wind-loads-on-the-main-wind-force-resisting-system-directional-procedure

9.
Wind Loads on the Main Wind Force Resisting

System (Directional Procedure)
9.1. Introduction—Main Wind Force Resisting System

(MWFRS)
Chapter 27 of the ASCE 7-16 standard explains how to determine the wind loads on the MWFRS in buildings that are considered
enclosed, partially enclosed, or open using a method called the Directional Procedure. There are two parts in Chap. 27 of the
ASCE 7-16 standard. The first part relates to buildings of all heights. Generally, the structure is separated into windward,
leeward, and side walls to assess wind loads on the MWFRS. The second part deals with enclosed simple-diaphragms buildings
with heights not exceeding 160 ft (48.8 m).
There are some conditions regarding the use of this Directional Procedure. Buildings designed according to this procedure are
expected to meet certain conditions. The building must be regular in shape, and it should not be subject to vortex shedding,
flutter, across-wind, or any channeling effects that would require special considerations. Regularly shaped buildings are defined
in the ASCE 7-16 standard as buildings that have no unusual geometric irregularities in form.
As explained earlier, the MWFRS is the assembly of primary structural members that provides support and ensures the stability
of the structure. This system receives wind loads from multiple surfaces. All other elements, such as windows, doors, wall
panels, and cladding, that are not part of the MWFRS are classified in a different category referred to as Components and
Cladding. These components are also subject to wind loads and they transfer forces to the elements of the MWFRS. The
connections between components and the main frame, as well as connections between various elements of the main frame,
are extremely important and must be designed carefully. Failure of these connections can lead to a progressive general
structural failure of the building or structure.
The primary main structural system should be able to resist horizontal forces from wind and transfer these forces adequately
vertically to the foundation system. Some main wind force structural systems are also able to support gravity loads, and may
have a dual function. As explained in previous chapters, a rigid frame can resist lateral loads as well as gravity loads and can be
used as a vertical system. Also, a post-and-beam system can be converted to a braced frame by adding bracing. As discussed
earlier, braced frames are also used to resist both lateral loads and gravity loads. A structural wall can be a load-bearing wall or
a shear wall or a combination of both. The gravity loads on a shear wall generally can be beneficial due to their stabilizing effect.
The horizontal elements of the main wind-resisting system are generally the diaphragm systems that consist of floors and
roofs. A diaphragm does not necessarily need to be horizontal though. A slanted roof system can also act as a diaphragm. As
explained previously, the diaphragm system receives the lateral loads and transfers them to the vertical elements attached to it
that can be, for example, shear walls.
The MWFRS is a three-dimensional system. It must be considered in both directions of the building, and in each direction, the
system must have both horizontal elements and vertical elements to resist the wind loads. It is best to locate these elements in
a regular and symmetrical fashion to reduce torsional effects as explained in Chap. 6.
9.2. Part 1—Buildings of All Heights

Again, as indicated above, buildings designed according to this procedure are expected to meet certain conditions. The
building must be regular in shape, and it should not be subject to vortex shedding, flutter, across-wind, or any channeling
effects that would require special considerations.
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There are some minimum design wind loads for the MWFRS given by the ASCE 7-16 standard that must be respected.
Calculated design wind loads must be compared to these minimal values, and the minimum design values must be used when
calculated pressures are below the minimum. For enclosed and partially enclosed buildings, the minimum wall wind pressure is
given as 16 psf (0.77 kN/m2 ). For roofs, the minimum wind pressure is 8 psf (0.38 kN/m2 ) assumed to be applied on a roof
area of the building projected onto a vertical plane that is perpendicular to the wind direction. For open buildings, the minimum
design wind pressure is given as 16 psf (0.77 kN/m2 ).
For buildings of all heights, as indicated above, the wind loads on the MWFRS are determined as follows.
1. The Risk Category of the building must be first determined. The ASCE 7-16 standard provides Table 1.5-1 for Risk Category
of Building and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow, Earthquake and ice Loads. As discussed in Chap. 2, the 2015
International Building Code also defines the Risk Categories in Table 1604.5 of the IBC, which is reproduced as Table 2.1 in
this book.
2. The basic wind speed for the site must be determined. As explained inChap. 2, the ASCE 7-16 standard provides four basic
wind speed maps for building Risk Categories I, II, III, and IV and for Exposure Category C.
3. The wind load parameters are determined. These parameters are the wind directionality factor K( d ), exposure category,
topographic factor (Kzt), ground elevation factor (Ke), gust factor (G or G f), enclosure classification, and the internal pressure
coefficients (GCpi). These parameters are described in the previous chapter.
4. The velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz and Kh) are determined as explained in Chap. 8 of this book.
5. The velocity pressures (qz and qh) are calculated as outlined in Chap. 8 of this book.
6. The wind pressure (p) on each building surface is calculated as explained in the following sections.
9.2.1. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Enclosed and Partially

9.2.1. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Enclosed and Partially
Enclosed Buildings
In enclosed and partially enclosed buildings, the ASCE 7-16 document provides the following equation to calculate the wind
pressure on the MWFRS of buildings of all heights:
p = qGCp − qi(GCp i)
The equation allows the calculation of the wind pressure (p) on a building surface, such as a wall or roof, in lb/ft2 , a unit often
referred to as psf, or in N/m2 in the metric system. Wind pressure is supposed to be acting simultaneously on walls and roof.
The parameters in the above equation are as defined previously inChap. 8 of this book:
q = velocity pressure in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )
G = gust factor
Cp = external pressure coefficient
qi = velocity pressure for internal pressure determination in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )
GCpi = internal pressure coefficient
For windward walls, the velocity pressure q is taken as qz at a height z above ground. For leeward walls, side walls, and roofs,
the velocity pressure is calculated at the mean roof height h and it is qh.
In partially enclosed buildings and for positive internal pressure, the ASCE 7-16 standard allows a conservative approach in
determining the velocity pressure for internal pressure determination (qi) by evaluating it at the mean roof height h (qi = qh).
Otherwise, it is defined at a height z which is the level of the highest opening in the building that could have an effect on the
positive internal pressure. In wind-borne debris regions, the ASCE 7-16 standard also treats unprotected glazing and glazing
that is not impact resistant as an opening.
9.2.2. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Open Buildings

9.2.2. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Open Buildings
The ASCE 7-16 standard provides an equation to calculate the net wind pressure p
( ) on building surfaces in open buildings with
monoslope, pitched, or troughed free roofs. The equation is
p = qhGCN
where qh = velocity pressure at the mean roof height
G = gust factor
CN = net pressure coefficient
The net pressure coefficient (CN) is function of the roof angle (θ) and the wind direction (γ). Two cases of wind flow are
considered: clear wind flow and obstructed wind flow. For each roof angle (θ), two load cases are considered (A and B). All load
cases must be investigated in design. Top and bottom surfaces are considered to be contributing to the wind pressure. The
coefficient is given for windward and leeward half of roof surfaces (CNW and CNL). Values of this factor are given in the ASCE 7-
16 standard in Figs. 27.3-4 through 27.3-7.
Just like the external pressure coefficient, the net pressure coefficient can have a positive or negative sign. A positive sign of
the coefficient refers to a positive pressure that acts toward the top surface of the roof in question. A negative sign refers to a
negative pressure that acts away from the top surface of the roof in question (suction).
9.2.3. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Overhangs and Parapets

For roof overhangs, the ASCE 7-16 standard requires the determination of the positive external pressure on the bottom surface
of roof overhangs on the windward side using an external pressure coefficient (Cp) of 0.8. The top surface pressures must also
be combined with the bottom surface pressures.
Parapets have an effect on the pressure applied to the MWFRS. The ASCE 7-16 standard provides the following equation to
calculate the wind pressure on parapets:
pp = qp (GCp m)
where pp = design combined wind pressure on parapet in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )
qp = velocity pressure calculated at the top of the parapet
GCpm = combined net pressure coefficient (+1.5 for windward parapet and --1.0 for leeward parapet)
The combined wind pressure on the parapet (pp) includes the effect of the wind pressure on both sides of the parapet.
9.2.4. Wind Load Cases

Wind pressures on the MWFRS determined as explained earlier must be combined in certain ways for design purposes. The
ASCE 7-16 standard requires that elements of the MWFRS be designed for wind load cases as defined by Fig. 27.3-8.
The figure shows the building in plan views. There are four design wind load cases to be considered.
9.2.4.1. Case 1
9.2.4.1. Case 1
In this case, wind pressures are calculated and applied on the projected areas in each direction of the building or structure (X
and Y), and each direction is considered separately as shown in the ASCE Figure 27.3-8.
9.2.4.2. Case 2
Each direction is considered separately again. Only 75% of the wind pressures are applied on the projected areas in addition to a
torsional moment (MT) in each building direction. The equation to be used to calculate this moment is given in the figure.
9.2.4.3. Case 3
In this case, 75% of the calculated wind pressures are used, but pressures are applied simultaneously to all four projected areas
in both directions.
9.2.4.4. Case 4
In this case, wind pressures are applied simultaneously to all projected areas in both directions like in Case 3. However only
75% of the pressures calculated in Case 3 are applied, which means 0.563 of the full wind pressures determined as explained
earlier (0.75 × 0.75 = 0.563). In addition to these wind pressures, a torsional moment (MT) is also applied and calculated using
the equation provided in the figure.
According to the ASCE 7-16 standard, the torsional effects expressed by the torsional moment (MT) in the design wind load
cases above need not be considered for buildings that meet the following conditions.
1. One-story buildings with a mean roof height (h) less than or equal to 30 ft (9.2 m), light-frame construction buildings, and
buildings with flexible diaphragm of two stories or more.
2. Buildings controlled by seismic loading as per Sec. D.3 of Appendix D of the ASCE 7-16 standard.
3. Buildings that meet the criteria of torsionally regular buildings under wind loads as described inSec. 26.2 of the ASCE 7-16
standard.
4. Buildings designed with a flexible diaphragm when the wind pressures calculated in Cases 1 and 3 of the design wind load
cases are increased by a factor of 1.5.
5. Buildings with a height (h) less than or equal to 160 ft (48.8 m), which are Class 1 and Class 2 simple-diaphragm buildings
that meet the requirements outlined in Sec. D.6 of Appendix D of the ASCE 7-16 standard.
Buildings that meet the requirements as outlined above can be designed for load Cases 1 and 3 only.
For rigid buildings, the eccentricity e that appears in the equations of the torsional moment (MT) is calculated in both building
directions (ex and ey ), and is measured from the geometric center of the building face. For flexible buildings, the ASCE 7-16
standard provides a complex equation to calculate the eccentricity (e) for each building axis.
The sign of the eccentricity as a plus or minus is considered in the way that produces the more severe loading.
9.2.5. Application Problems

