenance than conventional vehicles because: The battery, motor,
and associated electronics require no regular maintenance. There are no fluids to change, aside from brake
fluid. Brake wear is significantly reduced due to regenerative braking. There are far fewer moving parts
compared to a conventional gasoline engine.

Electric drive vehicles must meet the same safety standards required for conventional vehicles.
The exception is neighborhood electric vehicles, which are subject to less-stringent standards because they
are typically limited to roadways specified by state and local regulations.
Emergency response for electric drive vehicles is not significantly different from conventional
vehicles. Electric drive vehicles are designed with cut-off switches to isolate the battery and disable the
electric system, and all high-voltage power lines are colored orange. EVs tend to have a lower center of
gravity than conventional vehicles, making them less likely to roll over.
HYBRID VEHICLES
A HEV is a combination of a conventional ICE-powered vehicle and an EV. It uses both an ICE
and an electric motor/generator for propulsion. The two power devices, the ICE and the electric motor,
can be connected in series or in parallel from a power flow point of view. When the ICE and motor are
connected in series, the HEV is a series hybrid in which only the electric motor is providing mechanical
power to the wheels. When the ICE and the electric motor are connected in parallel, the HEV is a parallel
hybrid in which both the electric motor and the ICE can deliver mechanical power to the wheels.
In a HEV, liquid fuel is still the source of energy. The ICE is the main power converter that provides
all the energy for the vehicle. The electric motor increases system efficiency and reduces fuel consumption
by recovering kinetic energy during regenerative braking, and optimizes the operation of the ICE during
normal driving by adjusting the engine torque and speed. The ICE provides the vehicle with an extended
driving range therefore overcoming the disadvantages of a pure EV.
In a PHEV, in addition to the liquid fuel available on the vehicle, there is also electricity stored in
the battery, which can be recharged from the electric grid. Therefore, fuel usage can be further reduced.
In a series HEV or PHEV, the ICE drives a generator (referred to as the I/G set). The ICE converts
energy in the liquid fuel to mechanical energy and the generator converts the mechanical energy of the
engine output to electricity. An electric motor will propel the vehicle using electricity generated by the I/G
set. This electric motor is also used to capture the kinetic energy during braking. There will be a battery
between the generator and the electric motor to buffer the electric energy between the I/G set and the
motor.
In a parallel HEV or PHEV, both the ICE and the electric motor are coupled to the final drive shaft
through a mechanical coupling mechanism, such as a clutch, gears, belts, or pulleys. This parallel
configuration allows both the ICE and the electric motor to drive the vehicle either in combined mode, or
separately. The electric moor is also used for regenerative braking and for capturing the excess energy
from the ICE during coasting.
HEVs and PHEVs can also have either the series – parallel configuration or a more complex
configuration which usually contains more than one electric motor. These con-figurations can generally
further improve the performance and fuel economy of the vehicle with added component cost.

Series HEVs
In this HEV, the ICE is the main energy converter that converts the original energy in gasoline to
mechanical power. The mechanical output of the ICE is then converted to electricity using a generator.
The electric motor moves the final drive using electricity generated by the generator or electricity stored
in the battery. The electric motor can receive electricity directly from the engine, or from the battery, or
both. Since the engine is decoupled from the wheels, the engine speed can be controlled independently of
vehicle speed. This not only simplifies the control of the engine, but, most importantly, can allow operation
of the engine at its optimum speed to achieve the best fuel economy. It also provides flexibility in locating
the engine on the vehicle. There is no need for the traditional mechanical transmission in a series HEV. A
series HEV can be configured in the same way that conventional vehicles are con-figured, that is, the
electric motor in place of the engine as shown in the following figure.
The architecture of a series HEV
Other choices are also available, such as wheel hub motors. In this case, as shown in the following
figure, there are four electric motors, each one installed inside each wheel. Due to the elimination of
transmission and final drive, the efficiency of the vehicle system can be significantly increased. The
vehicle will also have all-wheel drive (AWD) capability. However, con-trolling the four electric motors
independently is a challenge.
Hub motor configuration of a series HEV

Parallel HEVs
The following shows the configuration of a parallel HEV.

