International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 104 (2013) 69e75

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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping

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Estimation of residual life of boiler tubes using steamside oxide scale thickness
K.S.N. Vikrant a, *, G.V. Ramareddy b, A.H.V. Pavan a, Kulvir Singh a
a
Metallurgy department, BHEL Corporate R&D, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh 500093, India
b
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Laboratory, BHEL Corporate R&D, Hyderabad, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In thermal power plants, remaining-life-estimation of boiler tubes is required at regular intervals for
Received 3 July 2012 a safer and a better functionality of boilers. In this paper, a new method is proposed for the residual life
Received in revised form estimation of service exposed boiler tubes using Non-Destructive Ultrasonic Oxide scale thickness
26 January 2013
measurements, average metal temperature and creep master curve. While steady state conduction heat
Accepted 30 January 2013
transfer equations are solved to calculate the average metal temperature, creep master curve is generated
from short term stress rupture data of rupture life less than 5000 h on a virgin material. In the present
Keywords:
study, the residual life of T22 (2.25Cr-1Mo) service exposed Platen Superheater tube is estimated using
T22(2.25Cr-1Mo)
Non-destructive ultrasonic technique
two master creep curves, i.e. Larson-Miller Parametric (LMP) method of standard ASME T22 creep data
Residual life and Wilshire approach of short term stress rupture data of T22. As the residual life is calculated from
Creep fundamental conduction heat transfer theory and creep rupture data, the proposed method can be
applied for different grades of boiler materials.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction exposed tubes and Non-Destructive Oxide scale thickness mea-

In a conventional boiler in a thermal power plant, the heat
generated from the combusted coal is transferred to steam through
metal walls. In this process, different sections of Platen Superheater,
Final Superheater and Re-Heater tubes of a boiler are exposed to
a flue gas temperature of 1000
C on the outer side and a steam
temperature of 450e550
C on the inner side of the tubes. The
schematic diagram of longitudinal section of the boiler tube in
operating conditions is shown in Fig. (1). In order to withstand
these high temperatures, various creep resistant materials like T11
(1.25Cr-0.5Mo), T22 (2.25Cr-1Mo), T23 (2.25Cr-1Mo-1.6W) are
used for boiler tube applications. During a continuous power plant
operation, these tubes undergo different damage phenomena
namely creep, steamside oxidation, fireside corrosion and erosion
[1e5]. Most of the boiler tubes fail due to creep degradation process
[4]. Steamside oxidation on the inner walls, and fireside corrosion
and erosion due to flue gas on the outer walls of tube also affect life
of the tubes. Therefore, for a safer and a better functionality of
boiler, the residual life of boiler tube has to be periodically assessed.
In general, the remaining life assessment of boiler tubes are carried
out using one of the studies namely microstructural studies,
hardness measurement, accelerated temperature testing on service
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 40 2388 2371; fax: þ91 40 23776320.
E-mail addresses: vikrant@bhelrnd.co.in, k.s.n.vikrant@gmail.com (K.S.N. Vikrant).
surements as follows [1,2,5e14].
Microstructure based approach is a semi-quantitative approach
in which metal temperature is calculated using carbide trans-
formations and only applicable to ferritic steels. These studies can
only complement the residual life of service exposed tubes esti-
mated from other methods [6]. Hardness based approach is appli-
cable only when carbide coarsening takes place during service
exposure. This approach calculates remaining life from standard
curves between hardness values and Larson-Miller Parameter
(LMP) defined as
LMP ¼ T ðlog tr þ CLM Þ; (1)
where T is the operating temperature in K, tr is the rupture time in
hours and CLM is the LMP constant. Since CLM is assumed to be
constant though it varies with the applied stress and temperature,
this method does not estimate the correct residual life [10,14]. The
accelerated temperature test is a destructive method and is con-
ducted on service exposed tube samples at higher temperatures
under the nominal steam load. The curve obtained between tem-
perature and log tr are extrapolated to obtain residual life at the
operating temperature [9]. This implies that the accelerated tem-
perature test assumes that the operating temperature and hoop
stress are constant. However, in actual boiler operation, formation
of steamside oxide scale on inner side and fireside corrosion
and erosion on outer surface of the tubes cause the operating