A design example is given in the problem below that explains how wind pressures are calculated on the walls and roof of a
building using the Directional Procedure for buildings of all heights according to the ASCE 7-16 standard. As explained above,
these calculated wind pressures are used for the purpose of designing the MWFRS.
9.2.5.1. Problem 1
A small commercial building is shown in plan and elevations inFig. 9.1. The building is a single-story structure with a height of
15 ft (4.57 m) above ground and a flat roof. The building footprint is roughly 36 ft by 36 ft (10.97 m by 10.97 m) or 37 ft 4 in.
(11.38 m) by 37 ft 4 in. (11.38 m) including the 8-in.-thick (203-mm) walls. The building is to be constructed on a flat site in the
downtown area of the city of Newark, New Jersey. Use the Directional Procedure—Part 1 Buildings of All Heights of the ASCE 7-
16 standard to determine the wind pressure on the walls and roof of this building needed to design the MWFRS.
Figure 9.1 Commercial building in Problem 1.
9.2.5.2. Solution
1. Determine the Risk Category of the building. Refer to Table 2.1 of this book. This small commercial building is a Risk
Category II according to the classification table of the 2015 International Building Code. We can also refer to Table 1.5-1 of
the ASCE 7-15 for risk categories.
2. Determine the basic wind speed using the wind speed map of the ASCE 7-16 standard for Risk Category II buildings and
other structures, Figure 26.5-1B. According to this map, the basic wind speed for Newark, New Jersey, is 115 mph (51 m/s).
3. Determine the wind load parameters. These parameters are the wind directionality factor K( d ), exposure category,
topographic factor (Kzt), ground elevation factor (Ke), gust factor (G or G f), enclosure classification, and the internal pressure
coefficients (GCpi). The parameters are described in the previous chapter.
The wind directionality factor Kd is usually taken as 0.85 as explained in Sec. 8.2 of this book.
The exposure category is determined next. Surface Roughness B applies in this case. As indicated inSec. 8.2, for buildings
with mean roof heights of less than or equal to 30 ft (9.1 m), Exposure B would apply if Surface Roughness B prevails in the
upwind direction for a distance greater than 1500 ft (457 m), which is the case of this building, considering that it is in the
downtown area of the city and the mean roof height is less than 30 ft (9.1 m).
The topographic factor (Kzt) will be taken as 1.0 for a flat site.
Regarding the ground elevation factor (Ke), the ASCE 7-16 standard allows the conservative approximationKe = 1.00 for all
cases.
The gust factor G can be taken as 0.85 because the building in question is low rise and can be considered rigid. For a rigid
building or structure, the ASCE 7-16 standard allows the use of G = 0.85. As indicated in Chap. 8, the standard also allows
"low-rise buildings" as defined by the document to be considered "rigid." The ASCE 7-16 standard defines a low-rise building
as a building with a mean roof height (h) that does not exceed 60 ft (18 m), and does not exceed the least lateral dimension
of the building.
The building enclosure classification should be determined next. A building is considered enclosed if it is not classified as
open or partially enclosed, as explained in Sec. 2.4 of this book.
The building in this example is not considered open because each wall is not 80% open.
According to the ASCE 7-16 standard, a building is classified as partially enclosed if it meets the following conditions:
a. The total area of openings in a wall that receives a positive pressure is larger than 4 ft2 (0.37 m2 ), or 1% of that wall's
area, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in the building envelope does not exceed 20%.
b. If the total area of openings in a wall that receives a positive pressure exceeds the sum of areas of all openings in the
building by 10%.
In the case of the building in this example, the percentage of openings in the building envelope is about 6.7%. Also, condition
b above is not satisfied.
The building cannot be considered as partially enclosed. It is not considered open either. The building in this example is
therefore considered enclosed.
Next, the internal pressure coefficients (GCpi) must be determined. As explained in Chap. 8 of this book, values of the
internal pressure coefficients are determined from Table 26.13-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard, depending on the enclosure
classification of the building or structure. The values are also given as positive numbers for wind pressures acting toward
the internal building surface, and as negative numbers for wind pressures acting away from the internal building surface.
As per Table 26.13-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard, the internal pressure coefficients (GCpi) for enclosed buildings are +0.18
and −0.18.
4. The velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz and Kh) are determined next as explained in Chap. 8 of this book. The
velocity pressure exposure coefficients are function of the height above ground in feet (or meters), and the exposure
category of the building. The values of these coefficients are given in Table 26.10-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. For a height
above ground level (z) between 0 and 15 ft (0 and 4.6 m) and Exposure B, the velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz
and Kh) are equal to 0.57.
5. The velocity pressures (qz and qh) are calculated next as outlined in Chap. 8 of this book. The ASCE 7-16 standard has the
two equations given below for the velocity pressure (qz) using inch-pound (IP) units and the metric system.
In these equations, qz is the velocity pressure at height z above ground in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ).
For IP units:
qz = 0.00256K zK ztK dK eV 2
where V = basic wind speed in mi/h or mph. Substituting in this equation:
qz = 0.00256(0.57)(1)(0.85)(1)(115 mph)2
qz = 16.40 psf or lb/ft2
For the metric system:
where V = basic wind speed in m/s. Substituting in this equation:
qz = 0.613(0.57)(1)(0.85)(1)(51m/s)2
qz = 772.49 N/m2
The various wind parameters and factors to be used in this problem are summarized inTable 9.1. These parameters are used
later to calculate the wind pressures on building surfaces.
Table 9.1 Summary of Wind Parameters and Factors Used in Problem 1
Wind Load Parameter Value
Directionality factor (Kd) 0.85
Topographic factor (Kzt) 1.0
Ground elevation factor (Ke) 1.0
Gust factor (G) 0.85
Internal pressure coefficients ( GCpi) +0.18 and −0.18
Velocity pressure exposure coefficients ( Kz and Kh) 0.57
Velocity pressures (qz and qh) 16.40 psf (772.49 N/m 2)
The wind pressure (p) on each building surface is calculated next. As previously indicated, in enclosed and partially enclosed
buildings, the ASCE 7-16 document provides the following equation to calculate the wind pressure on the MWFRS of buildings
of all heights:
The equation allows the calculation of the wind pressure (p) on a building surface, such as a wall or roof, in lb/ft2 , a unit often
referred to as psf, or in N/m2 in the metric system. Wind pressure is supposed to be acting simultaneously on walls and roof.
the velocity pressure is calculated at the mean roof height h and it is qh. In this example, the mean roof height is the same as the
height above ground and it is 15 ft (4.57 or 4.6 m).
The velocity pressure for internal pressure determination isqi and for enclosed building, it is taken as qh for both wall and roof
pressure calculations.
As explained in Chap. 8, Cp is the external pressure coefficient. For the MWFRS in "enclosed and partially enclosed buildings,"
the coefficient (Cp) is taken from Fig. 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. This figure relates to walls and roofs of the following
types: flat, gable, hip, monoslope, and mansard.
In Fig. 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard:
B = horizontal dimension of building in feet (meters) measured normal to the wind direction
L = horizontal dimension of building in feet (meters) measured parallel to the wind direction
In this example, the building is square in plan; therefore, the dimensions B and L are equal and are both 37 ft 4 in. (11.38 m).
The ratio L/B seen in the table is equal to 1.0.
The external pressure coefficient can have a positive or negative sign. A positive sign of the coefficient refers to a positive
pressure that acts toward the surface in question. A negative sign refers to a negative pressure that acts away from the surface
in question (suction).
Table 9.2 summarizes the values of the external pressure coefficients (Cp) to be used for the building walls in this example.
Table 9.2 Values of the External Pressure Coefficient for the Walls in Problem 1
Surface External Pressure Coefficient (Cp)
Windward wall 0.8
Leeward wall −0.5
Side walls −0.7
The values of the external pressure coefficient of the roof are also taken from Fig. 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. Since the
roof in this example is flat, the applicable wind direction is "normal to ridge for θ < 10° and parallel to ridge for all θ." The ratio
h/L = 15 ft/37.33 ft = 0.4. So this ratio falls in the case ofh/L ≤ 0.5. In the ASCE 7-16 figure, two sets of values for Cp are given.
In the first set, the values of the coefficient decrease as you move away from the windward wall. In the second set, the
coefficient is constant at −0.18. The first set is used here to solve the example.
Table 9.3 summarizes the values of the external pressure coefficients (Cp) to be used for the roof in this example.
Table 9.3 Values of the External Pressure Coefficient for the Roof inProblem 1
Horizontal Distance from Windward Edge Cp
0 to h/2 = 0 to 7.5 ft (2.29 m) −0.9, −0.18
h/2 to h = 7.5 ft (2.29 m) to 15 ft (4.57 m) −0.9, −0.18
h to 2h = 15 ft (4.57 m) to 30 ft (9.14 m) −0.5, −0.18
>2h: >30 ft (9.14 m) −0.3, −0.18
The ASCE 7-16 standard requires that elements of the MWFRS be designed for wind load cases as defined by Fig. 27.3-8 of the
ASCE 7-16. As explained previously, the building in this example meets the criteria of the ASCE 7-16 standard that allow the
building to be designed for Load Cases 1 and 3 only. The structure is a one-story building with a mean roof height (h) less than
or equal to 30 ft (9.14 m).
These load cases are summarized here again:
Load Case 1 In this case, wind pressures are calculated and applied on the projected areas in each direction of the building or
structure (X and Y), and each direction is considered separately as shown in the ASCE 7-16 figure.
Load Case 3 In this case, 75% of the calculated wind pressures are used, but pressures are applied simultaneously to all four
projected areas in both directions as shown in the ASCE figure.
Calculations of the Wind Pressures on Building Surfaces Since the building is square in plan, the wind pressures will be the
same for both building axes. We will calculate the wind pressures on the walls first.
Wind Pressures on the Walls
Load Case 1 For the windward wall, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(0.8) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = 8.20 psf
For the windward wall, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(0.8) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = 14.10 psf
For the windward wall, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(0.8) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = 386.24 N/m2
For the windward wall, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(0.8) − 772.49 N/m2(−0.18)
p = 664.34 N/m2
For the leeward wall, the mean roof height (h) must be used. In this example it is the same as the height (z).
For the leeward wall, with a positive internal coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(−0.5) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = −9.92 psf
For the leeward wall, with a negative internal coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(−0.5) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = −4.02 psf
For the leeward wall, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(−0.5) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = −467.36 N/m2
For the leeward wall, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(−0.5) − 772.49 N/m2(−0.18)
p = −189.26 N/m2
For side walls, with a positive internal coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(−0.7) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = −12.71 psf
For side walls, with a negative internal coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(−0.7) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = −6.81 psf
For the side walls, with a positive internal coefficient and using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(−0.7) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = −598.68 N/m2
For the side walls, with a negative internal coefficient and using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(−0.7) − 772.49 N/m2(−0.18)
p = −320.58 N/m2
projected areas in both directions.
The pressures in Load Case 3 are calculated by multiplying the pressures of Load Case 1 and 0.75 using the largest pressure
values as follows.
For the windward wall, using IP units:
p = +14.10 psf × 0.75

