Auto Notes Unit 4 (2)

UNIT - IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION
UNIT - IV
STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION
WHEELS
Wheels can be defined as “a disc or spoke with hub (revolving around axle) at centre & has a rim
around the outside of disc for mounting the tyre”.
Necessity of wheels
1) Wheel must sustain vehicle & passenger load.
2) It provides cushioning effect & copes with steering control.
Requirement of wheels
1) It should be light in weight
2) It should be possible to remove or mount the wheel easily.
3) It must be balanced both statically & dynamically.
4) Wheels material should not deteriorate. It must have better corrosion resistance.
5) It should have good load carrying capacity; it must resist bending, tensile, compressive & torsional
stresses.
6) Cushioning effect is necessary to absorb shock load (due to road irregularities) & damp the
vibration faster.
Type’s of wheels
There are 3 types of wheels, namely: 1) Pressed steel disc wheel. 2) Wire wheel and 3)
Light alloy cast or forged wheel.
1. Pressed steel disc wheel

Pressed steel disc wheels consist of two parts, a) Steel rim and b) Pressed steel disc. Construction
of pressed disc wheel is discussed below. The following figure shows the pressed steel disc wheel.
The rim & disc may be integral, permanently attached or attachable. The rim has a well, which
allows the tyre to go over the edge of opposite side of rim. A 5 ° taper is given at edge of rim on which
tyre seats. Pressed steel disc performs function of spokes. Ventilation slots are provided on disc for better
cooling of brake drums. Holes are provided on pressed disc & rim for mounting of wheel & air valve
respectively.
Features of pressed steel disc wheel

1) Pressed disc wheel are simple in design.
2) These wheels are robust in design.
3) These wheels have economical prices.
4) Better cooling is possible in this type of wheels.
DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 77

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Application: - These wheels are used in heavy motor vehicle (truck, tractor’s etc.) and cars.
Pressed steel disc wheel
2. Wire wheel
Wire Wheels have Separate hub, which is attached to rim through no. of wire spokes. Various
components of wire wheels are as follows: a) Spoke b) Hub and c) Rim. Construction of wire wheel is
discussed below. The following figure shows the wire wheel.
78 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Wire Wheel
Spokes : Spokes one end of spoke is hooked to hub while other end is attached to wheel rim.
Spoke carries vehicles & passengers weight. It transmits driving & breaking torque & withstands side
forces while cornering (i.e.:- cornering load & side thrust)
Hub : Hub is provided with internal splines & is mounted on the axle shaft. One end of
spoke is hooked to hub end.
Rim : Rim has holes at the centre for attaching spokes. The only disadvantage of this rims
are, tubeless tyre cannot be mounted on it because of holes on the rim.
Advantages of wire wheels

1) Wire wheels are light in weight.
2) Wire wheels provide better cooling of break drum.
3) They have high strength.
4) They have better changeability as only one nut needs to be opened for mounting & dismounting of
wheel.
Applications: Used in two wheelers and bicycles.
3. Light alloy cast or forged wheel

Latest trend in automobile is use of wheel made from Aluminium & magnesium alloy. These
wheels are lighter than steel wheels. The following figure shows the light alloy cast or forged wheel.
Light alloy cast or forged wheel

Advantages of light alloy cast or forged wheel
1) Light alloy wheels are better conductor of heat, which helps to dissipate heat generated by breaking.
2) Wider rims are possible in these wheels which improves stability on cornering.
3) Cast or forged wheels need to be machined yet it helps to maintain close tolerance.
4) These wheels are lighter as compared to steel wheels.
5) Magnesium alloy have high impact & fatigue strength, so they can stand vibration & shock loads.
6) Aluminium alloy are easier to cast or forged & are less prone to corrosion
The only disadvantage of this wheel is, they have highly priced.
Application: Cast wheels are used in cars & Forged wheels are used in heavy duty vehicles.
RIMS
Necessity: Rim is outer circular part of wheel on which tyre is mounted & supported. Types of
rims are as follows: 1) Well base rim. 2) Flat base rim. 3) Semi drop centre rim. 4) Flat base divided rim.
1. Well base rim

This type of rim is used for passenger car tyres. The well enables tyre to pass over the edge of
opposite side of rim. The tyre gets locked to rim on inflation, a slight taper (5°) is provided for this purpose.
The following figure shows the well base rim.
Well base rim

2. Flat base rim
The flange at one end is held in position by pushing by pushing the flanges inward. This tyre can
be mounted & removed easily. Flat based rim are used in tyres of heavy duty vehicles. The following figure
shows the flat base rim.
Flat base rim

3. Semi drop centre rim
These types of rim are used in light commercial vehicles. It gives advantage of both well base &
flat base rim. The detachable flange makes tyre removal easy, while slight taper helps the tyre lock on rim.
The following figure shows the semi drop centre rim.
Semi drop centre rim

4. Flat base divided rim
Flat base divided rims are in two sections, which are bolter together. These rims are used in military
& heavy duty applications. The following figure shows the flat base divided rim.
Flat base divided rim
TYRES
Tyre is a cushion provided with an automobile wheel. It consist of outer cover (i.e.:- tyre proper)
which has tube inside. This tyre tube is mounted on wheel rim.

Necessity of tyre
1) Tyre reduces road shocks & provides cushioning effect.
2) Tyre is responsible for improved traction (i.e. better friction between tyre & road surface).
Requirements of tyre
A good tyre should have the following requirements.
1) Load carrying capacity: Tyre should be able to carry weight of vehicle & passenger without
distortion. Tyre must resist bending, tensile, compressive & torsional stresses.
2) Cushioning: Tyre should absorb shock loads caused due to due road irregularities & damp the
vibration faster.
3) Uniform wear: Uniform wear reduces tyre skidding & vibration due to road irregularities.
4) Non-Skidding: Tread pattern must be such that tyre must not skid. The tyre must have high
coefficient of friction
5) Power consumption: Tyre must have low rolling resistance & therefore must consume least power
of engine.
6) Noise: Tyre noise must be minimum. It depends on tread pattern & type of road.
7) Balance: The tyre must be statically & dynamically balanced or it may cause wheel wobbling.
Apart from above properties a tyre must provide better durability, good abrasive resistance, safety &
have low cost.
Types of tyres
Pneumatic tyres are of two types. They are; 1) Conventional tube tyre and 2) Tubeless tyre.
1. Conventional tube tyre

Construction of conventional tube tyre is discussed below. The following figure shows the sectional
view of a conventional tube tyre.