The architecture of a parallel HEV
In this configuration, the ICE and the electric motor can both deliver power in parallel to the
wheels. The ICE and the electric motor are coupled to the final drive through a mechanism such as a clutch,
belts, pulleys, and gears. Both the ICE and the motor can deliver power to the final drive, either in
combined mode, or each separately. The electric motor can be used as a generator to recover the kinetic
energy during braking or absorbing a portion of power from the ICE. The parallel hybrid needs only two
propulsion devices, the ICE and the electric motor.
Based on the vehicle operating conditions, the propulsion components on a series HEV and parallel
HEV can be operated by different modes.
Motor-alone mode: When the battery has sufficient energy, and the vehicle power demand is low, then
the engine is turned off, and the vehicle is powered by the motor and battery only.
Combined power mode: At high power demand, the engine is turned on and the motor also supplies
power to the wheels.
Engine-alone mode: During highway cruising and at moderately high power demands, the engine
provides all the power needed to drive the vehicle. The motor remains idle. This is mostly due to the fact
that the battery SOC is already at a high level but the power demand of the vehicle prevents the engine
from turning off, or it may not be efficient to turn the engine off.
Power split mode: When the engine is on, but the vehicle power demand is low and the battery SOC is
also low, then a portion of the engine power is converted to electricity by the motor to charge the battery.
Stationary charging mode: The battery is charged by running the motor as a generator and driven by the
engine, without the vehicle being driven.
Regenerative braking mode: The electric motor is operated as a generator to convert the vehicle’s kinetic
energy into electric energy and store it in the battery. Note that, in regenerative mode, it is in principle
possible to run the engine as well, and provide additional current to charge the battery more quickly (while
the propulsion motor is in generator mode) and command its torque accordingly, that is, to match the total
battery power input. In this case, the engine and motor controllers have to be properly coordinated.
Series-Parallel HEVs

The series-parallel HEV is shown in following figure, which incorporates the features of both series
and parallel HEVs. Therefore, it can be operated as a series or parallel HEV. In comparison to a series
HEV, the series-parallel HEV adds a mechanical link between the engine and the final drive, so the engine
can drive the wheels directly. When compared to a parallel HEV, the series-parallel HEV adds a second
electric motor that serves primarily as a generator.
The architectures of a series-parallel HEV
Because a series- parallel HEV can operate in both parallel and series modes, the fuel efficiency
and drivability can be optimized based on the vehicle’s operating condition. The increased degree of
freedom in control makes the series- parallel HEV a popular choice. However, due to increased
components and complexity, it is generally more expensive than series or parallel HEVs.
Complex HEVs
Complex HEVs usually involve the use of planetary gear systems and multiple electric motors (in
the case of four/all-wheel drive). One typical example is a four-wheel drive (4WD) system that is realized
through the use of separate drive axles, as shown in the following figure. The generator in this system is
used to realize series operation as well as to control the engine operating condition for maximum
efficiency. The two electric motors are used to realize all-wheel drive, and to realize better performance
in regenerative braking. They may also enhance vehicle stability control and antilock braking control by
their use.
The electrical four-wheel drive system using a complex architecture
Diesel Hybrids
HEVs can also be built around diesel vehicles. All topologies explained earlier, such as series,
parallel, series – parallel, and complex HEVs, are applicable to diesel hybrids. Due to the fact that diesel

vehicles can generally achieve higher fuel economy, the fuel efficiency of hybridized diesel vehicles can
be even better when compared to their gasoline counterparts.
Vehicles such as delivery trucks and buses have unique driving patterns and relatively low fuel
economy. When hybridized, these vehicles can provide significant fuel savings. Hybrid trucks and buses
can be series, parallel, series – parallel, or complex structured and may run on gasoline or diesel.
Diesel locomotives are a special type of hybrid. A diesel locomotive uses a diesel engine and
generator set to generate electricity. It uses electric motors to drive the train. Even though a diesel
locomotive can be referred to as a series hybrid, in some architectures there is no battery for the main drive
system to buffer energy between the I/G set and the electric motor. This special configuration is sometimes
referred to as simple hybrid. In other architectures, batteries are used and can help reduce the size of the
generator, and can also be used for regenerative energy capture. The batteries, in this case, can also be
utilized for short-term high current due to torque needs, without resorting to a larger generator.
Other approaches to vehicle hybridization