p = +10.58 psf
For the windward wall, using metric units:
p = +664.34 N/m2 × 0.75

p = +498.26 N/m2
For the leeward wall, using IP units:
p = −9.92 psf × 0.75

p = −7.44 psf
For the leeward wall, using metric units:
p = −467.36 N/m2 × 0.75

p = −350.52 N/m2
The largest pressures are considered. Table 9.4 summarizes the largest calculated wind pressures on the windward and
leeward walls for Load Cases 1 and 3. As indicated earlier, the ASCE 7-16 standard has a minimum requirement for the wind
pressure on walls of 16 psf (0.77 kN/m2 ). Therefore, calculated values must be compared to this minimum pressure, and if they
are less than the minimum mandated pressure, then the minimum required pressure must be used.
Table 9.4 Calculated Wind Pressures on the Windward and Leeward Walls of the Building in Problem 1
Load Case 1 Wind Pressure (p)
Windward wall +14.10 psf (+664.34 N/m 2)
Leeward wall −9.92 psf (−467.36 N/m 2)
Load Case 3
Figure 9.2 shows plans of the building in this design example, with the calculated wind pressures on the windward and leeward
walls. The full design wind pressure is shown acting on the projected area perpendicular to each principal axis of the structure
to be considered separately along each axis as explained earlier, and based on Fig. 27.3-8 of the ASCE 7-16 standard.
Figure 9.2 Wind pressures on the windward and leeward walls of the building in Problem 1—Load
Case 1.
Figure 9.3 shows a plan of the building in this design example with the calculated wind pressures on the walls, for Load Case 3,
to be considered simultaneously on all four walls as per Fig. 27.3-8 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. In this case, the wall pressures
are calculated as 75% of the full design wind pressures acting separately along each axis. The minimum pressures are
calculated as 75% of the minimum mandated pressures:
p = 16 psf × 0.75 = 12 psf

p = 0.77 kN/m2 × 0.75 = 0.58 kN/m2
Figure 9.3 Wind pressures on the walls of the building in Problem 1—Load Case 3.
Wind Pressures on the Roof As explained earlier, the uplift wind pressures on the roof (negative pressures) decrease as we
move away from the windward wall of the structure. The external pressure coefficients (Cp) to be used for the roof are
summarized in Table 9.3.
The equation to be used to determine the wind pressures on the roof (p) is again
The velocity pressures (q and qi) are considered at the level of the mean roof height (h) and their unit is lb/ft 2 (N/m2 ). In this flat
roof building, the mean roof height is 15 ft (4.6 m). Internal pressure coefficient (GCpi) is +0.18 and −0.18 as explained earlier.
A positive value of this coefficient indicates a pressure acting toward the inside surface of the roof. This positive pressure is in
the same direction as the wind uplift pressure, thus getting combined with it and leading to the largest pressures on the roof in
this case. The other parameters are the same ones used earlier for the walls. The velocity pressures (q and qi) are qh calculated
as 16.40 psf (772.49 N/m2 ). The gust factor G = 0.85.
Using the three values −0.9, −0.5, and −0.3 of the external pressure coefficients (Cp) given in Table 9.3, the wind pressures on
the roof are:
For Cp = −0.9, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.9) − 16.40(+0.18)
p = −12.55 − 2.95
p = −15.50 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)(−0.9) − 772.49(+0.18)
p = −590.95 − 139.05
p = −730 N/m2
For Cp = −0.9, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.9) − 16.40(−0.18)
p = −12.55 + 2.95
p = −9.60 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)(−0.9) − 772.49(−0.18)
p = −590.95 + 139.05
p = −451.90 N/m2
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.5) − 16.40(+0.18)
p = −6.97 − 2.95
p = −9.92 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)(−0.5) − 772.49(+0.18)
p = −328.31 − 139.05
p = −467.36 N/m2
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.5) − 16.40(−0.18)
p = −6.97 + 2.95
p = −4.02 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)(−0.5) − 772.49(−0.18)
p = −328.31 + 139.05
p = −189.26 N/m2
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.3) − 16.40(+0.18)
p = −4.18 − 2.95
p = −7.13 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)(−0.3) − 772.49(+0.18)
p = −196.98 − 139.05
p = −336.03 N/m2
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.3) − 16.40(−0.18)
p = −4.18 + 2.95
p = −1.23 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)(−0.3) − 772.49(−0.18)
p = −196.98 + 139.05
p = −57.93 N/m2
For the other roof external pressure coefficient of −0.18 provided in Table 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard, the roof wind
pressure with the positive internal pressure coefficient is
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.18) − 16.40(+0.18)
p = −2.51 − 2.95
p = −5.45 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)18 − 772.49(+0.18)
p = −118.19 − 139.05
p = −257.24 N/m2
When using the negative internal pressure coefficient the value becomes
p = 16.40(0.85)(−0.18) − 16.40(−0.18)
p = −2.51 + 2.95
p = +0.44 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49(0.85)18 − 772.49(−0.18)
p = −118.19 + 139.05
p = +20.86 N/m2
Based on these calculations for the external pressure coefficient (Cp = −0.18), the roof must also be designed for a small
positive pressure of +0.44 psf (+20.86 N/m2 ).
Table 9.5 provides a summary of the calculated wind pressures on the roof, using both the positive and negative internal
pressure coefficients.
Table 9.5 Calculated Wind Pressures on the Roof of the Building inProblem 1
Horizontal Distance from Windward Edge Roof Pressure (p) Using the Positive Internal Roof Pressure (p) Using the Negative Internal
Pressure Coefficient Pressure Coefficient
0 to h/2 = 0 to 7.5 ft (2.29 m) −15.50 psf (−730 N/m 2) −9.60 psf (−451.90 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.9
h/2 to h = 7.5 ft (2.29 m) to 15 ft (4.57 m) −15.50 psf (−730 N/m 2) −9.60 psf (−451.90 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.9
h to 2h = 15 ft (4.57 m) to 30 ft (9.14 m) −9.92 psf (−467.36 N/m 2) −4.02 psf (−189.26 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.5
>2h: >30 ft (9.14 m) −7.13 psf (−336.03 N/m 2) −1.23 psf (−57.93 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.3
Case of the External Pressure Coefficient of