Sectional view of a conventional tube tyre
Tread: The shoulder to shoulder portion of tyre that comes in contact with road surface is known as tread.
Its primary function is to transmit driving & breaking torque. Tread are bonded on carcass & material used
are natural or synthetic rubber.
Breakers: Top two plies of tyre are known as breakers. This plies are widely spaced to help in spreading
the shocks from road & to prevent radial growth of tyre during inflation.
Carcass/ Casing: Carcass is made up of layers of cord impregnated with rubber. The number of layers of
cord varies according to the use of tyre (carcass have 4-6 plies, heavy duty vehicles have 22 plies). Carcass
bears shock load, side thrust & vehicle’s weight.
Flippers: A number of layers of additional cords are wound around bead wired for extra strength & avoid
stress concentration. Flippers are wound up to small distance on the side wall.
Sidewall: It serves as protective covering to carcass, but it is subjected to maximum flexing action,
creating large amount of heat building.

Beads: Coil of wires represents the bead. A number of highly tensile steel wires which are built in the
edge of tyre in order to give strong edges to press against the inner edge of the rim. This plies of cord are
fastened to them & therefore serve as metal foundation of tyre.
2. Tubeless tyre
Construction: The material & design of carcass & tread remains similar to tubed type tyre. The
inside of casing is lined with soft rubber lining which forms an air tight seal with rim, it is known as “air-
retainer liner”. This lining retains the air & seals itself on being puncture. A “non return valve” is fitted to
rim thorough which the air is forced inside the tyre. The following figure shows the sectional view of a
tubeless tyre.
Sectional view of a tubeless tyre
Advantages of tubeless tyre are

1) Temporary puncture repairs are made without removing the wheel. A rubber plug is inserted at
place of puncture.
2) Tyre deflates slowly; air is retained for longer period even after being punctured.
3) Tubeless tyres are lighter in weight & run cooler than tubeless tyre.
4) Tubeless tyre imparts more resistance to impact load.
5) Better air sealing qualities are obtained.
6) It has simpler assembly, only tyre has to be fitted over rim (no tube).

The only disadvantage of this type of tyre is, it’s unsuitable for spooked & corroded wheels.
Tyre material
Basic constitute of tyre are as follows: 1) Rubber- natural or synthetic. 2) Cord of stabilizer belt
and 3) Steel for high tensile steel bead wires.
1. Rubber- natural or synthetic
a) Natural rubber: It was used to impregnate the carcass cotton cords.
b) Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR): SBR was used to impregnate on nylon cords. It provides better
road grip, better abrasive resistance & smooth ride.
c) Poly butadiene (PB): PB is mixed with SBR & additives like carbon black, oil & sulphur imparts
anti wear, anti- skid & anti heat properties.
2. Cord of stabilizer belt

The material used is rayon, Terylene, glass fiber or steel. Steel is commonly used in case of radial
tyre belt.
3. Steel for high tensile steel bead wires

Bronze plated highly tensile steel wire is used, on which special rubber is insulated. Above given
are material used for various tyre component.
CARCASS
Carcass is main structure of wire which takes stresses while operation & tyre is named on the basis
of carcass used. There are three types of carcass, 1) Cross ply or bias ply type. 2) Radial ply type and 3)
Belted bias type.
1. Cross ply or bias ply type

In this type, the ply cords are woven at an angle (30 - 40°) to tyre axis. There are two layers which
run in opp. direction as shown in figure. This construction allows carcass to retain its strength during tyre
rotation & provides comfortable ride. Thus carcass is able to resist stresses caused due to sudden
acceleration, cornering and breaking.
2. Radial ply type

In this structure ply cords run in radial direction (i.e. in direction of the tyre axis). Over this basic
structure run a number of breaker strips in circumferential direction. The material for breaker strip must
be flexible but in extensible so that no change of circumference takes place with change in amount of
inflation. Breakers are widely spaced to help in spaced to help in spreading shocks from road & prevent
radial growth. The inextensible breaker strips provides lateral & directional stability.
3. Belted bias type

This is a combination of cross ply & radial ply structure. The basic structure is cross ply over
which, runs a number of breaker belts. This belt improves characteristics of bias ply tyre to a large extent.
Feature of belted bias tyre are;
1. The stresses in carcass are restricted & tread area is stabilized due to belts. This increases tire life.
2. Breaker belt holds the tread flatter against road surface & provides safe ride.
3. Belt increases resistance of tyre for cuts & punctures.
The following figure shows the three types of carcass.
Cross ply type carcass Radial ply type carcass Belted bias type carcass
Advantages of Radial ply type over Cross ply type

1) Treads of radial ply offers better stiffness & resistance resulting in better grip.
2) Radial ply have longer tread life.
3) Radial ply provide better breaking grip.
4) Radial ply have better steering characteristics as compared to cross ply.
Comparison between Radial ply type and Cross ply type

Sl. No. Radial ply type Cross ply type
In radial ply type, the cords of tyre run in In cross ply type, alternate layers of cords run
1
radial direction. in opposite direction.
The cord plies are woven in radial direction of The cord plies are woven at angle (30 - 40°) to
2
tyre axis. the tyre axis.
Radial tyres are provided with breaker strip, There is no breaker strip in this tyre. Thus
3 thus a continuous flat contact is possible with continuous grip with road surface is not
road surface. possible.
This tyre has low rolling resistance, thus The cross ply has more rolling resistance as
4
better fuel efficiency. compared to cross ply.
5 This tyre provides better directional stability. This tyre has wobbling characteristics.
This tyre has greater sidewall flexibility & Sidewall flexibility & tread stiffness is lesser
6
treads stiffness. as compared to radial ply tyre.
TREAD
Tread can be defined as “Shoulder to Shoulder width of the tyre that comes in contact with the
road surface”.