The main focus of this book is on HEVs, that is, electric-gasoline or electric-diesel hybrids.
However, there exist other types of hybridization methods that involve other types of energy storage and
propulsion, such as compressed air, flywheels, and hydraulic systems. A typical hydraulic hybrid is shown
in the following figure. Hydraulic systems can provide a large amount of torque, but due to the complexity
of the hydraulic system, a hydraulic hybrid is considered only for large trucks and utility vehicles where
frequent and extended period of stops of the engine are necessary.
A parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle
Hybridization Ratio
Some new concepts have also emerged in the past few years, including full hybrid, mild hybrid,
and micro hybrid. These concepts are usually related to the power rating of the main electric motor in a
HEV. For example, if the HEV contains a fairly large electric motor and associated batteries, it can be
considered as a full hybrid. On the other hand, if the size of the electric motor is relatively small, then it
may be considered as a micro hybrid.
Typically, a full hybrid should be able to operate the vehicle using the electric motor and battery
up to a certain speed limit and drive the vehicle for a certain amount of time. The speed threshold is

typically the speed limit in a residential area. The typical power rating of an electric motor in a full hybrid
passenger car is approximately 50 to 75 kW.
The micro hybrid, on the other hand, does not offer the capability to drive the vehicle with the
electric motor only. The electric motor is merely for starting and stopping the engine. The typical rating
of electric motors used in micro hybrids is less than 10 kW. A mild hybrid is in between a full hybrid and
a micro hybrid.
An effective approach for evaluating HEVs is to use a hybridization ratio to reflect the degree of
hybridization of a HEV. In a parallel hybrid, the hybridization ratio is defined as the ratio of electric power
to the total power train power. For example, a HEV with a motor rated at 50 kW and an engine rated at 75
kW will have a hybridization ratio of 50 / (50 + 75) kW = 40 %. A conventional gasoline-powered vehicle
will have a 0% hybridization ratio and a battery EV will have a hybridization ratio of 100 %. A series HEV
will also have a hybridization ratio of 100 % due to the fact that the vehicle is capable of being driven in
EV mode.
FUEL CELLS
The fuel cell is an electrochemical device for the conversion of chemicals into direct-current
electricity. To this extent, it resembles a primary battery. There are, however, some important differences.
In a battery, all the chemicals necessary for its operation are normally confined within a sealed container.
Thus, the capacity of a battery, measured in ampere -hours, is determined by the quantity of chemicals that
it holds. With a fuel cell, the chemicals are supplied from external reservoirs so that the capacity of the
device is limited only by the available supply of reactants. For this reason, fuel cells are rated by their
power output, measured in watts, rather than by their capacity, which is indeterminate. In brief, fuel cells
may be viewed as energy-conversion devices, in contrast to rechargeable batteries that are energy-storage
devices.
Another important distinction between batteries and fuel cells lies in the nature of the chemicals
employed. Batteries generally are based on inorganic compounds, i.e., metals and oxides, whereas fuel
cells employ hydrogen, methanol or a hydrocarbon as the reactant at the negative electrode and oxygen or
air at the positive electrode. This distinction, together with the need to introduce the reactants from outside
and to remove the product water (and carbon dioxide if methanol or a hydrocarbon is used) necessitates a
different design of cell compared with that of a battery. Provision has also to be made for the removal of
heat liberated during the electrochemical reaction. The fundamental operation of a fuel cell is illustrated
in the following figure.
Components of the fuel cells