−0.18 (Entire Roof)
Cp = −0.18 −5.45 psf (−257.24 N/m 2) +0.44 psf (+20.86 N/m 2)
The largest pressures are generally used. Figure 9.4 shows an elevation view of the building in the design example, with the
calculated wind pressures on the roof. The figure also shows the full wind pressures on the windward and leeward walls. These
roof pressures are to be applied simultaneously with the wall wind pressures as determined earlier.
Figure 9.4 Calculated roof wind pressures and full wind windward and leeward wall wind pressures
—Problem 1—elevation view.
As mentioned earlier, the ASCE 7-16 standard mandates some minimum wind loads to be used for walls and roof. For enclosed
and partially enclosed buildings, the minimum wall wind pressure is given as 16 psf (0.77 kN/m2 ). For roofs, the minimum wind
pressure is 8 psf (0.38 kN/m2 ) assumed to be applied on a roof area of the building projected onto a vertical plane that is
perpendicular to the wind direction. For a flat roof, this projected area is zero and therefore there is no minimum value to apply,
and the calculated pressures are used in design.
Also, as indicated above, there is also one case of small positive pressure.
Figure 9.4 also shows the wind pressures that must be replaced using the minimum values as required by the ASCE 7-16
standard.
9.2.5.3. Problem 2
If the walls in the previous small commercial building had a 5-ft-tall (1.52-m) parapet as shown inFig. 9.5, what would be the
wind pressure on the windward and leeward parapets?
Figure 9.5 Section view of the roof parapet in Problem 2.
9.2.5.4. Solution
In the previous design example, the mean roof height (h) is the height of the flat roof that was given as 15 ft (4.57 m). If a 5-ft
(1.52-m) parapet is added to the walls, then the height to the top of the parapet becomes 20 ft (6.1 m). However, the mean roof
height remains the same as 15 ft (4.57 m).
The ASCE 7-16 standard provides the following equation to calculate the wind pressure on a parapet as explained previously:
pp = qp (GCp m)
The combined wind pressure on the parapet (pp) includes the effect of the wind pressure on both sides of the parapet.
In this equation, qp is the velocity pressure at height 20 ft (6.1 m) above ground in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ).
For IP units:
where V = basic wind speed of 115 mi/h or mph.
The value of the velocity pressure exposure coefficient is given in Table 26.10-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. For a height above
ground level (z) of 20 ft (6.1 m) and Exposure B, the velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz) are equal to 0.62.
The other factors in the equation are the same ones as used in the previous problem.
Substituting in this equation:
qp = 0.00256(0.62)(1)(0.85)(1)(115 mph)2
qp = 17.84 psf or lb/ft2
The wind pressure on the windward parapet is
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (17.84)(+1.5)
pp = 26.76 psf
The wind pressure on the leeward parapet is
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (17.84)(−1.0)
pp = −17.84 psf
where V = basic wind speed of 51 m/s. Substituting in this equation:
qz = 0.613(0.62)(1)(0.85)(1)(51 m/s)2
qz = 840.26 N/m2
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (840.26)(+1.5)
pp = 1260.39 N/m2
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (840.26)(−1.0)
pp = −840.26 N/m2
Figure 9.6 shows a diagram of the full wind pressures on the windward and leeward sides of the building including the parapet.
Figure 9.6 Full wind pressures on windward and leeward sides including parapet—Problem 2.
9.2.5.5. Problem 3
Assuming that the previous small commercial building given in Problem 1 has no parapet, what is the total wind load that the
roof diaphragm needs to resist? Assume full wind pressures as calculated earlier in Load Case 1.
9.2.5.6. Solution
The small commercial building in question is 15 ft (4.57 m) high and is roughly 37 ft 4 in. by 37 ft 4 in. (11.38 m by 11.38 m) in
plan.
The wind pressures calculated previously in Problem 1 are to be used for the MWFRS. These wind pressures get transferred
from the exterior walls into the roof diaphragm system. The roof diaphragm must resist one-half of the wind load, while the
other half is resisted at the ground level at the bottom of the walls by the soil and foundation elements. Also, the roof
diaphragm transfers the wind load it receives to the vertical wind resisting system attached to it on both sides in the other
direction.
In Load Case 1, the design wind pressures are the minimum required pressures:
1. On the windward wall: 16 psf (0.77 kN/m2 or 770 N/m2 )
2. On the leeward wall: −16 psf (−0.77 kN/m2 or 770 N/m2 )
Since the wall height is 15 ft (4.57 m), one-half of the wind load is the load on a total height of 15 ft/2 = 7.5 ft (4.57 m/2 = 2.29
m) for the entire width of the wall, which is roughly 37 ft 4 in. (11.38 m). The wind pressures on the windward and leeward sides
get combined because they are in the same direction.
In IP units, the wind load transferred to the roof diaphragm is
(16 psf + 16 psf)(7.5 ft)(37.33 ft) = 8959.2 lb
In metric units, the wind load transferred to the roof diaphragm is
(770 N/m + 770 N/m2)(2.29 m)(11.38 m) = 40 133 N = 40.13 kN
9.3. Part 2—Enclosed Simple-Diaphragm Buildings with h ≤

160 ft (48.8 m)
9.3.1. Introduction
9.3.1. Introduction
The ASCE 7-16 standard presents two methods that can be used to determine wind pressures for the design of the MWFRS.
Both methods are outlined in Chap. 27 of the ASCE 7-16 document as Part 1 and Part 2. The method introduced in Part 1 can
be used for buildings of all heights and is commonly known as the Directional Procedure. It is explained in Sec. 9.2. The second
method, introduced in Part 2, is a simplified procedure that can be used for enclosed simple-diaphragm buildings with a mean
roof height (h) that does not exceed 160 ft (48.8 m). This method is outlined in this section, and in this procedure, wind
pressures on building surfaces are determined from tables. The building shape and roof geometry should match some
specified figures provided by the ASCE 7-16 standard.
As indicated in Chap. 2, a simple-diaphragm building is defined by the ASCE 7 standard as a building where the windward and
leeward wind loads are transferred to the MWFRS by roof and vertical walls through continuous roof and floor diaphragms.
The simplified method discussed here applies to buildings with flexible or rigid diaphragms. The ASCE 7-16 standard considers
diaphragms built using wood panels as flexible diaphragms. Other diaphragms built using metal decks (with or without
concrete topping), and concrete slabs with a span-to-depth ratio of 2 or less, are permitted to be treated as rigid diaphragms for
wind load calculations.
9.3.2. Conditions
The ASCE 7-16 standard states that the simplified procedure presented in Part 2 can be applied to enclosed simple-diaphragm
buildings that satisfy the conditions given below for Class 1 and Class 2 buildings. In these conditions, the dimensions L and B
are as defined earlier.
B = horizontal dimension of the building in feet (meters) measured normal to the wind direction
L = horizontal dimension of the building in feet (meters) measured parallel to the wind direction
Class 1 buildings meet the following two conditions:
1. The mean roof height (h) of the building is ≤60 ft (18.3 m).
2. The ratio L/B is within a certain range: 0.2 ≤ L/B ≤ 5.0.
Class 2 buildings meet the following three conditions:
1. The mean roof height of the building is 60 ft < h ≤ 160 ft (18.3 m < h ≤ 48.8 m).
2. The ratio L/B is within a certain range: 0.5 ≤ L/B ≤ 2.0.
3. The fundamental natural frequency of the building in hertz is not less than 75/h, where h is the mean roof height in feet.
As indicated earlier, the eave height must be used forh for roof angles not exceeding 10 degrees.
Figure 27.4-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard, summarizes the building geometry requirements for Class 1 and Class 2 buildings.
9.3.3. General Procedure

9.3.3. General Procedure
As indicated above, the method introduced in Part 2 of Chap. 27 of the ASCE 7-16 standard is a simplified procedure that can
be used for enclosed simple-diaphragm buildings with a mean roof height (h) that does not exceed 160 ft (48.8 m). The
procedure consists of the following steps:
1. The Risk Category of the building must be determined.
2. The basic wind speed (V) is determined based on the Risk Category of the building. As explained earlier, basic wind speed
maps are given in the ASCE 7-16 standard for all four building risk categories in Chap. 26 of the ASCE 7-16 document.
3. The various wind load parameters are determined next. These parameters are the exposure category, the topographic
factor, and the enclosure classification as explained in Chap. 8 of this book. The wind pressures must be multiplied by the
topographic factor Kzt. This factor must be calculated at a height of 0.33h.
4. Table 27.5-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard is used next to determine the horizontal net along-wind pressures on the walls at the
top of building (Ph) and at the base of building (P0) in psf (kN/m2 ). Wall pressures are applied to the projected area of the
building in the wind direction. For side walls, pressures are applied to the projected area of the building in the direction
perpendicular to the wind in the outward direction. Table 27.5-1 is given for Exposure Categories B, C, and D, for heights (h)
from 15 to 160 ft (4.57 to 48.8 m), for various values of basic wind speeds (V) from 110 (49 m/s) to 200 mph (89 m/s), and
for ratios L/B of 0.5, 1, and 2. For Class 1 buildings with L/B ratios of less than 0.5, the ASCE 7-16 standard allows the use of
the values for a ratio of 0.5. For Class 1 buildings with L/B ratios of more than 2.0, the standard allows the use of the values
given for the ratio of 2.0. Refer to Table 27.5-1 Notes #2 for sidewalls.
5. Table 27.5-2 of the ASCE 7-16 standard is used next to determine the net roof wind pressures (Pz). The roof is divided into
"zones" that are numbered as shown in the diagrams that are given on the second page of this table, and depending on roof
type. The table provides the roof wind pressure (Ph) for each roof zone for Exposure C, for various roof slopes, heights of up
to 160 ft (48.8 m), and different basic wind speeds (V). Roof slopes vary from flat roofs (slope of less than 2:12 or 9.46
degrees) to a slope of 12:12 (45 degrees). For Exposures B and D, tabulated pressures must be multiplied by an exposure
adjustment factor given in a chart provided on the first page of Table 27.5-2. The ASCE 7-16 standard allows interpolation
between V, h, and roof slope.
When two load cases are shown in Table 27.3-2, the effects of each load case must be considered separately.
Figure 27.5-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard shows a diagram that illustrates how pressures are to be applied to the walls and
roof when using this method.
6. If the topographic factor Kzt is applicable, then it is calculated and applied to pressures on walls and roof. As an alternative
solution, the ASCE 7-16 standard allows the designer to enter Tables 27.5-1 and 27.5-2 with a wind velocity equal to:
V √K zt
In this expression, the topographic factor Kzt is calculated at a height of 0.33h.
7. Finally, wall and roof pressures are applied simultaneously for the design of the elements of the MWFRS.
Wind load cases must be considered as explained inSec. 9.2.4. As explained in that section, the torsional wind load cases
(Load Cases 2 and 4) do not apply to buildings that meet certain requirements as outlined in Appendix D of the ASCE 7-16
standard. For sidewalls and leeward wall see the application problem 9.5.5. Windward and leeward pressures so determined
do not include the effect of internal pressures.
9.3.4. Parapets and Overhangs