Necessity of treads
1) It improves tyre ability to transmit driving & breaking torque.
2) It provides stability & non skidding characteristic to tyre.
Types of tread
1. Straight tread: It provides better adhesion, good grip & better steering stability.
2. Cross tread: It provides better grip but it has rapid, irregular wear & noisy running.
3. Square tread: It provides straight & sideway grip but it has irregular wear on hard road & has noisy
running.
4. Combination tread: It is combination of cross & straight pattern. It has good wear resistance
& steering characteristics. Application: trailers & farming application.
5. V patter - Deep groove pattern: These tyre are used on rough & loose surface, giving maximum grip
and sideway stability. Application: Tractor’s rear wheel.
The following figure shows the various types of treads.
Straight tread Cross tread Square tread
Combination tread V patter - Deep groove pattern
Tyre inflation
The inflation pressure is recommended by the vehicle manufacturer depending upon tyre size,
speed & load.
Under inflation causes the following defects:

1. Uneven tread wear, more wear at tyre sides.

2. Lack of directional stability.

3. Increased rolling resistance leading to increased fuel consumption.
4. Excessive flexing of sidewall causes build up.
5. The valve may be ripped out due to tyre punch.
Over inflation causes the following defect:

1. Reduced tread contact area with road surface.
2. Reduced tyre grip.
3. Reduced impact resistance.
4. Increased vibration resulting in uncomfortable ride.
5. Increased stresses may causes tread separation & crack in the sidewall.
WHEEL ALIGNMENT PARAMETERS
It refers to the positioning of the front wheels and steering mechanism that gives the vehicle
directional stability; reduce the tyre wear to a minimum. Factors effect the wheel alignment:
1. Factors pertaining to wheel: - It includes Balance of wheels (Static and Dynamic), Inflation of tyre
and Brake adjustments.
2. Steering Linkages.
3. Suspension System
4. Steering Geometry: - It includes Caster, Camber, King pin inclination, Toe-in and Toe-out.
STEERING GEOMETRY
Steering geometry refers to the angular relationship between the front wheels and parts attached to
it and vehicle frame.
Caster angle: This is the angle between backward or forward tilting of the king pin from the vertical axis
at the top. This is about 2º to 4º. The backward tilt is called as positive caster. The forward tilt is called
negative caster. It gives direction stability to travel in straight direction with minimum effort by the driver
with the help of steering.
Camber: The angle between wheel axes to the vertical line at the top is called camber angle. It is
approximately ½º to 2º. Camber is the amount that the centerline of the wheel tilts away from true vertical
when viewed from the front of the vehicle. Camber places the tire tread flat on the road reducing tire wear
and improving vehicle handling. Excessive camber will cause wear on the edge of the tire’s tread.
Steering axis inclination: Angle between the steering knuckle pivot points and true vertical.
Included Angle: It is the sum of steering axis inclination and camber
Scrub radius: It is the distance between the tread centerline and the point where a projection of the
steering axis angle would contact the road surface.

King-pin inclination: It is the angle between vertical line to the king pin axis. The inclination tends to
keep wheels straight ahead and make the wheels to get return to the straight position after completion of a
turn. The inclination is normally kept 7º to 8º.
Thrust angle: It is the difference between the centerline of the vehicle and the thrust line of the rear axle.
Negative thrust angle - rear wheels point left and positive thrust angle - rear wheels point right.
Toe-in: It is the amount in minimum at the front part of the wheel points inwards approximately 3 to 5
mm. It prevents side slipping excessive tyre wear, proper rolling of front wheels and steering stability.
Toe-out: It is the difference in angles between two front wheels and vehicle frame during turning. It is
used to prevent dragging of tyre during turn. Reversible steering: When the deflection of road wheels is
transmitted through the steering wheel to road surface, the system is called Reversible.
If every imperfection of road surface causes the steering to rotate, it causes much strain on the part
of the driver to control the vehicle. It causes much strain on the part of the driver to control the vehicle.
There fore such of the reversibility is not desired. But, some degree of reversibility desired, so that the
wheel becomes straight after taking a curve.
Irreversible steering: If the front road wheels do not transfer any deflection to the steering which is called
irreversible steering. After negotiating a curve and the steering wheel not returned easily, there causes the
production of un-due stresses on the steering mechanism, therefore some degree of irreversible also
desired.
The following figures show the steering geometry.
Steering geometry

Camber King pin inclination Steering axis inclination Combined angle

Castor
STEERING SYSTEM
Steering system provides the directional change in the movement of an Automobile and maintain
in a position as per the driver’s decision without much strain on him. It converts the rotary motion of
steering wheel into angular moment to turn vehicle into particular direction. This system is connected with
front wheels of vehicles.
Requirements of steering system
1. It must keep the wheel at all times into rolling motion with out rubbing on the road.
2. This system should associate to control the speed.
3. It must light and stable.
4. It should also absorb the road shocks.
5. It must easily be operated with less maintenance.
6. It should have self-centering action to some extent.
Functions of steering system

1. It helps in swinging the wheels to the left or right.
2. It helps in turning the vehicle at the will of the driver.
3. It provides directional stability.
4. It is used to minimize the tyre wear and tear.
5. It helps in achieving self-centering efforts.
6. It absorbs major part of the road shocks.
CONSTRUCTION OF STEERING SYSTEM

The major components of the steering system are; (1) Steering, (2) Linkages and (3) Steering
knuckle. It also contains the following components. They are; Drop arm or Pitman arm, Drag link, Steering
arm, Track-arms, Track rod or Tie-rod and Adjusting screws. The following figure shows the construction
of the steering system.

Construction of the steering system

Steering
This is the mechanism used for changing the direction of vehicle. It consists of steering wheel,
steering column and steering gear. (i) Steering wheel: Which is a circular wheel mounted on the steering
shaft which is connected with knuckle joints. It is mostly used to control the vehicle. In modern cars
steering wheel is corporated with some controls like horn, indicators switch etc. (ii) Steering shaft: This
is the hollow shaft enclosed by casing which transmit the motion from steering wheel to steering gear. (iii)
Steering gear: Steering shaft is connected at lower end with steering gears. Different types of steering
gears are used. They are discussed in the next section. The functions of steering gear are;
⮚ It turns the vehicle in the required direction.
⮚ It converts the Rotary movement of the steering wheel in to the angular turning of the front wheels.
⮚ It also multiplies driver’s efforts and gives mechanical advantage.
Linkages
These are the links which are operated by steering gears. In conventional system, steering arms of
the wheel are connected with rod called tie rods which are run parallel to axle beam. These steering knuckle
arms are projecting out and connected with pit arm by means of push rod. There are following types of
linkages are: (i) conventional type. (ii) Centre arm steering type and (iii) Parallelogram linkage : In this
linkage there is a centre link which is connected with two parallels links which are connected with the

