breeding manual

PRACTICAL PIG COURSE FOR SENIOR STOCKPERSONS 1
Chapter 1- Breeds and Breeding
CHAPTER 1: BREEDS AND BREEDING SYSTEM
The performance of a pig is influenced by its environment and its genetic potential.
On the average, 70% of the performance of the animal could be attributed to its environment such
as nutrition and feeding, housing, health, management practices and climate and 30% to its
genetic potential. Hence, it is also important for us to look into the blood line of the animals. Each
breed has its own set of characteristics which differentiates it from other breeds.
"What is the best breed of pig?". This is the most commonly asked question by pig raisers and as
such, there is no best breed. Each breed has its own good and bad characteristics. A farmer can
choose the proper breed to use depending on the type of production that he wants to attain and
his view on what is an ideal pig. It is up to the pig raiser to decide on which breed to use.
Chapter I deals with the different exotic and local breeds common in the Philippines . The
characteristics of each breed are also described to differentiate one from the other, along with their
photos.
This chapter also presents the breeding systems and the advantages and disadvantages of each
system. Examples are also given to illustrate how the system works.
Genetic improvement in pig farms leads to production of quality finishers and birth of large,
vigorous litters.
International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

1. BREEDS OF PIGS
BREED A breed is a group of animals that has specific traits or

characteristics in common. Mating within the breed produces
 animals with common progeny that maintains the same set of characteristics. They
and specific traits or are genetically pure enough to have similar external
characteristics. characteristics of color and conformation.
Different pig breeds can be differentiated through the following characteristics:
1. Color: Black, white, brown, etc.

2. Color combinations: Spotted, belted, etc.
3. Size of ears
4. Position of ears: Erect, hanging, 1/4 hanging, etc.
5. Length and shape of the snout
6. Body length
7. Weight at maturity
8. Backline: Straight, swaying, curved, etc.
1.1.1 COMMON PUREBREEDS
The most popular pig breeds in the Philippines and Southeast Asia are as follows:
1.1.1.1 Landrace
Landrace is a white-colored meat type of pig (freckles may appear). It has a large hanging
ears and a small head. The neck and body are long and narrow. The Landrace is highly
prolific, superior in feed efficiency and daily gain. However, it lacks hardiness and has weak
feet, pastern and legs.
Landrace sow
Landrace boar

1.1.1.2 Largewhite
The large white is a white-colored meat type of pig with medium, erect ears. The face is
slightly dished. It is fast growing, good feed converter, highly prolific, excellent milkers with
superior mothering ability. It can adapt well in confinement but not in rugged condition.
Largewhite sow
Largewhite boar
1.1.1.3 Hampshire
The Hampshire is a black colored meat type of pig with white belted body from the
shoulder to the front legs with strong, short legs and erect ears. The Hampshire is prolific,
shows good mothering ability, average daily gain is acceptable. They are adapted to rugged
conditions.
Hampshire boar

1.1.1.4 Berkshire
The Berkshire is a black dual type of pig with six white points (face, feet and switch of the
tail). It has a wide, dish-shaped face, short snout and medium size erect ears. The
carcass quality is excellent. It is not highly prolific, poor in feed efficiency and average daily
gain.
Berkshire boar
1.1.1.5 Duroc
The duroc is a meat type, red pig (gold to yellow) with a set of small, forward ears, 2/3
erect and 1/3 hanging. Black flecks may appear on the body. It has a good body
constitution, strong legs, good mothering ability, a fast grower, good milker and are prolific.
This breed adapts well on rugged condition. Duroc is always used for boar line because of
its body constitution and good resistance against rugged condition. Its good physical,
sturdy appearance makes it a good boar especially for natural mating.
Duroc boars

1.1.1.6 Pietrain
The pietrain is a very meaty type of pig with spotted black and white color. It has well-
shaped hams, loin and shoulders. Ears are erect. The carcass has a high lean meat
percentage but it has a poor body constitution. Feed efficiency is not really good and they
are a little bit slow grower. This breed is also highly susceptible to stress. Thus, pietrain is
only worthwhile in crosses but not as purebreeds.
Table 1. Characteristics of the Different Breeds of Pigs
BREED COLOR EARS TYPE COUNTRY OBSERVATIONS

OF ORIGIN
Landrace White Hanging Meat Denmark Long face, good mothers,
weak legs, prolific
Large White Standing Meat England Fertile, high quality meat,
white fast grower
Berkshire Black with Standing Lard England Short, black skin, more
6 white resistant to diseases
points compared to white breeds
Hampshire Black with Standing Meat USA Short, good quality meat,
white band strong legs
Duroc Red 2/3 erect, Meat USA Good constitution, strong
Jersey (golden) 1/3 legs, fast grower,
hanging resistant to stress
Pietrain Black and Standing Very Belgium Very meaty ham and loin,
white meaty very susceptible to stress
The above descriptions of each breed have given us a brief idea about the characteristics of each
breed not only in terms of appearance but also in terms of its performance. It can be noted that
not all characteristics of a breed are desirable. It is possible that no single breed of pig can be
considered as a perfect or ideal breed.
In reality, there is no best breed. Each breed has its own positive and negative traits.

1.1.2 NATIVE PIGS
The Philippine native pig is generally small. Based on limited observations, mature females weigh
about 30 - 40 kgs., while boars weigh about 40 - 50 kgs. The average height of a mature native
pig is about 55 cm. while the body length is about 80 cm. Body width measured at the shoulder
area is about 16 cm.
The color of both the skin and hair of native pigs is generally black, with occasional white markings
on the pasterns, tail, face and snout. Young piglets may have horizontal brown stripes on the body
that disappears with age. Some individuals may have spotted hair coat which is commonly a
combination of white, black and/or brown.
Native pigs are commonly described as short both in height and length, narrow-bodied, pot-bellied
and with sagging back. The legs are short with all four toes touching the ground when standing.
Some prominent features of the native pig are its long, straight and pointed snout, and small and
erect ears. Loose skin with coarse hair coat is commonly observed especially in mature individuals.
The head is generally big in proportion to its body size. Mature boars and sows normally have
bristle-like hair along the crest of the neck to the shoulder area. Mature boar have prominent tusks
projecting out of the mouth. Native pigs are generally docile, except for some individuals that
become aggressive during parturition and early lactation.
The five strains of pigs developed and documented in the Philippines that contained genes of
native pigs were the following:
1.1.2.1 Kaman. The red Kaman was common in the province of Batangas and was the
result of crossing the native pig with Duroc Jersey.
1.1.2.2. Diani. The black Diani was the result of crossing the native pig found in the
province of Batangas and the Berkshire.
1.1.2.3. Black Ilocos. This Black Ilocos strain might have resulted from crossing the native
pigs with either Berkshire or Poland China breeds.
1.1.2.4. Berkjala Strain. The Berkjala strain was developed in 1916 at the UP College of
Agriculture following a systematic upgrading activity. The Berkjala was the result of
crossing the Berkshire and the native pig found in Jalajala, Rizal. Berkshire was

selected for crossbreeding among other temperate breeds of swine tested in the
Philippines because it proved to be adapted to Philippine conditions. The strain was
developed for meat quality, prolificacy and good nursing ability. It has medium-
sized body and is solid black in color.
The body is moderately long. The snout varies in length and form. The ears are
large and somewhat erect. The legs are big-boned and strong. The back is
straight, sometimes low and it is a good feeder.
However, this strain has already gone into extinction.
1.1.2.5. Koronadal pig. Swine breeders found another improved pig in Koronadal,
Cotabato. It is intermediate between the lard and the bacon types. The size is
satisfactory. The head is fairly long, and the snout is somewhat pointed and long.
It is claimed that the color is not fixed.
1.1.2.6 MEISHAN BREED
In China, the most common and popular breed is the Meishan pig which comes
from the region of lakes and valleys in China. It is black in color with white
extremities. It has large drooping ears and it is of the lard type. This breed is
known for its prolificacy and early sexual maturity (reaches puberty at 2.5 - 3
months of age), and also, for its large litter size (15 - 16 piglets/litter).
Its meat has a very good taste. They are also slow growing, resistant to some
diseases, fat (backfat thickness - 2.5 cm) and able to consume large amounts of
roughage. The dressing percentage is 66.8%.
Meishan pigs are considered to be one of the most prolific breeds in the world.