9.3.4. Parapets and Overhangs
According to the ASCE 7-16 standard and in this simplified method, the wind pressure applied to a parapet for the purpose of
designing the MWFRS is a net horizontal pressure applied to the projected parapet area. It must be calculated using the same
table used for wall pressures (Table 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard), and by using the height to the top of the parapet (h = hp)
with the ratio L/B = 1.0, then multiplying the table value times 2.25. This pressure accounts for both the windward and leeward
wind loads.
Figure 27.3-2 of the ASCE 7-16 document shows a diagram that illustrates how parapet wind loads are applied in this simplified
method. The parapet wind loads are to be applied simultaneously with wall and roof wind pressures.
For vertical wind loads on roof overhangs, and in this simplified method, a positive wind pressure is to be applied to the
underside of the overhang on the windward side. This pressure is to be taken as 75% of the roof wind pressure at the roof edge
as determined using Table 27.3-2 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. Roof edge areas are generally labeled Zones 1 or 3 as illustrated
in the diagrams on the second page of Fig. 27.5-2 of the ASCE 7-16 document.
Figure 27.5-3 of the ASCE 7-16 standard shows a diagram that illustrates how parapet wind loads are applied using this
simplified method.
9.3.5. Application Problem

In this application problem, we will reuse the small commercial building example given inProblem 1 of Sec. 9.2.5 to determine
the wind pressures on the walls and roof of the building for the MWFRS using the simplified second method for enclosed
simple-diaphragm buildings with a mean roof height (h) that does not exceed 160 ft (48.8 m). Use Load Case 1 only.
9.3.5.1. Solution
The small commercial building in question is an enclosed simple-diaphragm building. The enclosure classification of this
building is explained in Sec. 9.2.5. The roof diaphragm transfers the wind loads to vertical walls.
The building also satisfies the two conditions for Class 1 buildings, which are:
1. The mean roof height (h) of the building is 15 ft (4.57 m) ≤ 60 ft (18.3 m).
2. The ratio L/B = 1.0 and is within the range: 0.2 ≤ L/B ≤ 5.0.
The Risk Category of the building was determined earlier as Risk Category II. The basic wind speed for Newark, New Jersey, is
also as determined earlier as 115 mph (51 m/s). The exposure category is B.
Generally, the wind pressures must be multiplied by the topographic factor K ( zt). This factor must be calculated at a height of
0.33h. Since the building in this example is on a flat site, this factor is taken as 1.0.
Table 27.5-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard is used next to determine the horizontal net along-wind pressures on the walls at the top
of building (Ph) and at the base of building (P0 ) in psf (kN/m2 ). Wall pressures are applied to the projected area of the building
in the wind direction.
For V = 115 mph (51 m/s), a height h = 15 ft (4.57 m), and for a ratio L/B = 1, Table 27.5-1 provides the following values for the
along-wind net pressures on the walls:
At the top of building (Ph) = 18.2 psf (0.87 kN/m2 )
At the base of building (P0 ) = 18.2 psf (0.87 kN/m2 )
2 2
For metric calculations, 1 psf (lb/ft2 ) = 0.0479 kN/m2
Note that for heights larger than 15 ft (4.57 m), the wind pressure at the top of the wall is greater than the pressure at the base,
as shown in Fig. 9.7a, and the pressure distribution diagram is trapezoidal in shape. In this case, the two pressures are equal as
illustrated in Fig. 9.7b.
Figure 9.7 (a) General net wall pressure distribution. (b) Along-wind net wall pressure—elevation
view.
For side walls, these same pressures are applied to the projected area of the building in the direction perpendicular to the wind
in the outward direction.
Table 27.5-2 of the ASCE 7-16 standard is used next to determine the net roof wind pressures (Pz). The roof is divided into
"zones" that are numbered as shown in the diagrams that are given on the second page of this table, and depending on roof
type. For the flat roof of the building in this example, the roof zones are labeled Zones 3, 4, and 5. Figure 9.8 illustrates the roof
zones of this structure.
Figure 9.8 Roof zones considered for the determination of wind roof pressures.
As explained earlier, Table 27.5-2 of the ASCE 7-16 standard provides the roof wind pressure P ( h) for each roof zone for
Exposure C, for various roof slopes, heights of up to 160 ft (48.8 m), and different basic wind speeds (V). In this example, we
have an Exposure Category B, a flat roof (slope of less than 2:12 or 9.46 degrees), a height (h) = 15 ft (4.57 m), and a wind
speed V = 115 mph (51 m/s).
For Exposure B, tabulated pressures must be multiplied by an exposure adjustment factor given in a chart provided on the first
page of Table 27.5-2 of the ASCE 7-16 document. According to this chart, and for a height of 15 ft (4.57 m), the adjustment
factor for Exposure B is 0.677.
Based on Table 27.5-2 of the ASCE 7-16 standard, for a flat roof, a heighth = 15 ft (4.57 m) and a wind speed V = 115 mph (51
m/s).
Table 9.6 summarizes the roof uplift wind pressures for Exposure C.
Table 9.6 Tabulated Roof Wind Pressures—Exposure C
Roof Zone Wind Pressure (psf) Wind Pressure (kN/m 2 )
Zone 3 −25.9 −1.24
Zone 4 −23.1 −1.11
Zone 5 −18.9 −0.91
Again and as indicated above, for metric calculations, 1 psf (lb/ft2 ) = 0.0479 kN/m2 .
For Exposure B, tabulated pressures must be multiplied by the exposure adjustment factor of 0.677.Table 9.7 summarizes the
adjusted roof wind pressures for all three roof zones. These roof pressures must be applied simultaneously with wall wind
pressures.
Table 9.7 Adjusted Roof Wind Pressures—Exposure B
Roof Zone Wind Pressure (psf) Wind Pressure (kN/m 2 )
Zone 3 −17.5 −0.84
Zone 4 −15.6 −0.75
Zone 5 −12.8 −0.61
Sidewalls get 54% of Ph for L/B between 0.2 and . The leeward wall gets an external outward pressure of 38% of Ph for L/B
between 0.2 and 1. Figure 9.9 illustrates how the calculated wall along-wind net pressures are to be applied simultaneously
with roof uplift pressures in elevation view. The calculated windward and leeward pressures do not include the effect of the
internal pressure.
Figure 9.9 Wind pressure application—elevation view. (The effect of internal pressure is not
included.)
9.4. Design Example

In this section, a wind design example is presented to help explain how wind pressures on walls and roof are determined for the
purposes of designing the MWFRS, and how these wind loads are used next for the diaphragm design.
In structural design, it is generally known that wind loads are to be combined with other structural loads, such as dead, live, and
earthquake loads using certain "load combinations" as required by the building codes and various structural specifications in
order to design structural members. It is also known that building codes and standards do not require structures to be designed
for wind and seismic loads simultaneously. Generally, both wind and seismic loads are determined and compared. Structures
are normally designed for the larger of these two load types. Therefore, in some cases, the design may be controlled by seismic
loads and not by wind loads, depending on the geographic location and building type.
In the following design example, the focus will be solely on the wind loads. Other loads are not considered in the design
example, and will not be discussed here. Readers who wish to better understand the general structural design process that
includes the other structural loads can refer to the various building codes and standards and to structural textbooks that explain
the structural design procedures.
Figure 9.10 shows the building in this design example both in plan and elevations. The structure is a single-story small office
building to be located in an urban area in the downtown of the city of Nutley, New Jersey. The site is relatively flat. The building
footprint is roughly 30 ft (9.14 m) by 60 ft (18.29 m). The story height to the roof line is 12 ft (3.65 m). There is a 4-ft-tall (1.22-
m) parapet. The building has 8-in. (203-mm) reinforced concrete shear walls on all four sides. The roof is wood-framed with
plywood sheathing creating a diaphragm system. The window and door openings are as shown in the plan and elevation
diagrams.
Figure 9.10 Plan and elevations of the small office building used in the design example.
In this design example, we will use the Directional Procedure introduced in Part 1 of Chap. 27 of the ASCE 7-16 standard
(buildings of all heights) to determine the wall, parapet, and roof wind loads for the MWFRS. The wall and parapet wind loads
will be used next to design the roof diaphragm system.
9.4.1.1. Building Risk Category and Basic Wind Speed (V)

First, the Risk Category of the building is determined. We refer toTable 2.1 of this book or Table 1.5-1 of the ASCE 7-16
standard. This small office building has a Risk Category II according to the classification table.
Next, the basic wind speed is determined using the wind speed map of the ASCE 7-16 standard for Risk Category II buildings
and other structures, Figure 26.5-1B. The city of Nutley, New Jersey, is located a few miles away from the larger city of Newark,
New Jersey, so the same wind speed used for Newark in the earlier design example can be used again here. According to the
map, the basic wind speed for Newark, New Jersey, is 115 mph (51 m/s).
9.4.1.2. Wind Load Parameters