wheels. This arm is operated through drag link. The two arms are further connected with tie rods to the
individual steering arms.
Steering Knuckle
It is also known as steering spride which is integrated with stub axle of its moved around the
kingpin. The force which is conveyed through steering knuckle by means of steering linkage (which
is used to turn either vehicle left or right).
Drop-arm
This forged lever-arm is bolted on to a tapered steering-box output rocker-shaft and it hangs or
drops downwards. It imparts a circular-arc movement to the drag-link through its swing action.
Drag-link
This tubular rod converts the circular movement of the drop-arm into a linear push or pulls motion
of the drag-link arm, attached rigidly to one of the stub-axles. A ball-joint is fitted at each end of the rod
so that a relative movement is provided in planes.
Drag-link Arm
This arm joints the drag-link to one of the stub-axles and provides sufficient leverage to convert
the linear movement of the drag-link to an angular movement about the stub-axle king-pin.
Stub-axles
The stub-axle is a short axle-shaft to which one steered road-wheel is mounted. It uses two
extended horizontal prongs that fit over the ends of the axle-beam. The king-pin, a short circular bar,
passes vertically through both prongs and the eye of the axle-beam to form the hinge pivot. The stub-axle
acts as the wheel axle as well as the pivot support member in the horizontal plane.
Track-rod Arms
Each stub-axle uses a forged track-rod arm bolted approximately at right angles to the wheel axis
in the horizontal plane. This arm provides the leverage to rotate the stub-axle about the king-pin. This
rotary movement is transferred to the other stub-axle through the track-rod.
Track-rod
A tubular track-rod spans the wheel track and pivots together the two stub-axles. The ends of this
rod carry ball-joints, which in turn are bolted to the track-rod arms of each stub axle. These ball-joints are
allowed to move only in the horizontal plane. The drag-link movement is either a pull or a push action and
rotates one of the stub-axles. This motion is transferred to the other stub-axle through the track-rod.
TYPES OF STEERING GEAR BOXES

Worm and wheel type steering gear
This type of steering gear has a square cut screw threads at the end of the steering column; which
forms a worm, at the end of it a worm wheel is fitted and works rigidly with it. Generally covered shaft is
used for the worm wheel. The worm wheel can be turned to a new position the drop arm can be readjusted
to the correct working position. This is shown in the following figure.

Worm and wheel type steering gear

Worm and nut type steering gear or Re-circulating ball type steering gear
Another form of steering gear is the worm and nut, which is made in several different combinations,
a nut is meshed with the worm and screws up and down on it. The nut may operate the pitman arm directly
through a lever, or through a sector on the pitman arm shaft. In this steering gear, the nut, which is in the
form of a sleeve block, is mounted on a continuous row of balls on the worm to reduce friction. This ball
nut is fitted with tubular ball guides to return the balls diagonally across the nut to re-circulate them as the
nut moves up and down on the worm. With this design, the nut is moved on the worm by rolling instead
of by sliding contact. Turning the worm moves the nut and forces the sector and the pitman arm shaft to
turn. An example of the re-circulating ball type of the worm and nut steering gear is shown in figure.
Re-circulating ball type steering gear

Rack and pinion type steering gear

In the rack and pinion steering system the steering gear shaft utilizes a pinion gear on the end, to
mesh with a long rack. The rack is connected to the steering arms by tie rods, which are adjustable, to
maintain proper toe angle. As the steering wheel is rotated, the pinion gear on the end of the steering shaft
rotates. The pinion moves the rack left and right to operate the steering linkage. Rack and pinion gears are
used on small passenger vehicles where a high degree of precision steering is required. Their use on larger
vehicles is limited because of the conflicting space requirements of rack and engine. This is shown in the
following figure.
Rack and pinion type steering gear
Cam and lever type steering gear

It is the steering gear, in which the worm is known as a cam. The pitman arm shaft carries a lever
on the inner end. This lever carries a stud that engages with the cam. The stud may be integral or mounted
on roller bearings. Roller bearings reduce friction and allow easier steering. As the steering wheel is turned,
the stud moves up and down on the cam and carries the lever with it to rotate the pitman arm shaft. The
pitch of the cam is not constant, therefore the lever moves more rapidly as it nears either end of the cam.
Maximum leverage occurs at the straight ahead position when the stud engages the fine pitch section of
the cam. This makes the initial turning of the wheels easier. Therefore, a variable ratio is obtained with
cam and lever steering. A twin lever provided with two studs is used on a design for heavier vehicles. This
is shown in the following figure.

Cam and lever type steering gear
Worm and sector type steering gear

In the worm and sector and sector type steering gear the pitman arm shaft carries a gear that meshes
with the worm on the steering gear shaft. Generally, only a sector of a gear is used because it turns through
an arc of approximately 70 degrees. The steering wheel turns the worm on the lower end of the steering
gear shaft, which rotates the sector and the pitman arm through the use of the shaft. The worm is assembled
between tapered roller bearings that take both thrust and load. An adjusting nut or plug is provided for
adjusting the end play of the worm. Some means of adjusting the end play of the cross-shaft also is
provided. This is shown in the following figure.

Worm and sector type steering gear

Worm and roller type steering gear
The worm and roller steering gear is quite similar to the worm and sector type except that a roller
is supported by ball or roller bearings within the sector mounted on the pitman arm shaft. These bearings
assist in reducing sliding friction between the worm and sector. As the steering wheel turns the worm, the
roller turns with it but forces the sector and the pitman arm shaft to rotate. The hourglass form of worm,
which tapers from both ends to the center, affords better contact between the worm and roller at all
positions. It provides a variable ratio to permit faster and more efficient steering. Variable ratio means that
the ratio is larger at one position than another and therefore the road wheels are turned faster at certain
positions than at others. At the center or straight ahead position, the steering gear ratio is high, giving more
steering control. However, as the wheels are cramped or turned to the side, the ratio decreases so that the
action is much more rapid. This design is very helpful for parking or for maneuvering the vehicle. This is
shown in the following figure.

Worm and roller type steering gear
STEERING MECHANISMS
Ackermann steering system
The Ackermann system is used exclusively on passenger cars and many wheeled military vehicles.
Correct Ackermann steering during a turn requires that each wheel turn around a point located on an
extension of the rear axle centerline. The steering arms are bent slightly toward each other so that their
centerlines, if extended, would intersect in front of the rear axle. With the Ackermann system, as the
vehicle is making a turn, the inside wheel will turn sharper than the outer wheel, therefore allowing all the
wheels to travel around a common point.
Ackermann principle say, that line intersecting each king pin and tie rod end would intersect near
the differential. In this mechanism stub axles are pivoted with the axle beam by means of king pin, front
axle is fixed with frame with the help of suspension system. In this mechanism a steering Knuckle arm is
joined with stub axles so to turn the wheels is required direction when steering action is done by driver.
The following figure shows the Ackermann steering system.

Ackermann steering system
Fifth-wheel steering system

Fifth-wheel steering system is accomplished by pivoting an entire axle around a central point. The
wheels of each axle maintain their initial position with respect to each other and the interconnecting axle
during a turn. This type of steering commonly is applied to towed vehicles because of the mechanical
difficulties of controlled steering and because greater under-body clearance is required for fifth-wheel
steering systems. The following figure shows the fifth-wheel steering system.