It consists of three components - a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte sandwiched between the
two. Oxygen from the air flows through the cathode. A fuel gas containing hydrogen, such as methane,
flows past the anode. Negatively charged oxygen ions migrate through the electrolyte membrane react
with the hydrogen to form water. The reacts with the methane fuel to form hydrogen (H2) & carbon dioxide
(CO2). This electrochemical reaction generates electrons, which flow from the anode to an external load

and back to the cathode, a final step that both completes the circuit and supplies electric power. To increase
voltage output, several fuel cells are stacked together to form the heart of a clean power generator.
Schematic of fuel cell operation.
Electrode material: Special conducting carbon Vulcan XE-72 available with Cabot Corporation, USA.
Anodic catalyst: Platinum-Ruthenium adsorbed on conducting carbon. Cathodic catalyst: Platinum
adsorbed on conducting carbon. Membrane: Nafion Membrane available with DuPont USA.
Ion Exchange Membranes - Polystyrene (PS) Membranes

Dense membranes used for gas separation and evaporation. Sulfonated PS membrane used in
methanol based fuel cells. Sulfonated PS blended with Nafion® membrane. High impact PS blended with
polyaniline. Anion exchange membranes prepared by chloromethylation of polystyrene.
Attractive characteristics of fuel cell

⮚ High energy conversion efficiency.
⮚ Modular design.

⮚ Very low chemical and acoustical pollution.

⮚ Fuel flexibility.
⮚ Cogeneration capability.
⮚ Rapid load response.
Types of fuel cells
Fuel cell Operating conditions
Alkaline FC (AFC) Operates at room temperature to 80° C. Apollo fuel cell.
Proton Exchange Membrane FC Operates best at 60 to 90° C. Hydrogen fuel. Originally

(PEMFC) developed by GE for space.
Operates best at ~ 200° C. Hydrogen fuel. Stationary
Phosphoric Acid FC (PAFC)
energy storage device.
Operates best at 550° C. Nickel catalysts, ceramic
Molten Carbonate FC (MCFC)
separator membrane Hydrocarbon fuels reformed in situ.
Operates at 900° C. Conducting ceramic oxide electrodes.
Solid Oxide FC (SOFC)
Hydrocarbon fuels reformed in situ.
Operates best at 60 to 90° C. Methanol Fuel. For portable
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
electronic devices.
Operating principle of fuel cells

All fuel cells have the same basic operating principle: An input fuel is catalytically reacted
(electrons removed from the fuel elements) in the fuel cell to create an electric current. Fuel cells consist
of an electrolyte material which is sandwiched in between two thin electrodes (porous anode and cathode).
The input fuel passes over the anode (and oxygen over the cathode) where it catalytically splits into ions
and electrons. The electrons go through an external circuit to serve an electric load while the ions move
through the electrolyte toward the oppositely charged electrode. At the electrode, ions combine to create
by-products, primarily water and CO2. Depending on the input fuel and electrolyte, different chemical
reactions will occur. The following figure shows the operating principle of a fuel cell.

Operating principle of a fuel cell
Problems with fuel cells

⮚ The fuel cell uses oxygen and hydrogen to produce electricity.
⮚ The oxygen required for a fuel cell comes from the air.
⮚ In fact, in the PEM fuel cell, ordinary air is pumped into the cathode.
⮚ The hydrogen is not so readily available, however.
⮚ Hydrogen has some limitations that make it impractical for use in most applications.
⮚ For instance, you don't have a hydrogen pipeline coming to your house, and you can't pull up to a
hydrogen pump at your local gas station.
⮚ Hydrogen is difficult to store and distribute, so it would be much more convenient if fuel cells
could use fuels that are more readily available.
⮚ This problem is addressed by a device called a reformer.
⮚ A reformer turns hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels into hydrogen, which is then fed to the fuel cell.
EMISSION AND EURO STANDARDS

EMISSION
The internal combustion engine produces power by burning fuel and changing the chemical energy
of fuel into thermal (heat) energy. The thermal energy is then converted to mechanical power. Not all of
the chemical energy of the petrol is converted to useful power and much of it is wasted. Also, the engine’s
combustion process produces some harmful products. These are discharged from the engine and become
air pollutants. Therefore, an engine’s fuel system, and its emission controls are closely interrelated.
Consideration of emission control requirements is extremely important in the design and operation of all
parts of the fuel system.
The primary pollutants entering the atmosphere from the internal combustion engine are carbon
monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). They originate from three
primary sources such as crankcase blow by gas (HC 20%), exhaust gases (CO 100 %, NOx 100 % and HC