9.4.1.2. Wind Load Parameters
Next, we determine the wind load parameters as explained earlier. These parameters are the wind directionality factorK( d ),
exposure category, topographic factor (Kzt), ground elevation factor (Ke), gust factor (G or G f), enclosure classification, and the
internal pressure coefficients (GCpi).
The wind directionality factor (Kd ) is usually taken as 0.85 as explained in Sec. 8.2 of this book.
The exposure category is determined next. Surface Roughness B applies in this case again. As indicated inSec. 8.2, for
buildings with mean roof heights of less than or equal to 30 ft (9.1 m), Exposure B would apply if Surface Roughness B prevails
in the upwind direction for a distance greater than 1500 ft (457 m), which is the case of this building considering that it is in the
urban area of Nutley, New Jersey, and the mean roof height is less than 30 ft (9.1 m).
The topographic factor Kzt will be taken as 1.0 for a flat site.
The ground elevation factor Ke is taken as 1.0, which is a conservative approximation allowed by the ASCE 7-16 standard.
The gust factor G can be taken as 0.85 because the building in question is "low rise" and can be considered "rigid." For a rigid
building or structure, the ASCE 7-16 standard allows the use of G = 0.85. As indicated in Chap. 8, the standard also allows "low-
rise buildings" as defined by the document to be considered "rigid." The ASCE 7-16 standard defines a "low-rise building" as a
building with a mean roof height (h) that does not exceed 60 ft (18 m), and does not exceed the least lateral dimension of the
building, which is the case of the building in this design example.
The building enclosure classification should be determined next. A building is considered enclosed if it is not classified as open
or partially enclosed, as explained in Sec. 2.4 of this book.
The building in this example is not considered open because each wall is not 80% open.
According to the ASCE 7-16 standard, a building is classified as partially enclosed if it meets the following conditions:
a. The total area of openings in a wall that receives a positive pressure is larger than 4 ft2 (0.37 m2 ), or 1% of that wall's area,
whichever is smaller, and the percentage of openings in the building envelope does not exceed 20%.
b. If the total area of openings in a wall that receives a positive pressure exceeds the sum of areas of all openings in the
building by 10%.
Clearly, in the case of the building in this example, the percentage of openings in the building envelope is about 7.8% (less than
20%). Also, condition b above is not satisfied.
The building cannot be considered as partially enclosed. It is not considered open either. The building in this example is
therefore considered enclosed.
Next, the internal pressure coefficients (GCpi) must be determined. As explained in Chap. 8 of this book, values of the internal
pressure coefficients are determined from Table 26.13-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard, depending on the enclosure classification
of the building or structure. The values are also given as positive numbers for wind pressures acting toward the internal building
surface, and as negative numbers for wind pressures acting away from the internal building surface. As per Table 26.13-1 of the
ASCE 7-16 standard, the internal pressure coefficients (GCpi) for enclosed buildings are +0.18 and −0.18.
9.4.1.3. Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients

The velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz and Kh) are determined next as explained in Chap. 8 of this book. The velocity
pressure exposure coefficients are function of the height above ground in feet (or meters), and the exposure category of the
building. The values of these coefficients are given in Table 26.10-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. For a height above ground level
(z) between 0 and 15 ft (0 and 4.6 m) and Exposure B, the velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz and Kh) are equal to 0.57.
9.4.1.4. Velocity Pressure
The velocity pressures (qz and qh) are calculated next. Again, the ASCE 7-16 standard has the two equations given below for the
velocity pressure (qz) using IP units and the metric system.
In these equations, qz is the velocity pressure at height z above ground in lb/ft2 (N/m2 ).
For IP units:
where V = basic wind speed in mi/h or mph. Substituting in this equation:
qz = 0.00256(0.57)(1)(0.85)(1)(115 mph)2
qz = 16.40 psf or lb/ft2
where V = basic wind speed in m/s. Substituting in this equation:
qz = 0.613(0.57)(1)(0.85)(1)(51 m/s)2
qz = 772.49 N/m2
Table 9.8 summarizes the various wind parameters and factors to be used in this design example. These parameters are used
later to calculate the wind pressures on building surfaces.
Table 9.8 Summary of Wind Parameters and Factors Used in the Design Example
Wind Load Parameter Value
Directionality factor (Kd) 0.85
Topographic factor (Kzt) 1.0
Ground elevation factor (Ke) 1.0
Gust factor (G) 0.85
Internal pressure coefficients ( GCpi) +0.18 and −0.18
Velocity pressure exposure coefficients ( Kz and Kh) 0.57
Velocity pressures (qz and qh) 16.40 psf (772.49 N/m 2)
9.4.1.5. Wind Pressures on Walls
The wind pressure (p) on each building surface is calculated next. We start by calculating the wind pressures on walls.
In enclosed and partially enclosed buildings, the ASCE 7-16 document provides the following equation to calculate the wind
pressure on the MWFRS of buildings of all heights:
The equation allows the calculation of the wind pressure (p) on a building surface, such as a wall or roof, in lb/ft2 (psf) or in
N/m2 in the metric system. Wind pressure is supposed to be acting simultaneously on walls and roof.
the velocity pressure is calculated at the mean roof height h and it is qh. In this example, the mean roof height is the same as the
height above ground to the roof line and it is 12 ft (3.65 m).
Next, we determine the external pressure coefficients (Cp) for the walls from Fig. 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. In this
figure:
B = horizontal dimension of building in feet (meters) measured normal to the wind direction
L = horizontal dimension of building in feet (meters) measured parallel to the wind direction
We need to consider two different directions of the wind as parallel to both building axes separately as explained earlier.
1. When the wind is parallel to the long plan dimension, the L dimension is 61.33 ft (18.69 m) and the B dimension is 31.33 ft
(9.35 m). The ratio L/B in this case is 61.33/31.33 = 1.96 or approximately 2.0.
2. When the wind is parallel to the short plan dimension, the L dimension is 31.33 ft (9.35 m) and the B dimension is 61.33 ft
(18.69 m). The ratio L/B in this case is 31.33/61.33 = 0.51 or approximately 0.5.
As explained previously, the external pressure coefficient can have a positive or negative sign. A positive sign of the coefficient
refers to a positive pressure that acts toward the surface in question. A negative sign refers to a negative pressure that acts
away from the surface in question (suction).
Table 9.9 summarizes the values of the external pressure coefficients (Cp) to be used for the building walls in this example.
Table 9.9 Summary of the External Pressure Coefficients to be Used for the Walls in the Design Example
Surface External Pressure Coefficient (Cp)
Windward wall 0.8
Leeward wall: L/B = 0.5 −0.5
Leeward wall: L/B = 2.0 −0.3
Side walls −0.7
As explained earlier, the internal pressures on the windward and leeward walls cancel. Therefore, these internal pressures are
not calculated for these walls.
9.4.1.5.1. Wind Parallel to the Long Plan Dimension (L/B= 2.0)

p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(0.8) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = 11.15 psf − 2.95 psf
p = +8.20 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(0.8) − 772.49 psf(+0.18)
p = 525.29 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = +386.24 N/m2
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(0.8) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = 11.15 psf + 2.95 psf
p = +14.10 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(0.8) − 772.49 psf(−0.18)
p = 525.29 N/m2 + 139.05 N/m2
p = +664.34 N/m2
For the leeward wall, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.3) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = −4.8 psf − 2.95 psf
p = −7.75 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.3) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = −198.24 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = −337.29 N/m2
For the leeward wall, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.3) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = −4.8 psf + 2.95 psf
p = −1.85 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.3) − 772.49 N/m2(−0.18)
p = −198.24 N/m2 + 139.05 N/m2
p = −59.19 N/m2
For side walls, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.7) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = −9.76 psf − 2.95 psf
p = −12.71 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.7) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = −459.63 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = −598.68 N/m2
For side walls, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.7) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = −9.76 psf + 2.95 psf
p = −6.81 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.7) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = −459.63 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = −320.58 N/m2
The largest pressures are supposed to be used, and the mandated minimum pressures must be checked.
Load Case 3 In this case, 75% of the largest calculated wind pressures are used, but pressures are applied simultaneously to
all four projected areas in both directions.
p = +14.10 psf × 0.75

p = +10.58 psf
p = +664.34 N/m2 × 0.75

p = +498.26 N/m2
p = −7.75 psf × 0.75

p = −5.81 psf
p = −337.29 N/m2 × 0.75

p = −252.97 N/m2
Table 9.10 summarizes the largest calculated wind pressures on the windward, leeward, and side walls in the case of wind
parallel to the long plan dimension of the building (L/B = 2.0) and for Load Cases 1 and 3.
Table 9.10 Calculated Wind Pressures on the Windward and Leeward Walls (L/B = 2.0)
Wind Load Case 1 Largest Wind Pressure ( p)
Side walls −12.71 psf (−598.68 N/m 2)
Wind Load Case 3 Wind Pressure (p) Using the Largest Full Pressures of Load Case 1
Windward wall +10.58 psf (498.26 N/m 2)
2 therefore, the
The full wind pressures shown in the table are below the minimum required wind pressure of 16 psf (0.77 kN/m);
full wind pressures must be replaced using the minimum required wind pressure.
9.4.1.5.2. Wind Parallel to the Short Plan Dimension (L/B= 0.5)

p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(0.8) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = 11.15 psf − 2.95 psf
p = +8.20 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(0.8) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = 525.29 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = +664.34 N/m2
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)(0.8) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = 11.15 psf + 2.95 psf
p = +14.10 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)(0.8) − 772.49 N/m2(−0.18)
p = 525.29 N/m2 + 139.05 N/m2
p = +664.34 N/m2
For the leeward wall, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.5) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = −6.97 psf − 2.95 psf
p = −9.92 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.5) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = −328.31 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = −467.36 N/m2
For the leeward wall, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.5) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = −6.97 psf + 2.95 psf
p = −4.02 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.5) − 772.49 N/m2(−0.18)
p = −328.31 N/m2 + 139.05 N/m2
p = −189.26 N/m2
For side walls, with a positive internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.7) − 16.40 psf(+0.18)
p = −9.76 psf − 2.95 psf
p = −12.71 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.7) − 772.49 N/m2(+0.18)
p = −459.63 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = −598.68 N/m2
For side walls, with a negative internal pressure coefficient and using IP units:
p = 16.40 psf(0.85)( − 0.7) − 16.40 psf(−0.18)
p = −9.76 psf + 2.95 psf
p = −6.81 psf
Using metric units:
p = 772.49 N/m2(0.85)( − 0.7) − 772.49 N/m2(−0.18)
p = −459.63 N/m2 − 139.05 N/m2
p = −320.58 N/m2
projected areas in both directions. The wind pressures are calculated, as shown below, using the largest wind pressures of
Load Case 1.
p = +14.10 psf × 0.75