1.1.3 HYBRIDS?
Hybrids is a result of a combination of the good characteristic traits of superior genetic breeds.
TOPIGS (Dalland)
This hybrid was developed in the Netherlands by a

group of breeding companies called TOPIGS. The
foundation breed is the Pietrain along with
Largewhite and Landrace.
The Dalland is known for its fast growth and

excellent feed conversion of finishing pigs. Other
qualities are high fertility, well-developed udder, and
stress-negative animals .
HYPIG
A hybrid developed by Eurobrid, Netherlands. Like any hybrid, they have also a product line for
sowline and boar line. In the sowline, breeds of Largewhite, Landrace, Meishan were used. For the
boar line, Pietrain and Duroc are the basic breeds used in the line.
As for the sow line, it is developed for high litter size and weaning capacity and for the boar line,
for meat percentage, conformation,and feed conversion.
White Pietrain
MAXTER
LIBRA (PS Gilt)

Camborough
A hybrid developed by PIC, Camborough is known of its docile temperament, good mothering
ability to rear large numbers of lean fast growing piglets, and stress negative.
Camborough 22-fourth generation of

the Camborough gilts
PICBoar 422
PICBoar 399
GENETIC ALLIANCE CORPORATION
Another company producing hybrid pigs. Their lines composed of Largewhite,Landrace, Yorkshire
and crosses among the said breeds. An example is Genemaster 100 (F1 Gilt) which is known to
produce large litters, docile with good mothering ability.
Genemaster 100

GlobeGen – Superior Breeding Solutions
GlobeGen distinguishes itself as one of the pioneers in importing breeder stocks from Europe.
From its early days henceforth, its founders were already visualizing the importance of genetics
as one of the vital factors to ensure farm productivity. They have continually produced
performance – tested breeding animals with global standards. The company engages in regular
semen and live animal importations to ensure constant genetic upgrade.
Speeder Red
Hybrid White
Hybrid Muscle

1.2 BREEDING SYSTEMS
Breeding systems are systems of mating animals to produce a purebreed or a crossbreed.

These are the methods employed by breeders for breeding animals. The system of mating is
particularly important in pig improvement since use of the correct system can greatly increase
production.
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING
Inbreeding
Purebreeding
Crossbreeding
Upgrading
The traits of the animals could be developed and combined by practicing different breeding
systems which are as follows:
1.2.1. Inbreeding. Breeding of closely-related animals. This is done to purify the blood line of
the animals since the similarity of the animals within the group is increased. Strong and
weak points of the animals will be exposed under this system. Continuous inbreeding is not
recommendable due to its negative effect on the production performance of the animal. It
usually decreases vigor because it brings together the recessive genes with undesirable
effects in the resulting crossbred. These homozygous recessive individuals are usually
inferior.
However, inbreeding is not always disadvantageous. If strict selection is practiced, it

maybe useful for the purpose of eliminating defects. It brings out the desired character in a
pure form and character may then be retained.
Example: FATHER MOTHER
Father x Daughter
Son x Mother
Brother x Sister
Effects of inbreeding
 Reduction in the strength and vigor of piglets. It has been observed that inbreeding exerts
a depressing effect on vitality and survival rate resulting in a reduction in the number of
pigs weaned. In some inbred lines, death rates increase to 4.2% per 10% increase in
inbreeding. Moreover, decline in growth rate, uncertainty in conception, lack of fecundity,
complete sterility and abortions are believed to be associated with inbreeding.

The occurrence of abnormalities and unsoundness in the herd such as hernia,

cryptorchidism, abnormal teats, skeletal deformities, atresia ani and others is sometimes
attributed to inbreeding.
 Decrease in the number of pigs born and weaned. Litter size at birth may decline as a
result of inbreeding. Studies abroad showed a decrease of 0.2 to 0.6 piglet per litter for
every 10% increase in the breeding of the sow. Generally, as the intensity of inbreeding
progresses, there is a corresponding decrease in the number of pigs raised and an increase
in number of dead pigs born per litter.
Likewise, inbreeding decreases the number of pigs weaned. It has been estimated that for
every 10% increase in the inbreeding of the dam, the number of pigs weaned is reduced by
0.1 to 0.25 pig per litter.
 Decrease in the weight of piglets at birth and weaning. Average birth weight decreases
as the level of inbreeding is increased. It has been observed that for every 10% increase
in the inbreeding of the sow, a reduction of 0.03 kg. in weight is expected.
As to the effect of inbreeding on weaning weight, previous observations indicated that

inbreeding has little or doubtful effect on weaning weight. However, recent findings
showed a significant reduction in weaning weight by either the inbreeding of the sow or
litter especially at 40 to 59% level.
 Sexual maturity. Seemingly, the rate of physiologic maturity of both male and female pigs
is retarded slightly by inbreeding. It was observed in some lines that the age at which
inbred boars begin to mate seem to lag a little as inbreeding becomes more intense.
 Effect on ovulation and spermatogenesis. Studies made on the testes of inbred boars
revealed that inbreeding delayed the development of the testes and production of sperm.
There is also some indication that inbred boars from specific lines are inferior to outbreds in
sperm production. Likewise, the number of eggs shed by inbred gilts is less than the non-
inbred gilts, indicating that inbreeding reduces the number of eggs ovulated in a heat
period. There is also reduction in litter size as a result of the reduction in the number of
eggs ovulated.

The effects of inbreeding are:
 Reduced strength and vigor in piglets
 Decreased number of pigs born and weaned
 Decreased birth and weaning weight
 Retarded, delayed sexual maturity
 Reduced ovulation and sperm production

1.2.2. Purebreeding. A system of breeding wherein unrelated animals of the same breed are
mated to each other, resulting to the production of purebreeds. This is done to maintain
the breed.
Landrace x Landrace
Duroc x Duroc
Large white x Large white
1.2.3. Crossbreeding. Breeding of two animals from different breeds. This is practiced to
combine traits of different breeds. This is the system recommended for the production of
slaughter pigs. It is highly recommended for the production of market hogs for two
important reasons, namely: a) to obtain hybrid vigor or heterosis which is defined as
the change in performance of the crossbred progeny over the average of the parental
breeds; and b) to bring together the desirable characteristics of the parental breeds.
Most of the studies have shown that crossbreds are superior to purebred animals as far as
litter size and weight at birth and at weaning are concerned. It has been observed that
crossbred sows are better mothers than the purebreds. Depending on the kind of purebred
animals that enter in the crossbreeding program, crossbred animals grow faster than the
purebred parents.
Crossbreeding is beneficial. It produces good stock.
Advantages of crossbreeding:
a) increased vigor and growth rate of litters
b) larger litters
c) increased production efficiency to about 5% to 10%
d) increased disease resistance.
Examples of Crossbred Pigs:
Duroc x Pietrain
Hamshire x Duroc

Crossbreeding can still be differentiated as follows:
2.3.1 Two-way cross - mating with the use of 2 different breeds.
Example 1: LW x LR
Example 2: P x Du
2.3.2 Three-way cross - mating with the use of three different breeds.
LW x LR (1st cross)
Du x LWLR (2nd cross)
DuLWLR (progeny)
2.3.3 Four-way cross - mating with the use of four different breeds.
P x Du LW x LR
PDu x LWLR
PDuLWLR
NOTE: LW - Large white LR - Landrace

Du - Duroc P - Pietrain

Among the different breeds, Landrace and Large white are commonly used as a sow line,
while Duroc, Pietrain and Large white are for boar line. A cross between Landrace and
Largewhite (F1), and Duroc is usually used for fattener production.
Even though there is no best breed, it is possible to combine the good traits of each breed
and come out with a type of animal that has all these good traits. These combined animals
can now be called hybrid pigs. Examples of hybrid pigs available in the market are:
1. Dalland - is a result of a 4-way cross of Large white (LW), Pietrain/Landrace (PLR),

Daltrain (DT) and Large white (LW).
FATHER MOTHER
LW x PLR DT x LW (grandparents)
LWPLR x DTLW (parents)
LWPLRDTLW (Dalland) (finishers)
2. Babcock - is a result of the cross between Duroc (Du), Hampshire (H), Landrace
(LR) and Large white (LW).
FATHER MOTHER
DU x H LR x LW (grandparents)
DuH x LRLW (parents)
DuHLRLW (Babcock) (finishers)
3. Hypig - is a result of the crosses between Landrace, Yorkshire + (own breeding

lines).
4. Genemaster - is a result of the crosses between Large white, and Landrace and
Yorkshire.