0308-0161/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2013.01.010
70 K.S.N. Vikrant et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 104 (2013) 69e75

2. Theoretical study

2.1. Wilshire equations

Traditionally, the short term stress rupture data is analysed

using the expression

M Qc
¼ εm ¼ Asn e RT ; (3)
tr

where M is proportionality constant, and the rupture time (tr) is

inversely proportional to minimum strain rate (εm), which is
a function of applied stress (s) and operating Temperature (T).
Equation (3) assumes that the exponent (n) and the activation
energy (Qc) are constant, in general they vary over a range of stress
Fig. 1. Schematic of the longitudinal section of the boiler tube exposed to steam on the and temperature. However in Wilshire approach [15,16], the
inner surface and flue gas on the outer surface. applied stress (s) is normalized by dividing with Ultimate Tensile
Strength (sTS) at that particular operating temperature. The modi-
fied equations are
temperature and hoop stress to vary [1,2,5]. While the oxide scale
acts as a thermal insulator and causes the temperature of a boiler s Qc =RT u
¼ ekðtr e Þ ; (4)
tube to increase over time, fireside corrosion and erosion cause sTS
thinning of tube walls resulting in increase of hoops stress. Since
the transient variation of metal temperature and hoop stress are where k and u are material constants, and Qc is a constant modified
not considered in the Accelerated temperature test, the calculation activation energy. With this modification, Qc is independent of
overestimates the residual life. The fourth method uses Non- temperature and applied stress for short term stress rupture data.
Destructive Oxide scale thickness values in estimating the resid- Using (4), creep master curve can be generated for a short time
ual life of boiler tubes. The operating temperature of metal calcu- stress rupture data of rupture life less than 5000 h. This data can be
lated using the empirical relation extrapolated in accurately predicting 100,000 h strength by
obtaining the material constants of k and u from creep master curve
log XðtÞ ¼ 2:1761  104 Tð20 þ log tÞ  7:25; (2) [15,16]. This method is applicable for materials like T22 (2.25Cr-
1Mo) and T23 (2.25Cr-1.6W) whereas for advanced materials like 9-
12%Cr steels, a rupture data of 30,000 h is required to accurately
where X(t) is the oxide scale thickness in mm and t is time in hours, predict 100,000 h strength [15,16].
is used in estimating the residual life [11e13]. The metal temper-
ature obtained is used in estimating the rupture time from LMP of
2.2. Average metal temperature calculation
ASME lower creep bound curve as defined in (1). The limitations are
that the empirical relationship is applicable only to 1e3% Cr low
The schematic diagram of transverse section of service
alloy ferritic steels [11].
exposed tube is as shown in Fig. (2). Here Tg and Ts represent the
In summary, none of the above discussed methods is able to
temperatures of flue gas and steam, and K1 and K2 represent the
precisely predict the residual life either by not considering the ef-
thermal conductivities of oxide-scale and tube. Steady, one
fect of the degradation processes viz. steamside oxidation, fireside
corrosion and erosion or by its limited applicability to 1e3% Cr low-
alloy ferritic steels. The present study incorporates the effect of
these high temperature degradation processes while calculating
the residual life of boiler tubes. The study uses the steady state
conduction heat transfer equations to calculate the most important
parameter, the average metal temperature of boiler tubes; the de-
tails of the calculation are given in Appendix A. The estimated
metal temperature along with creep master curve is utilized to
calculate the residual life of boiler tubes. In the present study, creep
master curves are generated by two methods namely, the LMP
method and Wilshire approach. A comparison on the obtained re-
sidual life by the two methods is also discussed.
The paper is organized as follows. x2 is devoted to theoretical
estimation of residual life of service exposed tubes. In this section,
we present the details of how creep curves are generated from
Wilshire equations followed by LMP method in x2.1, and the
methodology adopted for average metal temperature calculation in
x2.2. Utilizing the creep master curves and average metal temper-
ature, an algorithm for residual life estimation along with as-
sumptions involved, is proposed in x2.3. The data required for the
algorithm is generated by carrying out experiments as explained in
Fig. 2. Schematic of the cross-section of the boiler tube exposed to steam on inner
x3. The residual life estimated from both the creep master curves surface and flue gas on the outer surface. Here K1 and K2 represent the thermal con-
are compared and discussed in x4. The conclusions of the study are ductivities of the oxide scale and boiler tube, Ts and Tg represent the temperature of
given in x5. steam and flue gas, and h represents the convective heat transfer coefficient.
 K.S.N. Vikrant et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 104 (2013) 69e75 71