p = +10.58 psf
p = +664.34 psf × 0.75

p = +498.26 psf
p = −9.92 psf × 0.75
p = −7.44 psf
p = −467.36 psf × 0.75

p = −350.52 psf
Table 9.11 summarizes the largest calculated wind pressures in the case of wind parallel to the short plan dimension of the
building (L/B = 0.5) and for Load Cases 1 and 3.
Table 9.11 Calculated Wind Pressures on the Windward and Leeward Walls (L/B = 0.5)
Wind Load Case 1 Wind Pressure (p)
Side walls −12.71 psf (−598.68 N/m 2)
Wind Load Case 3
Figure 9.11 shows the wind pressures on walls in plan, for both wind directions (L/B = 2.0 and L/B = 0.5), and for Load Case 1.
Figure 9.11 Wind pressures on walls—Load Case 1.
Figure 9.12 shows the wind pressures on walls in plan for Load Case 3. Since the minimum mandated wind pressures of 16 psf
(0.77 kN/m 2 ) were used in Load Case 1, the wind pressures to be used ultimately in Load Case 3 are 75% of 16 psf (0.77
kN/m 2 ) or 12 psf (0.58 kN/m2 ).
Figure 9.12 Wind pressures on walls—Load Case 3.
9.4.1.6. Wind Pressures on the Roof
The values of the external pressure coefficient for the roof are also taken from Fig. 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. Since the
roof in this example is flat, the applicable wind direction is "normal to ridge for θ < 10° and parallel to ridge for all θ." The ratio
h/L must be calculated with h = 12 ft (3.65 m):
1. In the case of wind parallel to the long plan dimension of the building, the dimensionL = 61 ft 4 in. or 61.33 ft (18.69 m) and
the ratio h/L = 12/61.33 = 0.196, we will use 0.2.
2. In the case of wind parallel to the short plan dimension of the building, the dimensionL = 31 ft 4 in. = 31.33 ft (9.55 m) and
the ratio h/L = 12/31.33 = 0.383, we will use 0.4.
In both cases, the ratio h/L falls in the category of h/L ≤ 0.5 in Fig. 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. In this figure, two sets of
values for Cp are given. In the first set, the values of the coefficient decrease as you move away from the windward wall. In the
second set, the coefficient is constant at −0.18.
Table 9.12 summarizes the values of the external pressure coefficients (Cp) to be used for the roof in this example.
Table 9.12 Calculated Wind Pressures on the Roof
Horizontal Distance from Windward Edge Cp
0 to h/2 = 0 to 6 ft (1.83 m) −0.9, −0.18
h/2 to h = 6 ft (1.83 m) to 12 ft (3.66 m) −0.9, −0.18
h to 2h = 12 ft (3.66 m) to 24 ft (7.32 m) −0.5, −0.18
>2h: >24 ft (7.32 m) −0.3, −0.18
The equation to be used to determine the wind pressures on the roof (p) is again
The velocity pressures (q and qi) are considered at the level of the mean roof height (h) and their unit is lb/ft 2 (N/m2 ). In this flat
roof building, the mean roof height is 12 ft (3.66 m). The internal pressure coefficient (GCpi) is +0.18 and −0.18 as explained
earlier. A positive value of this coefficient indicates a pressure acting toward the inside surface of the roof. This positive
pressure is in the same direction as the wind uplift pressure, thus getting combined with it and leading to the largest negative
pressures on the roof. The other parameters are the same ones used earlier for the walls. The velocity pressures (q and qi) are
qh calculated as 16.40 psf (772.49 N/m2 ). The gust factor G = 0.85.
Using the three values −0.9, −0.5, and −0.3 of the external pressure coefficients (Cp) given in Table 9.12, the wind pressures on
the roof are:
p = 16.40 (0.85)( − 0.9) − 16.40 (+0.18)
p = −12.55 − 2.95
p = −15.50
In metric units:
p = 772.49 (0.85)( − 0.9) − 772.49 (+0.18)
p = −590.95 − 139.05
p = −730 N/m2
p = 16.40 (0.85)( − 0.9) − 16.40 (−0.18)
p = −12.55 + 2.95
p = −9.6 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49 (0.85)( − 0.9) − 772.49 (−0.18)
p = −590.95 + 139.05
p = −451.90 N/m2
p = 16.40 (0.85)( − 0.5) − 16.40 (+0.18)
p = −6.97 − 2.95
p = −9.92 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49 (0.85)( − 0.5) − 772.49 (+0.18)
p = −328.31 − 139.05
p = −467.36 N/m2
p = 16.40 (0.85)( − 0.5) − 16.40 (−0.18)
p = −6.97 + 2.95
p = −4.02 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49 (0.85)( − 0.5) − 772.49 (−0.18)
p = −328.31 + 139.05
p = −189.26 N/m2
p = 16.40 (0.85)( − 0.3) − 16.40 (+0.18)
p = −4.18 − 2.95
p = −7.13 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49 (0.85)( − 0.3) − 772.49 (+0.18)
p = −196.98 − 139.05
p = −336.03 N/m2
p = 16.40 (0.85)( − 0.3) − 16.40 (−0.18)
p = −4.18 + 2.95
p = −1.23 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49 (0.85)( − 0.3) − 772.49 (−0.18)
p = −196.98 + 139.05
p = −59.93 N/m2
Next, the other external pressure coefficient of −0.18 is used.
p = 16.40 (0.85)( − 0.18) − 16.40 (+0.18)
p = −2.51 − 2.95
p = −5.46 psf
In metric units:
p = 772.49 (0.85)( − 0.18) − 772.49 (+0.18)
p = −118.19 − 139.05
p = −257.24 N/m2
The largest calculated wind pressures on the roof are summarized in Table 9.13.
Table 9.13 Largest Calculated Wind Pressures on the Roof
Horizontal Distance from Windward Edge Roof Pressure (p)
0 to h/2 = 0 to 6 ft (1.83 m) −15.50 psf (−730.00 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.9
h/2 to h = 6 ft (1.83 m) to 12 ft (3.66 m) −15.50 psf (−730.00 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.9
h to 2h = 12 ft (3.66 m) to 24 ft (7.32 m) −9.92 psf (−467.36 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.5
>2h: >24 ft (7.32 m) −7.13 psf (−336.03 N/m 2)
Cp = −0.3
Entire roof—For Cp = −0.18 −5.46 psf (−257.24 N/m 2)
The ASCE 7-16 standard requires that wind pressures on the roof satisfy the minimum wind pressure requirement of 8 psf (0.38
kN/m 2 ) multiplied by the projected roof area normal to the wind direction. For a flat roof, this projected area is zero and
therefore there is no minimum value to apply, and the calculated pressures are used in design.
Figure 9.13 shows elevation views of the building in the design example with the calculated wind pressures on the roof. For
simplicity purposes, the wind loads on walls and parapet are not shown in this figure.
Figure 9.13 Elevation views of the building with calculated roof wind pressures.
9.4.1.7. Wind Pressures on the Parapet

The ASCE 7-16 standard provides the following equation to calculate the wind pressure on a parapet as explained previously:
pp = qp (GCp m)
As indicated previously, the combined wind pressure on the parapet (pp) includes the effect of the wind pressure on both sides
of the parapet.
In this equation, qp is the velocity pressure at a height above ground to the top of the parapet, in this case, 16 ft (4.88 m) in lb/ft2
(N/m2 ).
For IP units:
where V = basic wind speed of 115 mi/h or mph.
The value of the velocity pressure exposure coefficient is given in Table 26.10-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard. For a height above
ground level (z) of 16 ft (4.88 m) and Exposure B, the velocity pressure exposure coefficients (Kz) can be determined by linear
interpolation, as permitted by the ASCE 7-16 standard, and it should be 0.58.
The other factors in the equation are the same ones used in the previous problem.
Substituting in this equation:
qp = 0.00256(0.58)(1)(0.85)(1)(115 mph)2
qp = 16.69 psf or lb/ft2
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (16.69)(+1.5)
pp = 25.04 psf
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (16.69)(−1.0)
pp = −16.69 psf
where V = basic wind speed of 51 m/s. Substituting in this equation:
qz = 0.613(0.58)(1)(0.85)(1)(51 m/s)2
qz = 786.05 N/m2
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (786.05)(+1.5)
pp = 1179.08 N/m2
pp = qp (GCp m)
pp = (786.05)(−1.0)
pp = −786.05 N/m2
Figure 9.14 shows a diagram of the full wind pressures on the windward and leeward sides of the building including the
parapets.
Figure 9.14 Full wind pressures on windward and leeward walls and parapets.
9.4.1.8. Diaphragm Design