1.2.4 Upgrading. Upgrading is a system of breeding wherein an inferior breed is improved by

continued crossing. It is commonly used among native breeds. The native breeds are
usually crossed with pure breeds of swine.
In this procedure, selected female pigs are bred to purebred boars of any preferred breed.
The female progenies are bred to boars of the same breed. This procedure is repeated
until the resulting offsprings approach the characteristics of the purebred.
Upgrading is used to improve the common stock.
Example: FATHER (Purebreed) MOTHER (Local breed)
LW x A (native pig)
LW x LWA
LW x LWLWA
LWLWLWA

CHAPTER 2 - SELECTION AND CULLING

Introduction
The success of pig production depends on the selection of highly productive and efficient breeding
stock. For a pig enterprise to be profitable, the foundation sows and boars and their replacements
should be able to produce healthy pigs with the ability to use feed efficiently and produce pork of
such quality that will bring the highest market price at a minimum production cost. For this reason,
a pig raiser should give due emphasis on rigid selection of replacement gilts and boars and practice
regular removal of undesirable animals from the breeding herd.
The ultimate goal of every pig producer is profit. To attain this objective, one has to propagate pigs
with high genetic potentials for maximum efficiency of production. However, it is important to apply
correctly the proper method of selection and be able to select outstanding individuals from
outstanding litters of elite parents. It is not the animals that you see before you, which are very
important; it is their progeny.
Selection
The systematic way of choosing the
desired characteristics of pigs for
breeding purposes is called selection.
 SELECTION... Pigs have their own characteristics and
systematic choosing of each farmer has his own idea of a good
desired characteristics pig. What is important is that, the
for breeding purposes. production and performance of the
animals partly depend on the selection
of the breeders.
2.1 Objectives of Selection
Selection is aimed at achieving the following objectives:
 large litter size at weaning

 fast growers and highly efficient feed converters
 best quality carcass
2.2 Ways of Selection
1.2.1 Natural selection. ("survival of the fittest") - The best

boar gets the best sows, while the weak, sickly and poor ones
SELECTION can usually die naturally and have lower chances of breeding
either be natural or other animals. As time goes on, the herd is getting better.
artificial!
1.2.2 Artificial selection. There is intervention of man. Man
himself chooses which pig can be used for breeding based on
his own set of standards.

Performing Artificial Selection
2.3 Parts of a Pig
The first step in preparation for judging pigs consists of mastering the language that describes and
locates the different parts of the animal.
Parts of a Pig
LEGEND:
1- Snout 7- Poll 13- Toes 19- Rear flank

2- Face 8- Neck 14- Back 20- Rump
3- Eye 9- Shoulder 15- Loin 21- Ham
4- Ear 10-Foreleg 16- Side 22- Hock
5- Cheek 11-Dew claw 17- Belly 23- Tail
6- Jowl 12-Pastern 18- Foreflank 24- Rear leg

2.4 Herd Improvement through Selection
In selecting breeders, we have to consider a lot of physical and performance attributes of the
animal. We have to study carefully the animal before choosing it for breeding purposes since
everything will start with the parent animals.
Side view Rear view Front view
A good procedure for examining a pig and some of the things to look for.
REMEMBER!!!
Here's how to examine the pigs during selection:

Side view, OBSERVE: Front view, OBSERVE:
* balance * neatness and trimness of
* length and depth of side head and shoulders
* ham development * spring of rib
* strength of pasterns * width of back and straight-
* manner of movement ness of forelegs
* other breed and sex characteristics
Rear view, OBSERVE:
* set of hind legs

* depth of hams
* width of loin and of body

Ideal meat type (above) vs. common faults (below). The successful pig judge must know what he
is looking for and be able to recognize and appraise both the good points and the common faults.
Constructive breeders are those who effect improvement through breeding and selection, and this
applies to both purebred and commercial producers. Such selection must be based on production
factors of economic importance and market price as determined by carcass quality on a
discriminating market. Selection of replacement stock can be done at two months and six months
of age.
When selecting replacement gilts and boars, there are certain traits and standards to keep in mind.
2.4.1 SELECTING GILTS
Gilts can be selected for rapid, efficient gains, meatiness, and some physical traits.
 Selection of gilts is based on:
 performance  size
 backfat  body joints
 feed efficiency  back
 well-developed underline or  fertility and prolificacy
 mammary glands  mothering ability
 reproductive soundness  heritable diseases and abnormalities
 feet and legs  body conformation

By the time gilts reach 82 to 91 kg., the following standards or traits should be
examined:
a. Performance. In general, the fastest growing gilts which are from large litters should
be saved for replacement gilts. This requires identification at birth and a good set of
records. Gilts should be from litters of 10 to 12 pigs which demonstrate uniform pig
weights.
b. Rate of growth is one of the most economically important traits in pigs. It is

moderately influenced by heredity such that selection for this trait will result to a
reasonable improvement in the herd.
fast * shorter feeding period $$$

  PROFIT
* lesser risk from diseases
growing * better use of farm
facilities
pigs * lower operational costs
c. Backfat. Replacement gilts should be lean,

having 18-20 mm of backfat.
Carcass traits such as carcass length, loin eye

area, and backfat are of high heritability.
d. Feed efficiency. Feed efficiency is favored indirectly by selecting fast-growing, low

backfat gilts. Feed efficiency is a highly desirable trait in swine. It is important for a pig
to efficiently utilize feed to be productive. The lesser the amount of feed used by a pig
to produce a unit gain in weight, the more profitable it becomes.
The rate of growth and feed efficiency are closely related. The former is often used as
an indirect measure for the latter. Pigs with fast rate of growth usually require less feed
to produce a kilogram gain in weight, so that when selecting for growth rate, you are
indirectly selecting for feed efficiency.
e. Well-developed underline or mammary glands. Replacement gilts should possess a

sufficient number of functional teats to nurse a large litter. Although the number of
nipples does not influence litter size and weight of pigs at birth, it is important that a gilt
should have a well-developed udder with a minimum of six pairs of properly spaced
functional teats to be able to raise a healthy litter of desirable size. A sow with poor
udder development is likely to have poor milking capacity, and unless she has sufficient

milk especially during the first few weeks after farrowing, her piglets will have a poor
start and become unprofitable to raise.
Females with undeveloped, blind, inverted or abnormal teats of any form should be
avoided. If not, this defect may eventually appear in so many of the offspring that
numerous females will have insignificant importance in the breeding herd
The importance of number and quality of nipples are often overlooked if not entirely
ignored in selecting boars for the breeding herd. It is true that udder development in
boars is not as prominent as in sows because boars do not nurse their offspring.
However, the fact remains that the heritability of the number and quality of teats is high
and males contribute one-half of the inheritance of any single individual.
Non-functional teat.
f. Reproductive soundness. Most anatomical defects of the reproductive system are

internal and hence not visible. However, gilts with small vulvas are likely to possess
infantile reproductive tracts and should not be kept.
For the gilt, the vulva should be in the downward position for easier expulsion of the
piglet and natural mating.
Select gilts with normally developed external genitalia (left). Gilts with small infantile
(center) or abnormal (right) vulvas should not be kept.

g. Feet and legs. A gilt should have legs that are set wide out on the corners of the
body and the legs should be heavy boned with a slight angle to the pasterns.
Weakness in these regions will handicap the breeding animal. Long pasterns are
weak and constitute a disqualification. Do not select a pig with shallow body and
thighs, and extremely long legs. Animals with medium short feet and short upright
pasterns are preferable.
h. Body conformation. A long body is highly desirable among sows because it

provides more space for udder development and consequently, prevents
overcrowding of piglets during suckling. Undoubtedly, pigs with long body tend to
be lean with good grading measurements.
The body broader at the hindquarters than at the shoulders is preferable. It should
have well-sprung ribs to be deep at the barrel and heart girth.
i. Size. Always make it a point to select the biggest animal within a litter. It is more
economical and profitable to raise a pig which is large for its age. Weight advantage
at weaning and even at birth tends to prevail up to maturity.
j. Body joints. Good development of the ham, loin and shoulder is required of a
breeding animal. This is important since these parts are the sources of highly-priced
cuts such as pork chops, ham and bacon. The hams must be broad both lengthwise
and crosswise, carry fullness on the outside, and give the appearance of being
rounded.
k. Back. The back of the animal should be slightly arched since this is a manifestation
of a strong back which is important during pregnancy.
l. Fertility and prolificacy. The age of puberty in pigs varies from four to eight
months. This rather wide range is due to difference in breeds and lines, sex, and
environment - especially nutrition. In general, boars do not reach puberty quite so
early as gilts.
Reasonably, early breeding has the advantages of establishing regular and reliable
breeding habits and reducing the cost of the pigs at birth. Although gilts may come
into heat at six months of age, the general recommendation is to breed at the
second or third heat, primarily to take advantage of an increase in ovulation rate.
Therefore, gilts are usually bred at eight months of age.
m. Mothering ability. In selecting gilts, you have

to consider cannibalism which is based on the
performance of its mother during its reproductive
life. However, it is common that cannibalism can
happen during the first parity.
Good mothering ability is one of the
factors to consider in selecting
breeders.