60 %), and fuel evaporation from tank and carburetor (HC 20 %). Therefore, automobile emission control
can be grouped into following major families:
1. Crankcase emission control: Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) systems control HC emissions
from the engine crankcase.
2. Evaporative emission control: Evaporate emission control (EEC) systems control the evaporation
of HC vapors from the fuel tank, pump, and carburetor.
3. Exhaust emission control: Various systems used to control HC, CO, and NOx emissions from the
engine exhaust are (i) air injection system or pulse air system, (ii) engine modification, (iii) spark
timing, (iv) exhaust gas re-circulation (EGR) system, and (v) catalytic converter system.
In the fight for clean air, and in meeting the emission standards, the prime responsibility rests not
only with the manufacturers but with the tune-up technician as well. Strong emphasis must be placed on
the need for correct tune-up and maintenance procedure. The chapter presents various engine emission
control systems in detail. Some systems presented are obsolete today, but are discussed to provide a total
picture of the effort put in the area in various directions.
Major Pollutants
The major pollutants produced by an internal combustion engine include hydrocarbons (HC),
carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). In addition, an automobile engine gives off many
small liquid or solid particles, such as lead, carbon, sulphur and other particulates, which also contribute
to pollution. All these emissions constitute air pollutants, but not smog.
Effects of vehicle emissions
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
While CO2 is non-toxic, its main environmental effect is as a greenhouse gas. Each year an
estimated 30 billion tones of CO2 are emitted due to human activity, 2% of which originates from the
United Kingdom. To illustrate the scale of the impact of these emissions as a result of human activities,
the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (from all sources) has increased by 31 % since 1750. The
present concentration has not been exceeded during the past 420000 years and likely not during the past
20 million years. The current rate of increase is unprecedented during at least the past 20000 years. Over
the last two decades, about three-quarters of the anthropogenic emissions of CO 2 have been a result of
burning of fossil fuels, the rest being predominantly due to land-use change (e.g. deforestation).
By enhancing the greenhouse effect, greenhouse gas emissions are leading to increases of the
Earth's atmospheric, land and sea temperatures. During the 20th century the global average surface
temperature (the average of near surface air temperature over land and sea surface temperature) increased
by 0.6 (+/-0.2) ° C. This temperature is predicted to increase by 1.4 to 5.8° C by 2100 (1990 baseline).
Based on palaeo-climate data, the projected rate of warming is very likely to be without precedent during
at least the last 10,000 years. The concomitant rises in sea levels and resulting climatic change will be of
great (and as yet unknown) significance to all patterns of life on earth.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Produced during the incomplete combustion of carbon compounds such as fossil fuels, this gas is
known to be deleterious to human health. During respiration it readily combines with hemoglobin in the
blood thus hindering the body's ability to take up oxygen. It is thou ght therefore to aggravate respiratory
and heart disease.
Carbon monoxide also contributes to global warming to a small degree. This it does indirectly after
first taking part in chemical reactions within the atmosphere. One such reaction would be with oxygen,
forming carbon dioxide and thus contributing to the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