Wind pressures on the windward and leeward walls get combined together because they are in the same direction. These
combined pressures are used below to design the roof diaphragm in the north-south direction. Since the previously calculated
wall pressures are less than the minimum required pressure on walls, the minimum wind pressures of 16 psf (0.77 kN/m2 or
770 N/m2 ) will be used for the walls.
Table 9.14 summarizes the combined windward and leeward pressures on the north-south walls as illustrated inFig. 9.13 for
L/B = 0.5.
Table 9.14 Combined Lateral Wind Loads on North and South Walls
IP Units Metric Units
Wall 16 psf + 16 psf = 32 psf 770 N/m 2 + 770 N/m 2 = 1540 N/m 2
Parapet 25.04 psf + 16.69 psf = 41.73 psf 1179.08 N/m 2 + 786.05 N/m 2 =1965.13 N/m 2
Figure 9.15 shows how these combined wind pressures are applied to the north and south wall and parapet for the purpose of
calculating support reactions and designing the roof diaphragm.
Figure 9.15 Combined lateral wind loads on north and south walls and parapets.
If we refer to the supports at the ground and roof as Supports A and B respectively, the support reactionsRA and RB can be
calculated by writing the equations of static equilibrium for the wall, and considering the wall as a vertical overhanging beam,
and using a unit width of the wall.
We start by writing the summation of the moments at Support A; the total must equal zero. Using IP units:
ΣM A = 0
32 psf (12 ft)(12 ft/2) + 41.73 psf (4ft)(14 ft) − RB(12 ft) = 0
2304 + 2336.88 = 12RB
RB = 386.74 lb
Since the calculations are performed for a unit width of the wall, or 1 foot of width, this reaction can also be expressed as
386.74 lb/ft.
Using metric units:
ΣM A = 0
1540 N/m2 (3.65 m)(3.65 m/2) + 1965.13 N/m2(1.22 m)(4.26 m) − RB(3.65 m) = 0
10 258.32 + 10 213.17 = 3.65RB
RB = 5608.6 N = 5.61 kN
Since the calculations are performed for a unit width of the wall, or 1 m of width, this reaction can also be expressed as 5608.6
N/m.
Next we write the summation of the forces; the total must be equal to zero.
Using IP units:
ΣF = 0
32 psf (12 ft) + 41.73 psf(4ft) − 386.74 lb − RA = 0
384 lb/ft + 166.92 lb/ft − 386.74 lb/ft = RA
RA = 164.18 lb
Using metric units:
ΣF = 0
1540 N/m2 (3.65 m) + 1965.13 N/m2(1.22 m) − 5608.6 N − RA = 0
5621 N/m + 2397.46 N/m − 5608.6 N/m = RA
RA = 2409.86 N = 2.41 kN
Again this reaction can also be expressed as 164.18 lb/ft (2409.86 N/m) as indicated above.
It is the top support reaction (RB) that will be resisted by the roof diaphragm, and will therefore be used in the diaphragm design
calculations. The bottom reaction (RA) will be resisted at the ground by the soil and foundation.
The plywood roof diaphragm is considered to act as a simply supported beam with a span of approximately 60 ft (18.29 m).
The load on this simple beam is the calculated support reaction (RB) of 386.74 lb/ft (5608.60 N/m). The support reactions of
this simple beam can easily be calculated by dividing the total beam load by 2. These forces are transferred to the attached
shear walls at those ends (east and west).
In IP units:
60 ft
R = 386.74 lb/ft ( )
2
R = 11,602 lb
In metric units:
18.29 m
R = 5608.60 N/m ( )
2
R = 51 290.65 N = 51.29 kN
Figure 9.16 shows a diagram of the roof diaphragm system along with the lateral wind load applied to it and its support
reactions at the connections to the east and west shear walls.
Figure 9.16 Diagram of the roof diaphragm.
In order to determine the diaphragm shear, this calculated reaction is divided by the width of the diaphragm, which is
approximately 30 ft (9.144 m).
In IP units:
V = 11,602 lb/30 ft
V = 386.73 lb/ft
In metric units:
V = 51 290.65 N/9.144 m
V = 5609.2 N/m
To select a plywood diaphragm system, we use Table 6.1 of this book. This table is reproduced with permission from Table
2306.2(1) of the 2015 International Building Code (IBC). It allows the selection of a plywood diaphragm system utilizing staples
with framing of Douglas Fir-Larch or Southern Pine based on the value of the diaphragm shear. We calculated the diaphragm
shear as 386.73 lb/ft (5609 N/m). We can select a blocked diaphragm system with a nominal panel thickness of 3/8 in. (9.5
mm), Structural I grade with a 2-in. (51-mm) nominal width of framing members or joists, and 16-gage staples with a length of
1½ in. (38 mm), and a fastener spacing of 2 in. (51 mm) at diaphragm boundaries and a 3-in. (77-mm) spacing at other panel
edges. This type of diaphragm has an allowable shear value of 400 lb/ft (5838 N/m), which is larger than the actual calculated
value of 386.73 lb/ft (5609 N/m).
Some figures are included at the end of the table in the 2015 IBC to illustrate the various load cases and diaphragm
configurations showing the direction of the framing and the manner the wood panels are applied along with the blocking if
used. In this example, we can assume Case 1 load with a blocked diaphragm. Readers need to refer to the indicated figures in
the 2015 IBC table.
Next, we can determine the diaphragm chord forces. As explained above, the roof diaphragm is acting like a simple beam with
the lateral wind load applied to it as a uniformly distributed load. This causes some forces to act on the near and far edge of
the diaphragm in the form of tension or compression. These forces are referred to as the diaphragm chord forces and can be
calculated by dividing the maximum bending moment in the diaphragm by the diaphragm depth of 30 ft (9.144 m). The
maximum bending moment is determined with the equation used in simply supported beams carrying a uniformly distributed
load:
wL2
M max =
8
where Mmax = maximum bending moment
L = span length
w = uniformly distributed load
In IP units:
wL2
M max =
8
386.73 lb/ft (60 ft)2
M max =
8
M max = 174,029 ft-lb = 174.03 ft-k
In metric units:
wL2
M max =
8
5609 N/m(18.29 m)2
M max =
8
M max = 234 543 N ⋅ m = 234.54 kN ⋅ m
The diaphragm force F is determined by dividing this maximum bending moment by the depth of the diaphragm of 30 ft (9.144
m).
In IP units:
174,029 ft-lb
F=
30 ft
F = 5801 lb
In metric units:
234 543 N ⋅ m
F=
9.144 m
F = 25 650 N = 25.65 kN
The chord force can be resisted by attaching a steel or a wood member to the edge of the diaphragm to sustain this determined
load.
The support reactions (R) of the roof diaphragm, calculated earlier as 11,602 lb (51 291 N), need to get transferred to the shear
walls on the east and west sides. Normally, this force is transferred from the roof diaphragm to the concrete wall using a wood
ledger and anchor bolts. The plywood sheathing is nailed to the wood ledger using boundary nails, and the ledger connects to
the concrete wall using anchor bolts. Figure 9.17 shows a typical detail of the plywood diaphragm connection to the concrete
shear walls.
Figure 9.17 Typical detail of a plywood diaphragm connection to a concrete shear wall.
The question is typically to select the type and spacing of anchor bolts needed to transfer the diaphragm shear into the wall.
The diaphragm shear was determined by dividing that support reaction by the diaphragm width of 30 ft (9.14 m). We calculated
the value as 386.73 lb/ft (5609 N/m).
Anchor bolts have higher allowable shear values in concrete compared to that in wood. Therefore, their shear strength in wood
would control the design. Typically, the shear strength in wood for a ¾-in. (19.05-mm) anchor bolt is 1400 lb (6227.2 N).
The anchor bolt spacing can be determined by dividing the allowable bolt shear by the diaphragm shear:
1400 lb/bolt
S=
386.73 lb/ft
S = 3.6 ft per bolt
6227.2 N/bolt
Or S =
5609 N/m
S = 1.11 m per bolt
In common construction practices, the maximum bolt spacing is generally 4 ft (1.22 m), so the calculated spacing is better
reduced to 3.5 ft (1.07 m).
The wall must also be strong enough to resist the overturning moment created by the shear. In some cases, the connection
between walls and the foundation system must be strengthened to help resist the overturning moment.
The diaphragm design in the east-west direction is not needed because the design in the north-south direction governs in this
case due to the building form and considering that the long side of the diaphragm is in the north/south one.
As mentioned before, a building is generally calculated for wind forces and earthquake forces. If the seismic forces are larger
than the wind forces, then the design is done based on the seismic loads.

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9.

Wind Loads on the Main Wind Force Resisting

9.1. Introduction—Main Wind Force Resisting System

9.2. Part 1—Buildings of All Heights

9.2.1. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Enclosed and Partially

q = velocity pressure in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )

Cp = external pressure coefficient

qi = velocity pressure for internal pressure determination in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )

GCpi = internal pressure coefficient

9.2.2. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Open Buildings

where qh = velocity pressure at the mean roof height

CN = net pressure coefficient

9.2.3. Wind Pressure on Building Surfaces—Overhangs and Parapets

where pp = design combined wind pressure on parapet in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )

qp = velocity pressure calculated at the top of the parapet

9.2.4. Wind Load Cases

9.2.5. Application Problems

Figure 9.1 Commercial building in Problem 1.

where V = basic wind speed in mi/h or mph. Substituting in this equation:

For the metric system:

where V = basic wind speed in m/s. Substituting in this equation:

Table 9.1 Summary of Wind Parameters and Factors Used in Problem 1

Wind Load Parameter Value

Directionality factor (Kd) 0.85

Topographic factor (Kzt) 1.0

Ground elevation factor (Ke) 1.0

Gust factor (G) 0.85

Internal pressure coefficients ( GCpi) +0.18 and −0.18

Velocity pressure exposure coefficients ( Kz and Kh) 0.57

Velocity pressures (qz and qh) 16.40 psf (772.49 N/m 2)

In Fig. 27.3-1 of the ASCE 7-16 standard:

Surface External Pressure Coefficient (Cp)

Windward wall 0.8

Leeward wall −0.5

Side walls −0.7

Horizontal Distance from Windward Edge Cp

0 to h/2 = 0 to 7.5 ft (2.29 m) −0.9, −0.18

h/2 to h = 7.5 ft (2.29 m) to 15 ft (4.57 m) −0.9, −0.18

h to 2h = 15 ft (4.57 m) to 30 ft (9.14 m) −0.5, −0.18

>2h: >30 ft (9.14 m) −0.3, −0.18

These load cases are summarized here again:

Wind Pressures on the Walls

For the windward wall, using IP units:

p = +14.10 psf × 0.75

For the windward wall, using metric units:

p = +664.34 N/m2 × 0.75

For the leeward wall, using IP units:

p = −9.92 psf × 0.75

For the leeward wall, using metric units:

p = −467.36 N/m2 × 0.75

Load Case 1 Wind Pressure (p)

Windward wall +14.10 psf (+664.34 N/m 2)

Leeward wall −9.92 psf (−467.36 N/m 2)

Windward wall +10.58 psf (+498.26 N/m 2)

Leeward wall −7.44 psf (−350.52 N/m 2)

p = 16 psf × 0.75 = 12 psf

Using metric units:

Using metric units:

Case of the External Pressure Coefficient of

Cp = −0.18 −5.45 psf (−257.24 N/m 2) +0.44 psf (+20.86 N/m 2)

Figure 9.5 Section view of the roof parapet in Problem 2.

where pp = design combined wind pressure on parapet in lb/ft2 (N/m2 )

qp = velocity pressure calculated at the top of the parapet

where V = basic wind speed of 115 mi/h or mph.