n. Heritable diseases and abnormalities. Health is basic to other production

factors. Select vigorous and hardy pigs from a healthy litter in a herd raised under
good swine sanitation. Do not keep gilts or boars from litters that had physical
abnormalities.
Sporadic occurrence of abnormalities in a herd involves a few or appreciable number

of animals. Most of the common abnormalities reported in swine are likely to be
heritable. A few have been attributed to faulty nutrition and others to accidental
developments. However, it is often difficult to determine the specific cause of an
abnormality especially when it happens only in a few individuals in the herd.
Animal geneticists and nutritionists claim that a defect is likely to be hereditary if:
1. there had been inbreeding;

2. the frequency of its occurrence is more with certain families than others;
3. it occurred irrespective of season and various rations have been fed; and
4. it had been previously reported as hereditary in the same breed.
It is attributed to nutrition if:
1. the abnormality has been confirmed previously to be due to improper

nutrition;
2. the occurrence is limited only in a certain locality;
3. it occurred when the ration was verified to be deficient; and
4. it disappeared after improving the nutrition.
2.4.2 SELECTING BOARS
Greater selection reach is possible with boars than with gilts since in most herds, one boar is
selected for every 15 - 20 gilts.
When selecting boars, some traits are apparent from the records of relatives, while other traits are
apparent, and may be selected for, from the boar's own record. In selecting boars, the following
traits or standards should be examined:
a. Behavior. Behavioral traits are those characteristics that express themselves as

docility, temperament, sex characteristics, maturity and aggressiveness. These are
associated with reproductive potential.
b. Sow productivity. Sow productivity traits include such things as reproductive

ability, litter size and mothering ability. The littersize and piglet weight at birth and
at weaning are the most common measures.
Boars should be selected only from those litters of 10 or more pigs farrowed and
eight or more pigs weaned.
Behavioral and sow productivity traits are very important in the financial returns of
the pig enterprise. Therefore, when selecting a boar or a gilt for these traits, use
records of the sire and dam, litter records, records of other relatives and any records
available on the animal being selected. A crossbreeding program will maximize
improvement of these two traits.

c. Performance. Performance traits include
 growth rate or ADG (Average Daily Gain)
 Feed efficiency or FCR (Feed Conversion Ratio
When selecting for these items, one should place more emphasis on the boar's own
record and less emphasis on records of relatives.
d. Backfat. Carcass merit is probably best evaluated by taking measurements such as

backfat thickness, loin eye area, or estimating the percent muscle in the animal. Of
these measurements, backfat is the single most important and best measure of
leanness. These traits have high heritability values.
e. Reproductive soundness. Characteristics associated with soundness include:

the spacing, number, and presentation of the teats; genetic abnormalities such as
hernia and cryptorchidism; and mating ability. Boars should possess 12 or more
well-spaced teats. Genetic abnormalities and mating ability traits have a very high
economic importance. For these traits, insist that relatives of these selected boars be
free of these defects and rely on the breeder's integrity. Physical soundness of the
feet and legs and bone size and strength, are also important. Feet and legs should
demonstrate medium to large bone; wide stance of both front and rear; good
movement; good cushion to both front and rear feet; and of equal size toes.
f. Conformation. This includes body length, depth, height, and skeletal size;
muscle size and shape; boar masculinity characteristics and testicular development.
Conformation traits such as length and height have high heritability values. It is
important to select boars on the basis of their own records for these characteristics.
g. Semen Quality. Boars should be able to produce semen which are creamy in color,
with good quality motile sperm cells. Around 16 - 120 billion of sperm cells are
produced per ejaculation.

Remember! In selecting boars, the following traits
or standards should be examined:
 behavior  reproductive soundness

 sow productivity  conformation
 performance  semen quality
 backfat
Boars should be selected and purchased at 5 - 6 months of age. They should be used at eight
months of age or older.
The primary consideration of producers is to select boars that will maintain the present production
level of the herd and at the same time, lessen weaknesses in the herd.

JUDGING GUIDELINES




2.5 ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT TRAITS IN PIGS AND THEIR HERITABILITY
That pigs show variation in economically important traits is generally recognized. The
problem is to measure these differences from the standpoint of discovering the most
desirable genes and then increasing their concentration and, at the same time, to purge the
herd of the less desirable traits.
Table 2 gives the economically important traits in pigs and their estimated heritability. It
should be understood that a heritability estimate indicates the percentage of a trait due to
heredity while the remaining portion of the variance is due to the environment. For
example, a heritability estimate of 15% for litter size at birth (Table 2) indicates that about
15% of larger than average litters selected is due to genetic influences, but it also says that
85% is due to environment influences - whatever they may be.
The body length and backfat thickness are more dependent on genetic factors than litter size
and daily gain. In other words: the environment has more influence on the litter size than it
does on backfat thickness. Those characteristics which have low heritability can hardly be
improved by breeding; however, improvement of the environment will strongly influence
them.
Generally speaking:
 fertility (littersize and weight at birth and at weaning) - low heritability;

 growth performance (ADG, FCR) - medium heritability;
 carcass quality, % lean - high heritability.


1.6 Methods of Selection
When selecting replacements to improve the

 performance of the herd, any of the following
METHODS OF SELECTION methods may be followed:
 Pedigree 1.6.1 Pedigree method. In this method,

 Independent culling level selection is done on the basis of the individual's
 Tandem record of inheritance. A pedigree to be of value
should include the performance record of the
 Selection index immediate parents of the individual being
considered for selection. Unless the immediate
ancestors including the grandparents of the individual are outstanding producers and
superior individuals, pedigree selection is meaningless and it can even ruin the whole herd.
The boar should always be purebred, which means that he is of known ancestry. This alone
is not enough, for he should also be a good representative of the breed selected; and his
pedigree should contain an impressive list of noted animals. Likewise, it is important that
the sows be of good ancestry, regardless of whether they are purebreds, grades or
crossbreds. Such ancestry and breeding give more assurance of the production of high
quality pigs that are uniform and true to type.
1.6.2 Independent culling level method. This method establishes minimum standards for
each character, and selecting simultaneously but independently for each character. The
performance in one trait is considered entirely independent of the performance in other
traits, or the performance in one trait does not affect the performance in another. The
culling level to be established for each trait is determined on the basis of the heritability of
that trait, its economic importance and the percentage of the animals which are to be culled.
This system, in which several of the most important characters are selected for
simultaneously, is without doubt the most common system of selection. It involves
establishing minimum standards for each character and culling animals which fall below
these standards.
For example, it might be decided to cull all pigs in litters of less than seven pigs, or weighing
less than 8 kg. at weaning, or with an ADG of less than 700 g from 20 kg to 100 kg body
weight. The minimum standards may have to vary from year to year if environmental factors
change markedly.
The chief weakness of this system is that an individual may be culled because of being faulty
in one character only.
This system is most effective when you are considering only a few traits at a time and when
you find it necessary to cull many animals and keep a few impressive ones. Its effectiveness
goes down as the number of traits included in the selection program increases and when the
culling pressure decreases.

1.6.3 Tandem method. This refers to that system in which there is selection for only one trait at
a time until the desired improvement in that particular trait is reached, following which
selection is made for another trait. This system makes it possible to make rapid
improvement in the trait for which selection is being practiced, but it has two major
disadvantages: [a] usually it is not possible to select for one trait only, and [b] generally
income is dependent on several traits.
Tandem selection is recommended only in those rare herds where one character only is
primarily in need of improvement; for example, where a certain herd of pigs needs
improving in litter size.
1.6.4 Selection index method. This method combines all important traits into one overall value
or index. Theoretically, a selection index provides a more desirable way in which to select
for several traits than either tandem method or independent culling method.
Selection indices are designed to accomplish the following:
a. To give emphasis to the different traits in keeping with their relative importance;
b. To balance the strong points against the weak points of each animal;
c. To obtain an over-all total score for each animal, following which animals can be ranked
from best to poorest;
d. To assure a constant and objective degree of emphasis on each trait being considered,
without shifting of ideals from year to year; and
e. To provide a convenient way in which to correct for environmental effects, such as
feeding differences, etc.
 Formula of Selection Index (SI)
SI = 240 + [(110) (ADG kg)] - [(50) (FCR)] - [(19.7) (BF cm)]
where: ADG - Average Daily Gain

FCR - Feed Conversion Ratio
BF - Backfat
Example: GIVEN: ADG = 0.65 kg

FCR = 2.5
BF = 2.0
SI = 240 + [(110) (.65)] - [(50) (2.5)] - [(19.7) (2.0)]
= 240 + 71.5 - 125 - 39.4
= 311.5 - 164.4
SI = 147.1

EXERCISE ON THE CALCULATION OF SELECTION INDEX (S.I.)
INSTRUCTION: Calculate the Selection Index of the following animals. Fill-up the blank
spaces. Make your own judgement and defend your answer.
BOA STARTING END TESTING FEEDS FCR ADG BACKFAT S.I.