Fifth-wheel steering system

POWER STEERING
In modern cars this system is generally applied. This system is mostly used on heavy trucks or
containers. In power steering system oils of viscosity rating SAE 5W or SAE 10W are used according to
environment conditions. The principle of all power steering system is same when driver steer the wheel it
actuate the valve and from valve hydraulic oil goes to the side of the chamber cylinder are the. These
processes decrease the fatigue level of the driver and also ease the driving. Generally power steering
systems are divided into three categories: (a) Linkage type. (b) Internal type and (c) Semi integral type.
Purpose: The power steering system is designed to reduce the effort required to turn the steering wheel.
This task is accomplished by an auxiliary power network incorporated in the steering system.
Components of power steering system

Pump: All power steering systems contain a pump that supplies hydraulic fluid under pressure to the other
components in the system. The pump, which may be of the gear teeth, rotor, or vane type, usually is driven
by the engine by means of a V-belt and is functional whenever the engine is operating. Some models
mount the pump in front of the engine and are driven directly by the crankshaft. The pressure and flow
relief valves are always built into the pump. These valves are designed to limit the amount of pressure and
flow the pump develops throughout the different engine speeds.
Reservoir: The pump receives its oil supply from the reservoir which usually is an integral part of the
pump. Power steering fluid is generally added to the system and checked at the reservoir.
Control Valve: The control valve which is actuated by the steering wheel movements is designed to direct
the hydraulic fluid under pressure to the proper location in the steering system. The control valve may be

mounted either in the steering box or on the steering linkage, depending on which system configuration is
being used.
Gearbox: The gearbox used in an integral power steering system is basically a manual gearbox that is
adapted to include a power assist package. The integral power steering gearbox is of two types: offset and
in line. The offset type utilizes a re-circulating ball-type gear-box with a rack meshed to the pitman sector
gear above or on the opposite side of the ball nut. The power steering force is developed in the power
piston, which is offset from the worm and nut and attached to the rack. The in-line design uses the re-
circulating ball nut assembly as a power piston. In this design, the ball nut is sealed inside a cylindrical
portion of the steering gear housing. The power steering effect is produced by alternately pressurizing
either side of the power piston.
Hydraulic Cylinder: The hydraulic cylinder that is used on the semi-integral and integral power steering
systems is located on the steering linkage. The power assist is developed in the cylinder through the action
of the pressurized hydraulic fluid. The cylinder may be single- or double-wall construction. The hydraulic
hoses connect to the ports on each end of the single-wall cylinder. The double-wall cylinder has
connections on one end for both hoses and an internal passageway between the walls to pressurize the
other end of the cylinder. Some linkage cylinders have a shuttle valve built into the piston. This valve is
designed to open at the end of the piston stroke. This feature helps eliminate full hydraulic pressure from
acting on the cylinder when the piston is bottomed by opening and allowing fluid to flow through the
piston.
Operation of power steering system
Neutral: In this position there is no force required of the power steering system to turn the wheels,
therefore the fluid under pressure must be bypassed through the system. This usually is accomplished in
the control valve. When there is no steering force required by the driver, the spool in the control valve is
centered by springs or hydraulic pressure or a combination of both. This allows the oil to flow through the
valve and back to the reservoir. This condition allows the steering system to maintain its position.
Left and Right Turns: As the driver attempts to turn the steering wheel to make a left or right turn, the
power steering system is activated. The spool is moved off its center position and is forced to the left or
right end of the control valve. This opens the proper passageways for the pressurized oil. It is directed to
the proper side of the piston in the steering box or end of the hydraulic cylinder if linkage-type power
steering is employed. The return port is also opened and the fluid that is being displaced by the piston in
the cylinder is allowed to return to the reservoir.
Configurations of power steering system

A. Linkage Type: In the linkage configuration, the control valve and power cylinder may be separate
parts and mounted on different parts of the linkage. B. Integral type: The integral system incorporates the
control valve and power assist into the steering gear as a unit. C. Semi-Integral type: The control valve
on the semi-integral system is mounted to the steering gear and a separate hydraulic cylinder is mounted
to the linkage. The following figure shows the configurations of power steering system linkages.

Configurations of power steering system

OVER STEER AND UNDER STEER
Over steer: In this case slip angles of the front wheel are less than those of rear wheels, which
causes radius to be decreased while turning. In this vehicle is turned more sharply than rotation given to
steering wheel. The following figure shows the over steer condition.

Under steer: When the slip angles of front wheel are more than of rear wheels, radius of turn
increases. This position is called under steer. The following figure shows the under steer condition.
TYPES OF FRONT AXLE SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

The front axle suspension systems are of two types. They are; 1. Solid or Rigid axle suspension
system and 2. Independent axle suspension system.
In solid axle suspension system the entire axle is supported by two shock absorbers at two ends.
When the vehicle moves over a bump or pit the position of the vehicle will be inclined (i.e. the axle is
inclined). This system is used in older vehicles.
In independent axle suspension system the axle is divided and individually supported by two shock
absorbers at two ends. So when the vehicle moves over a bump or pit the position of the vehicle is straight.
This system is used in modern vehicles. The following figure shows the Solid or Rigid axle suspension
system and Independent axle suspension system.

Dead front axle suspension system

The dead front axle supports the vehicle weight and resists the torsional stresses that occur during
braking. To resist these stresses, as well as those resulting from impacts experienced during travel, and
still maintain reasonable wheel alignment and directional stability, the dead front axle usually is attached
to the frame by means of rather stiff semi-elliptic leaf springs. These springs produce a harsh ride and limit
the vehicle speed over irregular terrain. Softer springs may be employed, in which case the axle guidance
and torque resistance must be taken by separate linkages or other mechanisms.
To permit steering, the dead front axles are equipped with pivoting wheel spindles. The axles are
usually in sections of drop-forged alloy steel. The unsprung mass may be reduced, and the torque-
resistance properties improved, by using more expensive tubular axles of molybdenum steel. The
following figure shows the dead front axle suspension system.