As a result of the high temperatures occurring during combustion, nitrogen combines with oxygen
from the air forming oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO 2, N2O etc.). These gases are known to be responsible for
acid deposition via the formation of nitric acid. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is toxic even in small
concentrations and is known to cause and aggravate human respiratory diseases. Nitrous oxide (N 2O) also
contributes directly to global warming and is responsible for around 7% of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Particulates (PMs)
Particulates, commonly known as 'black smoke', are fine particles produced by incomplete
combustion, the burning of lubrication oil and by the presence of impurities within the fuel. Typically with
a dimension of the order of 10 microns or less (known as 'PM10'), they are known to cause and aggravate
human respiratory diseases and are thought to be carcinogenic. The World Health Organization has issued
a report stating that there are no concentrations of airborne micro-sized particulate matter that are not
hazardous to human health.
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Unburned hydrocarbons, given off by an automobile, are largely from unburned portions of fuel.
Car without emission controls produces about 24 kg of hydrocarbon emissions for every cubic meter of
petrol use. Hydrocarbons are the only major automotive air pollutant, which comes from other sources in
addition to the engine’s exhaust.
More than 200 different varieties of hydrocarbon pollutants are generated from automotive sources.
While the fuel system and the engine exhaust contribute maximum to this pollutant, others are oil and
petrol fumes come from the crankcase. A car’s tyres, paint, and upholstery also add tiny amounts of
hydrocarbons. The three major sources of HC emissions in an automobile are; (i) Exhaust - 60 %, (ii)
Crank case - 20 % and (iii) Carburetor vent & fuel tank vent - 20 %.
If petrol is burned completely in an automobile engine only water and carbon dioxide are produced
and there can be no hydrocarbon in the exhaust. When the vaporized and compressed air-fuel mixture is
ignited, combustion occurs so fast that petrol vapor close to the wall of the combustion chamber does not
burn completely. This unburned fuel passes out with the exhaust gases. This problem increases with
engines that misfire or are not properly tuned.

Hydrocarbon emission does not cause a direct threat to human health, although there is proof that
some compounds are carcinogenic (cause cancer). The major problem associated is that HC reacts with
NOx and atmospheric ozone to produce an unpleasant photochemical smog. Such smog has become a
problem in large cities, especially where there is a sunny climate.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Volatile organic compounds consist of a number of different chemicals including hydrocarbons
(e.g. methane), which are released during the production, refining, storage and combustion of fossil fuels.
The largest environmental risks of VOCs are due to the presence of benzene and 1, 3 -butadiene, which are
both carcinogens and are easily inhaled due to their volatile nature. Other chemicals in this category are
responsible for the production of tropospheric ozone, which is toxic even in low concentrations.
Methane is a significant greenhouse gas and is released during the drilling for oil and gas and
during the combustion of petroleum products. Around 5% of methane emissions are due to the production
and use of fuels used for road transport.
Sulphur Oxides
The sulphur gets into the atmosphere in the form of sulphur oxides, which is produced during
processing and burning of petrol and other fossil fuels such as coal and oil. This material combines with
water in the air to form corrosive sulphuric acid, which is a secondary pollutant. Recently, such pollution
has become a major problem in the north eastern United States, as well as in other parts of the world.
Clouds containing sulphuric acid are carried by winds to the Northeast, where they deposit enough aci d in
the form of rain and snow to kill wildlife.
Tropospheric Ozone (O3)
In the stratosphere, ozone absorbs ultraviolet light, therefore reducing the number of harmful rays
reaching living organisms at the Earth's surface. However, at ground level (the troposphere), ozone is toxic
to animals and plants. Ozone is thought to be responsible for aggravating human respiratory disease and
is known to reduce crop yields.
While the concentration of stratospheric ozone is being depleted by the action of

chlorofluorocarbons and other chemicals, exhaust emissions from road vehicles are increasing the
concentration of ozone at ground level. Although there are a number of sources of man-made tropospheric
ozone, transport is known to be a major contributor of emissions through the action of sunlight on emitted
VOCs.
Lead (Pb)
Lead is known to affect the mental development of young children and is known to be toxic. It was
originally introduced into petroleum products as an 'anti-knock' additive to improve combustion in a spark-
ignition (petrol) engine. At its peak, road transport was responsible for three quarters of airborne lead in
the UK. However, due to the introduction of unleaded petrol and the elimination of leaded fuels in Europe
in 2000, the amount of lead emitted has fallen by over 80%.