R WEIGHT WEIGHT CONSUMED THICKNESS
NO. PERIOD (kg.)
A 40.5 93.5 2-19-98 to 128.7 1.77

4-7-98
B 38.0 92.0 2-19-98 to 109.5 1.67

3-31-98
C 39.5 89.5 2-19-98 to 115.3 1.60

4-14-98
D 39.0 89.0 2-19-98 to 119.8 1.53

4-14-98
E 38.0 87.5 2-19-98 to 127.0 1.53

4-14-98
CULLING
Culling is the removal of unwanted animals in the herd. It requires

 intelligent and careful evaluation of every individual's merit of
Culling is the performance. The more rigid the culling, the more rapid will be the
improvement in the performance of the herd. The intensity of culling
removal of varies from farm to farm depending on the goals of the individual
unwanted producer and availability of superior replacement animals.
animals! In a herd, it is common to cull at a rate of 30 to 35 percent.
An important and neglected area of planning is the stage of sow removal from the herd. Once the
decision to cull a sow has been taken, it rarely pays to retain her in order to gain extra weight
before marketing. Thus, once her udder has returned to normal and selling is convenient, she is
best removed form the herd to make way for a more productive sow. Therefore, the best time to
cull a sow is after weaning.
Although it is a common practice of swine producers to keep boars and sows as long as they are
productive, culling them on the basis of their physical and reproductive capabilities of improving the
production efficiency of the herd is more realistic.

2.1 Planned and unplanned culling
Culling should be planned to give a properly regulated herd age and standards adopted, so that pigs
of below average performance or difficult temperament are removed. However, culling must never
be considered independently of gilt replacement availability.
As already mentioned, culling requires wise and careful evaluation of every sow's performance. The
more rigid the culling, the more rapid will be the improvement in the performance of the herd. The
intensity of culling varies from farm to farm depending on the goals of the individual producer and
the availability of superior replacement animals.
Very few of the reasons for removing sows from a herd can really be said to be completely
predictable in advance. We may know that an estimated number of replacement gilts would be
required, but it is less easy to forecast the exact timing of such a requirement.
Results of a survey showed that only culling by age can be really said to be predictable in advance
(Meat and Livestock Commission, Great Britain). All the rest are said to be unpredictable.
According to the study, the proportion of the sows culled after service totals at least 47% of the
reasons for removal from the herd. "Not in-pig" accounts for 17%, failure to conceive for 12%,
abortion for 6% and lameness about 12%. (See Figure 10)
In commercial farms, sows are kept as long as they produce large number of rapid growing pigs. A
fast turnover of sows will, however, increase the rate of genetic changes which then provide
potential improvement. If sows are kept for six to seven litters, around 35 % must still be replaced
each year. This rate would still be higher for breeding stock producers.
Figure 10. Reasons for culling and their percentage

2.2 Pointers in Culling Boars and Gilts/Sows

Remember!
Culling boars and gilts should be decided
upon based on:
 reproductive failures
 feet and leg problems
 damaged udder section
 health status
2.2.1 Reproductive failures. Some gilts or sows do not come in heat despite proper feeding and
management. Others simply do not conceive even after two or more matings with proven
boars of unquestionable fertility. Although the causes of these problems are not exactly
known, report indicated that more than 50% of all reproductive failures in females are due
to anatomical abnormalities of the reproductive tube.
Occasionally, there are boars without sex desires or who cannot impregnate even the proven
sows. This may also be due to endocrine or anatomic defects like bilateral or unilateral
occlusion or missing segments of the duct system.
Although measures to correct reproductive failure in both males and females were successful
in a few cases, it is better to replace the affected animals with normal individuals.
Sows may be culled due to failure to produce sufficient pigs, to rear sufficient pigs, or to
reproduce regularly enough. The setting of standards for these factors cannot be absolute
and rigid within a herd. A useful guide is to compare the performance of the individual sow
with the herd average. Thus, ignoring the first-litter sows, those which fail to give birth, rear
as many pigs, but with as good farrowing rate as the herd average, should have their future
carefully reviewed. Again, "doubtful" sows as far as performance is concerned, would be
retained rather than lead to a shortfall in herd size.
Records should be consulted to ensure that there are no "hidden" problems. For example, a
sow may appear to be rearing large litters, but, if this is because it is being used to foster
piglets from other sows, its presence should be reviewed.
However, considering the peak of milk production (3rd and 4th week), sows lactating more
than 6 weeks, tend to have delayed heat occurrence.
The following reproductive performance parameters must be taken into consideration when
deciding on culling sows:
a. Litter size. Although litter size is influenced by the environment than heredity, it is
important that a sow farrows and weans a desirable number of piglets. But since
heritability of litter size is low and 1st litter sows usually farrow fewer pigs than "old"

sows, first litter performance is often not a good indication of what the next litter will
be like. Therefore, first farrowed sows with small litter size should be given another
chance to prove that it is worthy of the care and admiration of the producer.
The average number of pigs born and reared should be considered against the herd
average, although some may prefer arbitrary standard regardless of the herd mean.
Table 5 gives the Swine Production Performance in the Philippines.
b. Productive days. Simply, if the average length of the reproductive cycle is 159 days
on the herd, any sow having more than 10 days outside this over two should be
subjected to culling.
c. Fertility and prolificacy. Sows must come in heat 5-7 days to a maximum of 10 days,
after weaning. A sow is most profitable if she produces two or more litters per year.
A sow with long dry periods and does not reproduce regularly is a "profit-eater".
Therefore, she should be culled.
d. Mothering ability. Sows with good mothering ability usually protect their piglets
against predators with threatening movements. However, some sows have
cannibalistic tendencies during and after farrowing especially the first-farrowed sows.
A sow that cannot be comforted and remains vicious to its piglets every time it
farrows should be culled.
e. Disposition. This refers to the sow's temperament. On the other hand, disposition is
very important for both the male and female animals because this trait should not be
ignored because it is reported to be highly heritable. However, other pigs are also
naturally mean and disagreeable. A sow with a poor disposition will likely crush her
litter during nursing when approached by the caretaker. A pig will also become
mean if mistreated.
Records should be used to identify families or individual sows which display

unwanted characteristics such as savaging or aggressiveness. It is therefore,
recommended that breeding pigs with poor disposition be eliminated from the herd.
f. Milk production. A productive sow should be able to produce enough milk for a
healthy piglets in a litter. If it cannot produce enough milk for the piglets, then it
should be considered for culling.
g. Quality of piglets born. Two factors may be considered here:
a. Birth weight. This is a vital element in piglet survival, sows should produce
piglets weighing 1.3 to 1.5 kgs at birth.
b. Abnormalities. There are various abnormalities in pigs which can lower the
quality of the whole herd. The most common are hernias, atresia ani, and
cryptorchidism. They can be transmitted to the offspring of either or both
parents. Therefore, identification and culling of the source(s) is the only
effective measure of eradication. Table 3 (page ) presents the different
congenital abnormalities in pigs.