Dead front axle suspension system

OTHER TYPES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Purpose: The suspension system’s main purpose is to support the weight of the vehicle. Military vehicles,
which are often very heavy and must be able to cross all types of terrain, depend heavily on their
suspension systems. In wheeled vehicles, the suspension must not only be effective over a wide range of
speed and land conditions, but also must allow for steering geometry and changes in terrain. In tracked
vehicles, such as a tank, the suspension system must support the vehicle so that the immense weight will
not sink down, even in soft ground. This system also must absorb bumps and jolts.
Leaf spring suspension system

Leaf springs usually are semielliptical in shape and are made of high quality alloy steel. There are
two types of leaf springs. The single leaf spring or mono leaf is a single layer spring that is thick in the
center and tapers down at each end. Single leaf springs generally are used on lighter suspension systems
that do not have to carry great loads. A multi leaf spring is made up of a single leaf with additional leaves
attached to it using spring clamps. The additional leaves make the spring stiffer, allowing it to carry greater
loads. As a multi leaf spring operates, there is a friction generated between the leaves, causing it to have a
dampening quality.
These types of springs may not require the use of a shock absorber in some applications. The multi
leaf spring uses a frictional material laminated between the leaves to reduce wear and eliminate any
squeaks that might develop. To keep the leaves equally spaced lengthwise, the multi leaf spring uses a
center bolt. The center bolt rigidly holds the leaves together in the middle of the spring, preventing the
leaves from moving off center. Leaf springs are attached to the vehicle using a bracket usually mounted
rigidly to the frame in the front, and a shackle in the rear, which allows the spring to expand and contract
without binding as it moves through its arc. The following figure shows the leaf spring suspension system.

Leaf spring suspension system

Coil spring suspension system
These springs usually are made of round spring steel wound into a coil. Because of their simplicity,
they are less costly to manufacture and also have the widest application. Spring stiffness is changed on
coil springs by toughening them. Coil springs, like torsion bars and volute (or spiral-shaped) springs, are
frictionless and require the use of a shock absorber to dampen vibrations. Their cylindrical shape requires
less space to operate in. Pads sometimes are used between the spring and chassis to eliminate transferring
vibrations to the body. Coil springs are not able to absorb any torque when employed in the suspension
system. Therefore, control arms and stabilizers are required to maintain the proper geometry between the
body and suspension system. The following figure shows the coil spring suspension system.
Coil spring suspension system

Torsion bar suspension system

The torsion bar consists of a steel rod usually made of spring steel. It is treated with heat or pressure
to make it elastic, so it will retain its original shape after being twisted. Torsion bars, like coil springs, are
frictionless and require the use of shock absorbers. The torsion bar is serrated on each end and is attached
to the torsion bar anchor at one end and to the suspension system at the other. Torsion bars are marked to
indicate proper installation by an arrow stamped into the metal. It is essential that they be installed properly
because they are designed to take stress in one direction only. The elasticity of the rod is utilized and as
long as the elastic limit is not exceeded, the torque resistance will return the suspension to its normal
position in the same manner as a spring arrangement. The following figure shows the torsion bar
suspension system.
Torsion bar suspension system

Coil spring and control rod suspension system
This type of live axle suspension commonly is used in modern vehicles. In this configuration, the
coil springs are placed between the axle housing and the frame. Their sole purpose is to support the weight
of the vehicle. All torque reaction due to accelerating and braking and all driving thrust is absorbed and
transmitted through control rods. The control rods, four in all, also are used to maintain the rear axle
housing alignment to the frame. Two of the rods are mounted below the centerline of the axle, toward the
outside of the rear axle housing and attached to the frame with bushings in the front. The remaining two
are mounted inboard, above the centerline of the axle. As the vehicle accelerates, the axle housing will try
to wind up, the upper control arms will be under tension, and the lower arms will be in compression,
delivering the driving force to the frame. Under braking conditions, the opposite happens; the upper control
arms are in compression and the lower arms are in tension, holding the body back. The following figure
shows the coil spring and control rod suspension system.

Coil spring and control rod suspension system

MacPherson strut suspension system
The MacPherson strut suspension system uses a tubular strut, which houses the shock absorber
mechanism and links the wheel and body together. The strut usually is surrounded by a coil spring attached
to the top of the strut, which is mounted to the body. The lower half of the spring is mounted by a flange
that is attached to the bottom half of the strut, which is mounted to the spindle or control arm. There are
also other types of configurations in which the spring is mounted next to the strut; this type makes
replacement of the strut relatively easy. The following figure shows the MacPherson strut suspension
system.
Freewheeling independent suspension system

A typical freewheeling independent front suspension system for a light vehicle is shown in the
following figure. In this design, each wheel is held in alignment by a pair of stiff control arms, commonly
called parallel wish-bones. The vehicle weight is transferred from the frame to the rigidly attached cross
member, through the coil spring, to the lower wishbone. It may be noted that the control arms are of
unequal lengths. The vehicle designer may achieve certain desirable suspension and cornering
characteristics by selecting the control arm lengths carefully.

MacPherson strut suspension system
Freewheeling independent suspension system

BRAKING SYSTEMS
Principle of braking system: Braking is the mechanism in the motor vehicle which is used to slowing
down and stopping the vehicle to rest in the shortest possible distance. While operating the braking system
the kinetic energy of moving vehicle is converted in to heat energy.
Braking action: Braking action is the use of a controlled force to accomplish the three basic tasks of
reducing speed, stopping, and holding an object in a stationary position. Braking action usually is
accomplished by rubbing two surfaces together that cause friction and heat. Friction is the resistance to
relative motion between two surfaces in contact. The mechanical energy of reaction then is transformed
into hear energy. Heat energy is an unwanted product of friction and must be dissipated to the surrounding
environment as efficiently as possible. Automotive vehicles use this rubbing action to develop the friction

required for braking. Braking action also may be accomplished by establishing a rubbing contact with the
roadway, as is done by some trolleys, which apply a braking surface to the rails.
Development of friction and heat during braking
Functions of brakes: Brakes have the following functions.

1. It is used to stop the vehicle.
2. It is used to control the speed where and when required.
3. It is used to control the vehicle while descending along the slope.
4. To park the vehicle and held it in stationary position without the presence of Driver.
Requirements of automobile brakes

1. It should work efficiently irrespective of road condition and quality.
2. The retardation must be uniform throughout its application.
3. The pedal effort must be within the convenient capacity of the driver.
4. It must be reliable and should not be affected by heat water and dust.
5. It should be in minimum weight.
6. It should have long life.
7. It should be easy to maintain and adjust.
8. Noise and vibrations are to be minimum.
9. There should be provision for secondary brake or parking brake.
Stopping distance and braking efficiency

For practical measure for braking efficiency that of the minimum distance in which it can be
brought in to rest after the brake is applied. The stopping distance depends upon;
1. Grip between the tyre and road surface.
2. Tyre treads condition.
3. Tyre inflation.
4. Nature of road surface.