dimensional conduction heat transfer equation is solved with temperature of a particular boiler tube is practically difficult.
a convective boundary condition on fireside and a constant tem- Therefore, the maximum steam temperature is considered
perature boundary condition on steamside. Mean temperature is throughout the operational process to incorporate the max-
calculated by averaging the temperature distribution over the imum creep damage phenomenon. If operating plant is able to
thickness of the tube. The details of the calculation are given in provide the steam temperature data with respect to time the
Appendix-1. The average metal temperature (Tavg) derived in creep life fraction consumed for every steam temperature can
Appendix 1 is be calculated using the same model.



  For heat transfer calculations, thermal properties of compact
T2 log Do  T1 log Di T1  T2 T1  T2 layer Fe3O4 are considered [8].
Tavg ¼  þ
logðDo =Di Þ logðDo =Di Þ logðDo =Di Þ  The average metal temperature (Tavg) is used in estimating the


Do log Do  Di log Di residual life of boiler tubes.
 :  Thermal properties of tube are assumed to remain constant in
Do  Di
the operational temperature range.
(5)
 Hoop stress (s) defined based on the mean diameter is
The creep master curve obtained from Wilshire’s equations
combined with average metal temperature is used in estimating
PðDo ðtÞ  bðtÞÞ
the life fraction consumed at that particular time interval. s¼ : (6)
2bðtÞ
2.3. Method of estimating residual life of service exposed boiler tube
Here P is the operating pressure, and Do(t) and b(t) respectively are
2.3.1. Assumptions the outer diameter and thickness of the tube at time t.
The following assumptions are used while calculating the re-
sidual life.  Creep rupture occurs when it satisfies the Robinson’s rule,

 At every time interval the heat energy transferred from flue gas n

X t
to steam is constant (Steady state condition). This assumption ¼ 1 (7)
i¼1
tr i
is valid except in the startup and shutdown of boiler.
 Tube is assumed to be defect-free during commissioning and
throughout the operation of power plant. Here t is proportional time, tr is rupture time and i stands for
 No exfoliation of the steam oxidation scale from the inner wall number of time intervals.
of tube in the continuous operation of power plant. As the
coefficients of thermal expansion in oxide scale and metal tube 2.3.2. Algorithm for computing residual life of service exposed tubes
are identical, exfoliation in ferritic steels is minimal and hence The following steps in sequence describe the method adopted to
for the present analysis, exfoliation can be neglected. But in the calculate the residual life of boiler tube. Fig. (3) depicts the sche-
case of austenitic stainless steels and super alloys, exfoliation matic of the longitudinal section of the boiler tube at time t ¼ 0 and
rate needs to be accounted for owing to different thermal after time t ¼ s during which the tube is subjected to steamside
expansion coefficients of oxide layer and tube. oxidation in steamside, and fireside corrosion and erosion on flue
 Growth rate of oxide scale and thinning rate of the boiler tubes gas side.
are constant.
 Steam temperature is maintained constant throughout the  Measurement of final diameter and thickness of tube at service
process, and inner surface temperature of oxide scale is exposed time s
assumed to be equal to that of steam at any time step. In actual  Oxide scale thickness measurement using Ultrasonic Non-
power plant operating conditions, monitoring the steam Destructive equipment

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the longitudinal section of the boiler tube, (a) at time t ¼ 0 and (b) after time t ¼ s.
72 K.S.N. Vikrant et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 104 (2013) 69e75

Table 1 3. Experimental procedure

Chemical composition of 2.25Cr-1Mo (T22) boiler tube.