General Remarks: Leptospirosis and Brucellosis are diseases commonly associated with
abortion and usually transmitted by an infected boar to sows during mating. Although
affected animals can be treated, it is safer and more practical to replace them with healthy
individuals. Remember that the diseases do not only affect reproductive performance of
pigs but they also endanger the health of the animal caretaker. Also, remove from the
breeding herd any sow suffering from mastitis and with one or more teats impaired.
2.2.2 Feet and leg problems. Strong feet and legs are desirable in breeding animals. If sows and
boars are weak at these points, they are likely to have breeding difficulties resulting in
unsatisfactory reproductive performance. Such boars and sows should be culled.
2.2.3 Damaged udder section. The udder is a vital source of nourishment for the piglets. It is
highly susceptible to infection especially during lactation because of the presence of milk
which is a very good medium for the multiplication of infectious microorganisms. Usually,
injured sections become gangrenous and are difficult to treat. If left unchecked, the
infection spreads rapidly to other sections of the udder leaving only a few functional teats for
the next lactation.
2.2.4 Age. Figure 11 shows a typical distribution of litter output in a commercial herd. It should
be noted that sows reach a peak of litter size from the third or fourth farrowing and, in
particular, live births decline after this time.
A sow can be culled on a litter to litter performance basis. There are old sows with good
reproductive records which can out-perform younger sows. A good old sow can be kept as
long as it meets the reproductive standards set for the purpose. The record so far under
Philippine conditions is a sow which has farrowed 20 times in 10 reproductive years to a total
of 208 pigs (Supnet, M.G. Pork Production Manual). Normally, the breeding efficiency of a
sow starts to decline after the sixth parity.
Typical distribution of litter output.

Table 6. Culling guidelines at the ITCPH Training Farm

PARITY NO. LITTER SIZE ESTRUS IMPREGNATION
Gilt Not applicable Cull if not served at the age Cull after 3 unsuccessful
of 9 1/2 months consecutive breeding (4th heat
period)
1 Retain If the sow does not come Cull after the 2nd unsuccessful
into heat within 10 days, she consecutive breeding. In case
will be given hormone. Cull of hormone treatment, cull
if not in heat within 17 days after the 1st unsuccessful
after weaning. breeding.
2 Retain Cull if not in-heat within 30 Cull after 2nd unsuccessful
days, but without hormonal consecutive breeding.
treatment.
3 Cull in case of <24 Cull if not in heat within 30 As 2nd parity
piglets weaned in 3 days after weaning.
farrowings.
4 Cull in case of <27 As 3rd parity As 2nd parity
piglets weaned during
the last 3 farrowings,
excluding fostered
piglets.
5 Cull in case of <27 As 3rd parity As 2nd parity
piglets weaned during
the last 3 farrowings,
excluding fostered
piglets.
6 As 5th parity As 3rd parity As 2nd parity
7 and above As 5th parity; also cull in Cull if not in heat within 10 Cull after 1st unsuccessful
case of 2 piglets <1 kg. days after weaning. service.
at birth.
GENERAL REMARKS
1. Cull sows with leg defects which are not able to carry the weight of pregnancy.
2. Cull sows with recurrent mastitis, agalactia and other defects of the udder resulting in high
mortality of piglets.
3. Cull sows which frequently crush piglets if housing and equipment do not have influence on
the incidence.
4. Cull sows with pseudopregnancy.
5. Cull sows with health problems.
CRITERIA FOR CULLING BOARS!!!

 Leg defects
 Inability to mount
 Poor semen quality and quantity
 Improper mounting position
 Too aggressive boar (fights female!)

CHAPTER 3 - REPRODUCTION
One important factor that contributes to the success of any pig farm is the number of piglets
produced by each sow in a year. This is largely dependent on the services or matings made which
is, in turn, affected by heat detection and timing of insemination.
Reproduction is the total process by which pigs produce offsprings.
This booklet discusses about the dry period, the estrus period or heat occurrence and heat
detection and the different methods of determining heat.. The last part deals with the different
aspects of natural service or insemination, pregnancy and pregnancy diagnosis

THE DRY PERIOD

The time interval from weaning to service is known as the dry period. This is the time when the sow
is unproductive. The length of the dry period varies depending on the sow's body condition.
On some farms where weaning is at 4-6 weeks (28 - 30 days), the sows in good body condition
return to heat during the week following weaning. However, if the sow is thin due to large litters or
was fed badly during lactation, the dry period could be longer.
The local practice of weaning pigs at 4 weeks gives the advantage of allowing the sow to be re-bred
earlier. The sow has a fertile heat period after weaning the pigs. The effects of weaning at 4 weeks
on the number of eggs shed based on reports from studies conducted in Wisconsin, U.S.A. is
presented in Table 1. The fertilization rate was above 90% (Eusebio, J.A., The Science and Practice
of Swine Production)
If weaning is done earlier, then the interval to subsequent estrus may be longer, even up to 2
weeks.
Normally, sows will come in heat 5 to 10 days after weaning.
PUBERTY
 Beginning of reproductive
PUBERTY capability or sexual maturity
 It ranges from 4-8 months old
Puberty in Boars
In boars, puberty is the age at which sperm cells or spermatozoa appear in the ejaculate.
Spermatogenesis is the process in which sperm cells are formed in the testes or testicles. The
whole process takes place in 45 - 50 days. It is a continuous process normally producing about
10-15 billion sperm cells each day. It cannot be altered by the frequency of ejaculation.
When is a boar ready for breeding? Factors affecting puberty in

boars
 genotype
 at least 8 months old
 age
 large enough to cover a normal-sized
gilt  nutrition
 sufficient libido to complete ejaculation  environment
 semen is of sufficient quality and  health

quantity to ensure high conception rates
 frequency of use

PUBERTY IN GILTS
In gilts, puberty is signalled by the occurrence of the first ovulation or estrus period which is
characterized by receptivity to the male pig or acceptance of the male pig.
Factors affecting puberty in

When is a gilt ready for breeding? gilts
 genetics
 age
 at least 8 months old  nutrition
 about 130 -150 kg in weight  climatic environment
 has cycled at least twice  male effect

 social environment
 exogenous hormones
ESTRUS
 Also known as heat period
 Time during which the

Estrus Period
 sow will accept the boar
 Lasts from 3 - 5 days
Older sows generally remain in heat longer than gilts due to stability of hormonal activities. Some
sows, although physiologically in heat, do not show outward signs of being so. These animals are
called “silent heaters,” and the phenomenon is known as “silent heat”.
The Estrus Cycle
It is the period intervening between two successive heat periods in the absence of pregnancy. It
usually ranges from 18-24 days, with an average of 21 days.
The cycle is usually characteristic of the individual, that is, a sow which has a 21-day cycle comes in
heat every 21 days unless interrupted by pregnancy.
The estrus cycle is affected by many environmental factors. It can be altered with the use of
exogenous hormones which are available in the market.

Phases of the Estrus Period
 Boar Phase I - the animal will stand for the boar but not for the caretaker.
 Insemination Phase - the animal will stand for both the boar and the caretaker.
 Boar Phase II - the animal is towards the post-heat stage (going back to
normal).
Regulation of Estrus
To help you understand the process of controlling estrus, Figures 1 and 2 show the anatomy of the
reproductive tract of the female pig.
The reproductive tract of the sow, in situ ((source: M.R.

Muirhead & T.J.L Alexander, "Managing Pig Health & the
Treatment of Disease," p. 137.)
Anatomy of the female reproductive

tract (source: M.R. Muirhead & T.J.L Alexander,
"Managing Pig Health & the Treatment of
Disease," p. 137.)
The regulation of the estrus cycle is a complex process mainly under the control of hormones
released by the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis.
Hormones are substances produced by the cells of the body and passed in the bloodstream to
influence other cells elsewhere in the body.

At a certain moment, the pig’s biological clock is activated by a combination of stimulus to the brain
such as light, smell and touch. These external stimuli signals the hypothalamus (in the brain) to
release the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH). The GnRH stimulates the anterior
pituitary gland to produce the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) (see Figure 3). The FSH
directly affects the ovaries where several of the globes develop into vesicles or graafian follicles. In
turn, the follicle walls produce a hormone, estrogen. Estrogen is the substance responsible for the
manifestation of heat or estrus.
When enough estrogen is carried by the

blood to the brain, it signals the pituitary to
stop the production of FSH because the
ESTRUS STIMULATION follicles are already there and are mature.
The pituitary gland then produces the
luteinizing hormone (LH) which causes
High brain centers the ovum within the follicular wall to emerge.
The external This process is called ovulation. One ovum
stimuli is released from each ripe follicle within 4-6
hours.
Anterior pituitary gland The corpus luteum now produces another

hormone, progesterone.
This hormone stimulates the uterine

glands of the uterus to produce nutrients to
maintain the released ova. It also signals
ovary
the anterior pituitary gland to stop
Oxytocin secretions of FSH and LH.
Relaxin Progesterone Estrogen
If fertilization takes place and the sow
conceives, the corpus luteum is
maintained until the termination of
Mammary gland Uterus pregnancy.
If no conception takes place, the uterus

produces a hormone, prostaglandin (PG),
Graphical illustration of the process of estrus which causes the regression of the corpus
stimulation showing the effects of various luteum. With this, the “brake” on the
hormones on different organs of the body (source: pituitary gland is released. The FSH is
M.R. Muirhead & T.J.L Alexander) produced, and the whole cycle begins
"Managing Pig Health & the Treatment of Disease," again.
p. 139)
If the pig conceives, gives birth and nurses
the piglets, the suckling stimulates milk
let-down causing the release of prolactin
from the pituitary gland. Prolactin block the
release of FSH.
When the piglets are weaned, FSH is again

released, and the cycle starts again. The
animal comes into heat in 5 – 7 days, on the
average.