Factors affecting retardation

The amount of retardation obtained by the braking system of a vehicle is affected by several factors.
For wheel brakes used on motor vehicles, these factors are:
1. Pressure exerted on braking surfaces (rotating and non-rotating members).
2. Weight carried on wheel.
3. Overall radius of wheel (distance from center of wheel to outer tread of tire).
4. Radius of brake drum or rotor (rotating member).
5. Coefficient of friction between braking surfaces.
6. Coefficient of friction between tire and road.
TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION OF BRAKING SYSTEMS

The following are the classifications of brakes:
According to the method of power:
⮚ Mechanical brakes.
⮚ Hydraulic brakes.
⮚ Vacuum brakes.
⮚ Air brakes.
⮚ Electrical brakes.
⮚ Magnetic brakes.
⮚ Air assisted hydraulic brakes.
According to the method of application:

⮚ Service or foot brakes.
⮚ Parking or hand brakes.
According to the method of operation:
⮚ Manual brakes.
⮚ Servo brakes.
⮚ Power operation brakes.
According to the method of braking contact:

⮚ Internal expanding brakes.
⮚ External contracting brakes.
According to the method of applying brake force:

⮚ Single acting brakes.
⮚ Double acting brakes.
Types of mechanical brakes

1. Drum Brakes (External Contracting or Internal Expanding).
2. Disc Brakes (Single or Two calipers).

DRUM BRAKES
Construction: The main components of drum brakes are; 1. Brake drum. 2. Back plate. 3. Brake shoes.
4. Brake Liners. 5. Retaining Springs. 6. Cam and 7. Brake Linkages.
In this system the wheel is attached to drum. There are brake shoes used to contact the rotating
drum for braking operation. The shoes provide lining on their outer surface.
The cam is used to lift the brake shoes at one end, other end is connected by some method so as to
make as the brake sleeve come into contact in the brake drum. The retaining spring is provided for bringing
the brake shoes back to its original position, after releasing the brake pedal. All these parts are fitted in the
back plate and enclosed with brake drum.
Working: When the pedal is pressed the cam moves the shoes outwards through linkages, there by coming
in frictional contact with the rotating drum. As soon as the brake pedal is released the retaining springs
help the brake shoes to brought back and release the brakes. The following figure shows the types of drum
brakes.
Types of drum brakes

DISC BRAKES
There are three types of disc brakes. They are;
1. Disc brake with fixed caliper.
2. Disc brake with swinging Caliper
3. Disc brake with sliding caliper.
Construction: The discs are made of gray cast Iron. The brake pressure in case of disc brakes has to be
much lighter than the drum brakes. It consists of rotating disc and two friction pads which are actuated by
the four hydraulic wheel pistons contain in two halves of an assembly is called a caliper. The caliper
assembly is secured to the steering knuckle in a front wheel brakes. The road wheel is fashioned to the
outer surface of the disc. The friction pads rides freely on each side of the discs. They are in position being
the hydraulic systems.

Working: When the brakes are applied hydraulic pressure is supply to the fluid inlet tube, due to which
the wheel cylinder piston force the friction pads against the rotating disc. In the released piston, the springs
hold the piston pads so that they maintain contact with disc surface. The caliper is connected to stationary
part of the vehicle, like the stub axle and is cast in two parts, each part have a piston. In disc brake each
piston and disc there is friction, pad held in position by retaining pairs, spring plate etc. There are passages
for fluid to enter or leave each housing. This passage is also connected for bleeding when brakes are
applied friction pads. The following figure shows the types of disc brakes.

Types of disc brakes
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
Hydraulic brakes make used of hydraulic pressure to force brake shoes out words against the brake
drum based on Pascal’s law. Most of the cars today use hydraulic brake system on all the wheels with
additional hand brake to stop rear wheel movement.
Construction: The main components of the system are 1. Master cylinder and 2. Wheel cylinder. The
following figure shows the schematic of the hydraulic brake system.
Hydraulic brake system

The figure shows the master cylinder is connected by tubing to the wheel cylinder, at each of the
four wheels. The system is filled with the liquid under light pressure when the brake is not in operation.
The brake fluid generally a mixture of glycerin and alcohol or caster oil, denatured alcohol and some
additives. The brakes shoes which are mounted on the inner side of the brake drum and do not rotate. The
brake liners are fitted on the outer surface of the brake shoes. The brake pedal is connected to the master
cylinder piston by means of a piston rod.
Working: When the brake pedal is pressed the piston is forced in to the master cylinder, the hydraulic
pressure is applied equally to all wheel cylinders. The pistons in the wheel cylinders pushed outwards
against the brake drum. When the driver release the brake pedal, the piston in the master cylinder returns
back to its original position due to the return spring pressure. Thus the pistons in the wheel cylinder come
back in its original inward position. Thus the brakes are released.
Construction and working of Master Cylinder

The Master cylinder is the heart of the hydraulic brake system. It consists of two main chambers.
The fluid reservoir which contains the fluid to supply to the brake system, and the compression chamber
in which the piston operates. The reservoir supplies fluid to the brake system through two ports. The larger
port is called the filler or intake part and is connected to the hollow portion of the piston between the

primary and secondary cups which act as piston seals. The smaller port is called the relief, bypass or
compensating port which connects the reservoir directly with the cylinder and lines when the piston is in
the released position.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the master cylinder piston moves forward to force the liquid
under pressure into the system. The relief port is sealed out of the system. The liquid pressure is conducted
to the wheel cylinders, where it forces the wheel cylinder pistons out wards. These pistons force the brake
shoes out against the brake drums. When brake pedal is released, the return spring quickly forces the
master cylinder piston back against the piston stop. Because the fluid in the lines returns rather slowly, a
vacuum tends to form in the cylinder in front of the piston. This causes the primary cup to collapse to
allow the liquid to flow from the reservoir through the filter port past the piston to fill the vacuum. The
following figure shows the master cylinder.
Master cylinder
Construction and working of wheel cylinder
Wheel cylinder is the second important hydraulic brake system. It consists of two pistons which
can move in opposite directions by the fluid pressure. It is rigidly mounted on the brake shield or backing
plate. The boots protect the cylinders from foreign substances. Bleeder valves are provided in the cylinder
to permit air and liquid to be pumped out of the system during of the bleeding operation.
Piston cup fits tightly in the cylinder against each piston and seal the mechanism against leakage
of the brake fluid. A spring serves to hold the cups against the piston when the pressure is decreased.
When the brakes are applied the brake fluid enters the cylinder from a brake line connection inlet
between the two pistons. It causes to force out the two pistons in opposite directions. This motion is
transmitted to the brake shoe. Directly or through links force them against the brake drum, thus applying
the brake. The following figure shows the wheel cylinder.