EURO STANDARDS
The European emission standards, or Euro standards (harmful emissions classifications), define
the acceptable limits for exhaust emissions of new vehicles sold in EU member states. Harmful emissions
play an important role in the control of a vehicle. The legislation is also in line with the classification in
the different Euro standards. The code number in the vehicle registration certificate indicates the emission
class for every automobile.
The statutory regulations controlling emissions have become gradually more stringent: Just
recently, the European Parliament has again decided to lower the limits for harmful emissions from cars.
Euro 5 took effect on September 1st 2009. At the same time, the EU has already informed the automotive
industry of the proposed limits of the Euro 6 standard (to be enforced from 2014).
Currently, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), total hydrocarbon (THC), non-methane

hydrocarbons (NMHC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) are regulated for most vehicle
types, including cars, lorries, trains, tractors and similar machinery, barges, but excluding seagoing ships
and airplanes. For each vehicle type, different standards apply. Compliance is determined by running the
engine at a standardized test cycle. Non-compliant vehicles cannot be sold in the EU, but new standards
do not apply to vehicles already on the roads. No use of specific technologies is mandated to meet the
standards, though available technology is considered when setting the standards. New models introduced
must meet current or planned standards, but minor lifecycle model revisions may continue to be offered
with pre-compliant engines.
The stages are typically referred to as Euro 1, Euro 2, Euro 3, Euro 4 and Euro 5 for Light Duty
Vehicle standards. The corresponding series of standards for Heavy Duty Vehicles use Roman, rather than
Arabic numerals (Euro I, Euro II, etc.).
European emission standards for passenger cars (Category M*), g/km

European emission standards for light commercial vehicles ≤ 1305 kg (Category N 1-I), g/km

European emission standards for light commercial vehicles 1305 kg - 1760 kg (Category N1-II), g/km

European emission standards for light commercial vehicles 1760 kg - 3500 kg. (Category N1-III &N2), g/km

Emission standards for lorries and buses

Whereas for passenger cars, the standards are defined by vehicle driving distance, g/km, for lorries
(trucks) they are defined by engine energy output, g/kWh, and are therefore in no way comparable. The
following table contains a summary of the emission standards and their implementation dates. Dates in the
tables refer to new type approvals; the dates for all type approvals are in most cases one year later (EU
type approvals are valid longer than one year). The official category name is heavy-duty diesel engines,
which generally includes lorries and buses.
European emission standards for heavy duty Diesel Engines, g/kWh (smoke in m −1)

European emission standards for large goods vehicles [Category N3, EDC, (2000 and up)]
European emission standards for large goods vehicles [Category - Older ECE R49 cycle]
Enhanced environmentally friendly vehicle or EEV is a term used in the European emission
standards for the definition of a "clean vehicle" > 3.5 tonne in the category M2 and M3. The standard lies
between the levels of Euro V and Euro VI.

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UNIT - V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

USE OF NATURAL GAS IN AUTOMOBILES

Differences between LNG and CNG fuels

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 115

LNG as an auto fuel

Advantages of natural gas over gasoline and diesel

Chemical composition of natural gas

Energy content of natural gas

Transportation of natural gas

Storage of natural gas

116 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Conversion kits for natural gas vehicle

Synthetic natural gas

USE OF LPG IN AUTOMOBILES

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 117

Equipment for LPG vehicles

118 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

LPG fuel system for an automobile

Vehicle operation with LPG

The vehicle structures need to be modified for LPG

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 119

Safety characteristics of LPG

USE OF BIO-DIESEL IN AUTOMOBILES

120 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 121

USE OF GASOHOL IN AUTOMOBILES

122 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Countries using gasohol

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 123

Modifications to engines using gasohol

124 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

USE OF HYDROGEN IN AUTOMOBILES

Fuel properties of hydrogen

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 125

Production of hydrogen fuel

Reforming natural gas

126 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 127

Benefits of electric vehicles

Availability of electric vehicles

Neighborhood Electric Vehicles:

128 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Charging of electric vehicles

Maintenance and Safety

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 129

130 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

The architecture of a series HEV

Hub motor configuration of a series HEV

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 131

The architecture of a parallel HEV

132 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

The architectures of a series-parallel HEV

The electrical four-wheel drive system using a complex architecture

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 133

Other approaches to vehicle hybridization

A parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle

134 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Components of the fuel cells

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 135

Schematic of fuel cell operation.

Ion Exchange Membranes - Polystyrene (PS) Membranes

Attractive characteristics of fuel cell

136 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

⮚ Very low chemical and acoustical pollution.