HEAT DETECTION
Heat detection is the method by which a pig raiser determines whether a sow will accept service
by the boar. It should be done on a routine basis. For best results, this activity should be done
twice each day preferably early in the morning and late in the afternoon.
The table below gives a list of the external signs that can be observed from a sow in heat as well
as the right timing of insemination.
External signs of estrus
Signs Pre-Heat Standing Heat Post-Heat
standing she will not stand still if you stands still with arched back does not stand still
heat try to sit on her back when ridden by other sows when being pushed
or farm caretaker
vulva  red  pink  pale
 swollen  less swollen  almost no swelling
 with little mucus  with clear, sticky mucus  no mucus
behavior  restless and nervous  calm  normal
 mounts other animals  allows to be mounted by
 does not allow herself to other animals
be mounted  mounts other animals
 frequent urination  cocking ears
 less feed intake  actively seeks the boar,
stands arched back in
the presence of the boar
duration 2 days 1 day 1 day
service  NO   YES   NO 
Figure 4. changes during the heat period

IMPORTANT NOTES
It is important to keep checking for estrus because of the following reasons:
 The standing still to back pressure is caused by a hormone released in response to a

stimulus, it is not continuous. This response lasts for 7-10 minutes and is repeated after
about 5 minutes.
 Females that are showing any sign of estrus but will not stand if you try to sit on her back
should be checked again 5 minutes later.
Techniques of Heat Detection
To determine the optimum time of mating, it is important to know whether or not a sow is
receptive. The surest indication of a sow in heat is her acceptance of the boar. In a herd of sows, it
is proper to bring the female to the boar pen.
Several ways or techniques of heat detection may be applied:
 Back pressure test.

This method is done by applying
pressure on her sides with both hands.
If she is receptive, she will just stand firm

and rigid, ready to be served.
Heat detection using back pressure
 Riding-the-back test.
This is done by riding on or pressing the back

or loin of the sow.
Just like in the first method, the sow will

stand firmly and remain rigid, ready to be
served if it is sexually receptive.
Riding-the –back test

 Semen-on-snout test. With this technique old semen sample is squeezed from a squirt
bottle on the snout of the sow. With the boar's smell in the semen, the sow will just stand firm and
remain rigid if it is sexually receptive. A similar preparation, called sex odor aerosol (SOA), is also
commercially available. This involves spraying the sow's snout with the SOA allowing her to show
signs of heat more readily and to exhibit willingness to stand for the boar.
 The teaser boar method
A vasectomized boar is the best animal to

use in this method. The boar is allowed to
mount the sow. If the sow stands firm,
remains rigid with cocked ears and willingly
submits itself to the advances of the boar, it
is sexually receptive.
Teaser boar
 External signs of estrus and records. These are less sophisticated methods of detecting
heat in female pigs. In some farms, records are kept correctly by the farm caretakers. Also, certain
farm caretakers have very good experiences in detecting sows in heat. In such cases, detecting
estrus through external signs and records can be comparable (in terms of accuracy) to the first four
techniques elaborated.
The efficiency of the different methods or techniques of detecting sexual receptivity differs from one
another as shown in Table 3. With the different heat detection techniques, undoubtedly, the use of
a boar had the highest pregnancy occurrence followed by the use of semen on the snout.
Percentage occurrence of pregnancy with respect to methods of detecting sexual receptivity

Number of animals
Got Did not get Occurrence of Occurrence of
Methods Total Pregnant Pregnant pregnancy pregnancy
(%) (%)
(British
figures)
Back pressure test 124 71 53 57 65-69
Riding-the-back 73 47 28 62 70
test
Semen-on-snout 42 33 9 79 80
test
Use of teaser boar 36 32 4 89 95

HOW AND WHEN TO SERVE SOWS/GILTS
Breeding may either be done naturally or artificially. Whether it is natural breeding or artificial
insemination, the best time to breed a sow in heat is in the early morning or late afternoon.
Furthermore, studies indicate that they should be bred within 36 hours after the onset of heat.
Ovulation is the process of releasing the ova from each ripe follicle inside the ovary. It occurs 36 to
40 hours after the start of standing heat when the most number of eggs are being shed. Live sperm
must be in the female reproductive tract a few hours before the occurrence of ovulation; otherwise,
the litter size will be reduced.
Studies have been conducted on how many times a sow should be served. Results indicate that an
advantage in litter size and conception rate has been obtained when sows are bred twice. However,
a relatively good litter size was also obtained when sows are bred only once, in which the sow was
bred during the proper time of estrus. (Eusebio, J.A.. The Science and Practice of Swine Production)
Based on the physiology of the female reproductive system and signs and reactions of the animal
during the heat period, the best time to inseminate/serve the sow is 12-24 hours after the onset of
standing heat. Optimal breeding is based on the number of times per day the farm caretaker
checks the sows for standing heat. With once-a-day detection, sows should be served immediately
once they accept the boar. With twice-a-day detection, sows should be bred 12 and 24 hours after
they are first detected in heat (see Figure 8).
Figure 8. a sow should be bred 12-24 hours after

it is on standing heat

FREQUENCY OF BOAR SERVICE OR COLLECTION
Whether the boar is used for artificial insemination or natural breeding, it is recommended that a
young boar (8-11 months old) will be collected once a week. For older boars (12 months and up),
a 3 consecutive day rest is advisable-that means collection can be done 2 times a week.
The frequency of collection will affect the volume and concentration of semen to a certain extent.
Over-used boars have low semen concentration and volume. On the other hand, under-usage of
boars will deteriorate semen quality such as semen becoming stale and presence of dead sperm
cells.
Semen collection
FERTILIZATION
It is important to appreciate that the mating process in the pig is a prolonged one, sometimes up
to 15 minutes, during which the time up to 400 ml of fluid will be inseminated.
The penis spirals towards the vagina and into the cervix where it screws into the folds to become
locked. This is vital because to establish an optimum pregnancy, sperm must be placed directly into
the womb.
Sperm is transported from the cervix to the top of the womb by the contractions of the muscles. It
takes up to 2 hours for them to arrive at the bottom of the fallopian tubes, the utero-tubal junction.
At this junction, before the sperm cells are able to fertilize the ova, they have to undergo a second-
phase of maturation process known as capacitation. This process will take about 6 hours.
Once the junction is filled with sperm few more enter before ovulation. It is important to appreciate
this because at the first mating the quality of the semen and timing probably decide the quality and
success of fertilization and subsequent survival.

THE PREGNANCY PERIOD

Pregnancy or gestation is the period from fertilization to farrowing time. The average gestation
period is 114 days + 3 days (it is easier to remember - 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days!).
Conception rate should be 80 to 90%, if mating has been carried out under good conditions. If
figures fall towards 60% it is important to question semen quality and the physiological state of the
sow. Successful conception is characterized by a failure to return to estrus 3 weeks following
mating.
Sows are non-seasonal breeders which can be bred continuously without the interruption of
seasonal factors. The sow will continue to come in heat regularly unless she is pregnant, lactating ,
or has some physiological malfunctions. During summer, however, a major breeding handicap in
the sow herd is the relatively low fertility or conception rate.
3.1 Pregnancy Cycle
Pregnancy of sows actually starts on day 12 of the gestation period. If there are fewer than 5
embryos in the womb, the pregnancy will not continue. The embryos will be resorbed and the sow
will return to heat after 9 days.
If there are 5 or more live embryos in the womb, the pregnancy will continue. The embryos will
attached to the walls of the womb. This attachment is completed on day 21 - 23 where each
embryo occupies an individual space. This period before day 35 is called the embryonic period.
 Death during this period is called early embryonic death (EED).

 If some of the embryos die, pregnancy can still progress. The dead embryos are resorbed and
the live ones continue to develop.
 If all the embryos die, it will result to either abortion or complete resorption. Then the sow
would return to heat, 9 or possibly more days depending on the cause of EED as on Figure 9
(see next page)

Schematic diagram of the pregnancy cycle

After day 35, the skeletal development and calcification begins, hence the start of the fetal
period. Resorption during this period is no longer possible.
Death of the fetuses may result in the following:
 Abortion. If the corpura lutea are destroyed.