Element C Mn P S Si Cr Mo Fe 3.1. Hot tensile and stress rupture tests

Wt% 0.11 0.48 0.01 0.01 0.38 2.23 0.94 Balance
Steel tubes of 2.25Cr-1Mo (T22) corresponding to ASTM
A213-T22 [17] standard are used for experiments. Heat treat-
ments given normally include annealing, normalising, quenching
 Linear growth rate (R1) of oxide scale is to be calculated using
and tempering. The chemical composition of tube material is
the expression
given in Table 1. Room temperature and high temperature tensile
tests are carried out on flat longitudinal strip type specimens
XðsÞ (ASTM E08) machined from the wall thickness of the tube
R1 ¼ ; (8)
s samples. The room temperature and high temperature tensile
properties are meeting the requirement specified in the corre-
where X(s) is the oxide scale thickness at (s).
sponding ASTM A213 standard. It is observed that the ultimate
tensile strength (sTS) values are reduced from 473 MPa to
 Thinning rate (R2) of the tube is to be calculated using the
286 MPa for temperature ranges of 500e650
C. To assess the
expression
stress rupture properties of T22 steel tubes suitable for boiler
applications, the stress rupture test specimens are prepared from
bð0Þ  bðsÞ the wall thickness of the tubes as per the ASTM E08 standard,
R2 ¼ ; (9)
s taking their longitudinal axis in the rolling direction of the tubes.
The accelerated stress rupture tests at different stresses to give
where b(0) is the initial thickness of the tube and b(s) is the final rupture lives from 100 to 5000 h at different temperatures for
thickness at service exposed time. intervals of 25
C in the range of 500e650
C. Stress rupture
tests are conducted using both single and multipoint creep
 Tube thickness is to be calculated using the expression testing machines as per BS3500 Part II which corresponds to ISO
R206. The test temperature is controlled within 2
C. Stress
rupture and hot tensile testing data are analysed using Wilshire
b ¼ bð0Þ  R2 t (10)
equations.

3.2. Non-destructive oxide scale thickness measurements

 Erosion rate (R3) of the tube is to be calculated using the
expression
In situ oxide scale thickness measurements were carried out on
service exposed Platen Super heater boiler tube using Ultrasonic
Do ð0Þ  Do ðsÞ testing machine. For the effective measurements of thickness of
R3 ¼ ; (11)
s oxide layer, the external surface is cleaned using emery paper to
free from dirt and loose scales. The oxide scale is measured in terms
where Do(0) and Do(s) are the outer diameter of tube at time t ¼ 0 of time of flight as nano-seconds which later on converted into
and t ¼ s respectively. microns. The oxide formed due to steamside oxidation on inner
wall of T22 tube consists of inner compact layer of Fe3O4 and outer
 Outer diameter of the tube at time t is to be calculated using the porous layer of Fe2O3 [12]. For heat transfer calculations, the ther-
expression mal properties of compact layer Fe3O4 are considered. Detailed
initial, final dimensions and thermal properties of tube and oxide
layer are given in Table 2.
Do ðtÞ ¼ Do ð0Þ  R3 t (12)