Wheel cylinder
Construction and working of tandem master cylinder

In this master cylinder there are two pistons in the and hydraulic pressure developed in two
chambers one for the front left, and rear right brakes and other for the front right and rear left brakes. In
tandem master cylinder one cylinder operates the front brakes while the other cylinder operates the rear
brakes. The following figure shows the tandem master cylinder.
Tandem cylinder
DIAGONAL BRAKING SYSTEM

Construction and working of Air Brake System
The air brake system consists of two-stage air-compressor driven by the crankshaft or gearbox
shaft. It takes air from atmosphere, compresses it and delivers to the air reservoir through un-loader valve.
Where the pressure of the reservoir reaches the maximum degree, the un- loader valve opens to the
atmosphere. Then the compressed air is directed in to the atmosphere directly.
Each of the four wheels fitted with brake chambers consists of a diaphragm, and which the air
pressure is applied and pushes it. This force operates the cam actuating lever and applies the brake. Each

of the brake chambers is connected to the brake pedal, and air filter is also fitted between the brake valve
and reservoir.
Working: When the brake pedal is pushed the brake valve opens and compressed air is allowed in to the
brake chamber. The brake valve consists of three passages.
1. Air intake 2. Exhaust 3. Brake chamber. When the brake pedal is pressed the exhaust passage will be
closed and Air intake passage open and compressed air goes back to the chamber. During return stroke the
exhaust passage opens while intake closes and used air goes to the atmosphere. This system fitted with an
emergency mechanical brake, which can be used when air supply fails the air brake system, which is called
air assisted hydraulic braking system. The following figure shows the air brake.
Advantages
1. This system used in heavy vehicles because they are more powerful than hydraulic or mechanical
brakes.
2. It simplifies the chassis design
3. The compressed air is used for purposes like tyre inflation; for horn, windscreen wiper etc.
Disadvantages
1. If there is any leakage in passage the entire system will be fail. Therefore sealing of air is very
difficult.
Air brake
ANTILOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

An Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) is a safety system that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle
to continue interacting tractively with the road surface as directed by driver steering inputs while braking,
preventing the wheels from locking up (i.e. ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding.

Functions of ABS
⮚ Pulsates brakes if sliding.
⮚ Pulsates brakes on hard braking.
⮚ Stops vehicle under control.
Components of ABS
The following figure shows the components of an anti-lock braking system.
Components of an anti-lock braking system

Components of an anti-lock braking system
Speed sensors: The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock
up. The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential, provide this
information.
Valves: There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the
valve has three positions: In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed
right through to the brake. In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master
cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder. In
position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.
Pump: Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some way to put that
pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there
to get the pressure back up.
Controller: The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual
wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the controller will

then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves on
and off.
Types of Anti-lock Braking Systems
One-channel, one-sensor ABS
ABS This system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one valve,
which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the rear axle. This system operates the
same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear wheels are monitored together and they both have
to start to lock up before the ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of the rear wheels will
lock, reducing brake effectiveness. This system is easy to identify. Usually there will be one brake line
going through a T-fitting to both rear wheels.
Four-channel, four-sensor ABS

This is the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate valve for all four
wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors each wheel individually to make sure it is achieving
maximum braking force.
Three-channel, three-sensor ABS

This scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor and a
valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for both rear wheels. The speed sensor
for the rear wheels is located in the rear axle. This sys-tem provides individual control of the front wheels,
so they can both achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored together; they
both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on the rear. With this system, it is possible that
one of the rear wheels will lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness.
Advantages of ABS
1. Improved braking system on slippery and wet surfaces.
2. Reduced friction on wheels and road thus increased efficiency of tyres (up to 30%).
3. Shortened vehicle stopping distance, i.e., vehicle is stopped at lesser distance than a non ABS
vehicle.
4. More safety on skidder roads and avoids over turning of the vehicle.
5. Steering control is effective, i.e., vehicle can be steered freely while braking also. Thus, avoids
accidents.
6. A driver with minimal experience can also drive the vehicle with ABS effectively, than an
experienced driver on the non ABS vehicle.
Limitations of ABS
1. Initial cost difference between ABS and non ABS vehicle.
2. Maintenance problems arise as the whole system is controlled by ECU (Electronic Control Unit).
3. On concrete roads, the stopping distance might be needed more.
How can a new person detects the car is equipped with ABS?

A new driver can see an indicator in the dash board named “ABS” and understand that car is
equipped with ABS. And while in driving when brakes are applied the driver can feel a pulsating action
of the brake pedal under his foot this indicates that car is equipped with ABS

Auto Notes Unit 4 (2)

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UNIT - IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION

1. Pressed steel disc wheel

Features of pressed steel disc wheel

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 77

Pressed steel disc wheel

78 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Advantages of wire wheels

Applications: Used in two wheelers and bicycles.

3. Light alloy cast or forged wheel

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 79

Light alloy cast or forged wheel

1. Well base rim

80 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Well base rim

Flat base rim

Semi drop centre rim

Flat base divided rim

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 81

1. Conventional tube tyre

82 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Sectional view of a conventional tube tyre

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 83

Sectional view of a tubeless tyre

Advantages of tubeless tyre are

84 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

2. Cord of stabilizer belt

3. Steel for high tensile steel bead wires

1. Cross ply or bias ply type

2. Radial ply type

3. Belted bias type

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 85

The following figure shows the three types of carcass.

Advantages of Radial ply type over Cross ply type

Comparison between Radial ply type and Cross ply type

86 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

The following figure shows the various types of treads.

Straight tread Cross tread Square tread

Combination tread V patter - Deep groove pattern

Under inflation causes the following defects:

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 87

2. Lack of directional stability.

Over inflation causes the following defect:

Included Angle: It is the sum of steering axis inclination and camber

88 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

The following figures show the steering geometry.

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 89

Camber King pin inclination Steering axis inclination Combined angle

90 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Functions of steering system

CONSTRUCTION OF STEERING SYSTEM

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 91

Construction of the steering system

92 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

TYPES OF STEERING GEAR BOXES

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 93

Worm and wheel type steering gear

Re-circulating ball type steering gear

94 MAM SCHOOL OF ENGG.

Rack and pinion type steering gear

Rack and pinion type steering gear

Cam and lever type steering gear

DEPT. OF MECH. ENGG. 95

Cam and lever type steering gear

Worm and sector type steering gear