 Maceration and mummification. The body fluids odf the dead fetuses are resorbed, and
maceration occurs. This process may continue, and a dry, shriveled (mummified) fetus
comes out during farrowing.
Litters born before the 109th day of gestation are usually not capable of surviving. On the other
hand, if the gestation period is over 119 days, this usually results in many forms of abnormalities
such as dead and partially decomposed fetuses, abnormally large pigs, and extremely small litter
size.
 Causes of Regular Repeat

Breeders  Causes of Irregular Repeat Breeders
 Hormonal deficiencies-FSH,LH  Hormonal problems
 Nutritional deficiencies- poor body  Silent heat

condition, obesity
 Metritis
 Insemination failure
 Management failures
 Boar failure
 Stress
Pregnancy Diagnosis
 Economic Importance
 it affects the number of lost days
 it minimizes the risk of under/over occupancy
 it serves as a guide in judging sows for culling
 it determines the fertility of both the boar and the sow
 it controls the amount of feeds to be given to the sow

Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis
 Records
If the services are recorded, the dates for the first heat control (18-24 days) and second heat
control (38-42 days) can be determined. If the sow doesn't come in heat during these period, then
it is assumed that the sow is pregnant.
 Ultrasound-amplitude depth ultrasound machines

With ultrasonic detectors, pregnancy diagnosis is a reality. The principle of ultrasonic pregnancy
detectors is an ultrasonic echo from fluid in the uterus. Uterine fluid increases rapidly following
conception and reaches detectable levels 25 to 30 days after breeding. For some equipment, it
remains detectable for 80 to 90 days after breeding. After this period the mass of fetuses in the
uterus exceeds the fluid content and the machine losses its sensitivity. Also false positives can often
be detected if the bladder is full, and scanning misses the womb.
 Ultrasound- Doppler tests
Doppler ultrasound machines are more accurate and can be used over the whole range of the
pregnancy period from 26 days to term. They are the most popular method in the developed
countries with a 90% plus accuracy. The sounds detected in early pregnancy arise from the changes
is blood flow that take place in the large arteries supplying blood to the womb. Movement of the
fetus and placenta can also be detected together with the fetal heart beat. Womb infection, embryo
absorption or early estrus can give false positives and of course wrong interpretations of the sounds.
Inexperience can also give rise to wrong interpretations. Demonstration audio tapes are available
with the equipment.
The pregnancy tester is positioned 2-3 cm from the last teat or second teat at the back as shown
in figures 10 and 11.
Proper positioning of the pregnancy tester Using the MEDATA pregnancy tester
When using the Pregtone ® a continuous beep means the sow is positive or pregnant.
If the MEDATA ® pregnancy tester is used, three kinds of sounds could be heard namely the middle
uterine artery (25 days and up), umbilical vessels (75 days)and fetal heartbeat (85 days).

 External signs
By looking at the external parts of the

body, it can be determined if the sow
is pregnant or not. Example: udder,
abdomen.
Enlargement of the teats, mammary

tissue and lower abdomen in a pregnant
sow
 Hormone analysis (blood and urine)
The progesterone level in the blood or in urine is analyzed to determine whether the sow is
pregnant or not.
Serum analysis is carried out after day 22 (from the day of service) by using a small stylette to
puncture the ear vein. A thin capillary tube collects a spot of blood which is then tested for
pregnancy hormones. This technique is time consuming, expensive. Tests are being developed to
examine the feces to detect pregnancy but as yet are not perfected for commercial used.
 Vaginal Biopsy
This technique involves the removal of a small piece of the vaginal mucous membrane using a
special instrument. The instrument is inserted into the vagina 150-300 mm pressed into the
membrane, and the end manipulated to cut-off a small piece. The sample is placed in a small
container with a special preservative and posted to a laboratory for histological examinations. It
is time consuming, expensive and little used.
 Palpation
A very useful and valuable method of

diagnosing pregnancy in mature sow
after 30 days of gestation.
Rectal examination, although not

commonly A practiced, has the added
advantage of being very simple and
rapid test not requiring expensive
instruments or laboratory facilities.
Rectal palpation of a sow

 Scanner
Scanning equipment is now available similar to that used in humans for detecting pregnancy. It is
expensive but very accurate. With the use of the scanner, one can determine the pregnancy stage.
Pregnancy diagnosis using the scanner
The scanner monitor used in pregnancy diagnosis
The ovary with four follicles
 Advantages of early pregnancy detection
 identification of sows for culling or rebreed, non-pregnant, feed-wasting sows
 it gives early warning of breeding troubles, due to infertile boars and cystic ovaries of sows
 it enables the producer to make effective use of his breeding facilities and to plan more
adequately for farrowing, nursing, and finishing
 avoids selling of pregnant sows

Productive and Reproductive Performance of Swine Farms in the Philippines
Parameters Target 2010 2009
Litter size at birth
Alive 9.5 9.37 9.36
Mummified 0.20 0.25 0.26
Stillborn 0.30 0.52 0.52
Total 10.0 10.13 10.13
Average birth weight, kg 1.50 1.47 1.52
Litter size at weaning 8.55 8.43 8.48
Pre-weaning mortality,% 10.0 10.19 10.02
Weaning age, days 30 28.49 28.83
Adjusted 30-day weight, kg 8.50 7.72 7.74
Farrowing rate , % 80 73.35 72.01
Dry/rest period 11 13.68 15.19
Farrowing interval, days 165 174.58 176.76
Farrowing index 2.20 2.10 2.11
PWSY (Piglet weaned per sow per 19.20 17.75 17.66

year)
ADG from birth, kg 0.545 0.545 0.528
Adjusted 180-day wt, kg 98 97.76 95.02
Adjusted Farm Efficiency 3.50 3.39 3.30
PPSY (Pigs Produced per Sow per 18.50 16.87 16.37

Year)
Non-productive days 16 24.58 26.76
Mortality based on total pop’n 2.25 3.04 3.19

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PRACTICAL PIG COURSE FOR SENIOR STOCKPERSONS 1

Chapter 1- Breeds and Breeding

CHAPTER 1: BREEDS AND BREEDING SYSTEM

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

BREED A breed is a group of animals that has specific traits or

Different pig breeds can be differentiated through the following characteristics:

1. Color: Black, white, brown, etc.

1.1.1 COMMON PUREBREEDS

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

Table 1. Characteristics of the Different Breeds of Pigs

BREED COLOR EARS TYPE COUNTRY OBSERVATIONS

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

1.1.2 NATIVE PIGS

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

However, this strain has already gone into extinction.

1.1.2.6 MEISHAN BREED

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

This hybrid was developed in the Netherlands by a

The Dalland is known for its fast growth and

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

Camborough 22-fourth generation of

GENETIC ALLIANCE CORPORATION

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

GlobeGen – Superior Breeding Solutions

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

1.2 BREEDING SYSTEMS

Breeding systems are systems of mating animals to produce a purebreed or a crossbreed.

However, inbreeding is not always disadvantageous. If strict selection is practiced, it

Example: FATHER MOTHER

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

The occurrence of abnormalities and unsoundness in the herd such as hernia,

As to the effect of inbreeding on weaning weight, previous observations indicated that

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

Example: FATHER MOTHER

Crossbreeding is beneficial. It produces good stock.

Examples of Crossbred Pigs:

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

Crossbreeding can still be differentiated as follows:

2.3.1 Two-way cross - mating with the use of 2 different breeds.

Example: FATHER MOTHER

Du x LWLR (2nd cross)

Example: FATHER MOTHER

NOTE: LW - Large white LR - Landrace

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

1. Dalland - is a result of a 4-way cross of Large white (LW), Pietrain/Landrace (PLR),

LWPLR x DTLW (parents)

LWPLRDTLW (Dalland) (finishers)

DuH x LRLW (parents)

DuHLRLW (Babcock) (finishers)

3. Hypig - is a result of the crosses between Landrace, Yorkshire + (own breeding

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

1.2.4 Upgrading. Upgrading is a system of breeding wherein an inferior breed is improved by

Upgrading is used to improve the common stock.

Example: FATHER (Purebreed) MOTHER (Local breed)

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

CHAPTER 2 - SELECTION AND CULLING

Selection is aimed at achieving the following objectives:

 large litter size at weaning

2.2 Ways of Selection

1.2.1 Natural selection. ("survival of the fittest") - The best

International Training Center on Pig Husbandry, Lipa City, Batangas, Philippines

Performing Artificial Selection