4. Results and discussion

 The oxide scale thickness at a particular time X(t) can be cal-
culated using the expression
XðtÞ ¼ R1 t
 Rupture life (tr) is calculated using the average metal temper-
ature (Tavg) from (5), Hoop stress (s) from (6) and the creep
master curve generated using (4).
 Life fraction and total life is to be calculated using Robinson’s
rule as given in (7).
 Residual life ¼ Total lifeService exposed time.
The stress rupture and hot tensile testing data at 773-923K of
T22 virgin steel material is analysed using (4). In Fig. (4)(a),

logðtr eQc =RT Þ is plotted against log(log(s/sTS)), which shows
(13) a linear behaviour with an activation energy ðQc Þ of 220 kJ/mol Qc
is determined using least squares method on the stress rupture
data. The material constants k ¼ 72.69 and u ¼ 0.17. The equation
obtained from linear fit is used in estimating the remaining life of
service exposed boiler tube. The residual life obtained from the
above approach is compared with life obtained from traditional
LMP method for ASME T22 data of lower creep bound curve. The
minimum Creep rupture strength of T22 at a particular tempera-
ture to give a service life of 100,000 h is plotted against LMP. LMP is

Table 2
Dimensions and thermal properties of tube and oxide scale.

Do(0) mm Do(s) mm b(0) mm b(s) mm X(s) mm P kg/cm2 sh Tg K Ts K K1 W/mK K2 W/mK h W/m2K

47.63 47.50 9.80 9.49 0.16 135 105,178 1173 783 35 0.592 109.44
 K.S.N. Vikrant et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 104 (2013) 69e75 73


Fig. 4. (a) Dependence of lnðtr eQC =RT Þ on ln(ln(s/sTS)) for the range of the exposed temperature 773e923 K for T22 steel; (b)Variation of stress with LMP for standard ASME data
of T22 material.

−4
x 10
30 6

29.5
5

Oxide scale thickness (m)

29
Hoop stress (MPa)

4
28.5

28 3

27.5
2
27
LMP 1 LMP
26.5
Wilshire Wilshire
26 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Life fraction Life fraction
(a) (b)
Fig. 5. (a) Variation of hoop stress with life fraction of T22 material calculated using LMP method and Wilshire approach.; (b) Variation of oxide scale thickness with life fraction of
T22 material calculated using LMP method and Wilshire approach.

a function of stress as shown in Fig. 4(b) which represents the lower
creep bound curve of 0% probability of failure of tube samples. The
lower creep bound curve is fitted with a 4th order polynomial,
which is later on used in estimating the residual life of service
exposed boiler tube.
4.1. Residual life estimation using Wilshire, LMP method and heat
transfer equations
At every time interval of 1000 h, oxide scale thickness, outer
diameter of tube, thickness of tube, hoop stress and average metal

5
x 10
850 4

840 3.5
Operational time (hours)

3
830
2.5
Tavg (K)

820
2
810
1.5

800
1

790 LMP LMP

0.5
Wilshire Wilshire

780 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Life fraction Life fraction

(a) (b)
Fig. 6. (a) Variation of average metal temperature with life fraction of T22 material calculated using LMP method and Wilshire approach.; (b) Variation of operational time with life
fraction of T22 material calculated using LMP method and Wilshire approach.
74 K.S.N. Vikrant et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 104 (2013) 69e75

temperature are calculated as explained in x2.3.2. For a particular Acknowledgements

hoop stress and temperature, rupture life is calculated using master
creep curves obtained from Wilshire approach or LMP method. The Authors express their gratitude to the management of Corporate
oxide scale thickness, hoop stress, average metal temperature and R&D, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) for permitting to
the estimated creep life obtained from both the methods are plotted publish this work. Gratitude is extended to the officers of Seamless
against the life fraction consumed in Figs. (5) and (6). Fig. 5(a) shows Steel Tube Plant and Field engineering services department in BHEL-
that in both the methods, the hoop stress is increasing with life Trichy for providing T22 tubes for Stress rupture and Hot tensile tests.
fraction because of the thinning of the boiler tubes due to steamside
oxidation on inner walls of the tube, and fireside corrosion and Appendix A. Calculation of Tavg
erosion on outer walls of the tube. Fig. 5(b) shows that in both the
above discussed methods, the oxide scale thickness is increasing The convective heat energy per unit time from flue gas to metal
with life fraction owing to the steamside oxidation on inner side of surface (J1) is equal to conductive Heat energy per unit time along
the tube. The oxide scale thickness that increases during operation the tube wall (J2) is equal to conductive heat energy per unit time
of the boiler tube acts as a thermal barrier which results in accu- along the oxide scale thickness (J3).
mulation of heat over the time and hence results in increase in
average metal temperature of the tube as shown in Fig. 6(a). Fig. 6(b) J1 ¼ J2 ¼ J3 (14)
shows that the total life calculated using Wilshire approach and LMP
 
method are 303,000 h and 378,000 h respectively. The residual life J1 ¼ pDo hL Tg  T1 (15)
of service exposed tube, estimated from Wilshire approach and LMP
method, are 197,822 h and 272,822 h respectively. The difference in

T1  T2
residual life obtained from both the methods is owing to the nor- J2 ¼ 2pK1 L (16)
logðDo =Di Þ
malizing effect of applied stress with ultimate tensile strength in
Wilshire equations. In ASME standard data, the CLM in LMP method

T2  Ts
is dependent on stress and temperature which is taken as a constant J3 ¼ 2pK2 L (17)
value of 20, is overestimating the residual life of service exposed logðDi =ðDi  bÞÞ
tube. The decrement of ultimate tensile strength with increase in Solving Equations (14)e(17), the temperature at flue gas/metal
temperature is responsible for the decrement of estimated residual interface (T1) and temperature at metal/oxide scale interface (T2)
life of boiler tubes in Wilshire equations. The short term stress are obtained as
rupture data of rupture life less than 5000 h at low stresses, ana-


lyzed using Wilshire equations, gives a better estimate of the re- 2K1 K2 Ts þ Do hK1 Tg logðDi =ðDi  bÞÞ þ Do hK2 Tg logðDo =Di Þ
sidual life of service exposed tube compared to the LMP method. The T1 ¼
2K1 K2 þ Do hK1 logðDi =ðDi  bÞÞ þ Do hK2 logðDo =Di Þ
above proposed method for calculating residual life can be adopted
(18)
for any material for which the thermal properties of material and
oxide scale are known.

2K1 K2 Ts þ Do hK1 Tg logðDi =ðDi  bÞÞ þ Do hK2 Ts logðDo =Di Þ
T2 ¼ :
5. Conclusions 2K1 K2 þ Do hK1 logðDi =ðDi  bÞÞ þ Do hK2 logðDo =Di Þ
(19)
The residual life of service exposed platen super heater boiler tube
The metal temperature averaged over (DoDi)/2 can be defined as
of T22 material is estimated using oxide scale thickness, average
metal temperature and creep master curve. While the oxide scale
Zo =2
D
thickness is obtained using a Non-Destructive Ultrasonic technique,
TðrÞdr
average metal temperature is calculated using one dimensional
steady state heat transfer equations. The creep master curve is Di =2
Tavg ¼ : (20)
obtained using Wilshire approach for the short term stress rupture Zo =2
D
and hot tensile data of T22 virgin tube material. The residual life dr
obtained from Wilshire approach and steady state heat transfer
Di =2
equations is compared with standard ASME LMP data of T22 material.
The temperature of the service exposed tube is observed to be Using (18) and (19), (20) can be simplified to give the average
increased with life fraction owing to the insulation effect of oxide temperature in the tube material as
layer formed on the inner side of the tube. Further, the hoop stress
of the tube is observed to be increased with life fraction due to the



T2 logDo  T1 logDi T1  T2 T1  T2
thinning of the boiler tube. Residual life of 197,822 h and 272,822 h Tavg ¼  þ
logðDo =Di Þ logðDo =Di Þ logðDo =Di Þ
are obtained using Wilshire approach and LMP method respec-

tively. The residual life obtained from Wilshire approach is less than Do log Do  Di log Di
 :
that of LMP method because of the normalization of applied stress Do  Di
with ultimate tensile strength that occurs in Wilshire approach at (21)
the specified temperature. Since stress and temperature dependent
parametric constant CLM is taken as a constant in LMP method, this
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